Artificial Incubation of Exotic or omestlc Bird Eggs

Transcription

1 ~ E Artifiial Inubatin f Exti r "Nn~d " mestl Bird Eggs a;.. (1) :::i ~ <( >-.. <5..: a.. by Cyndi Kuehler Curatr f Zlgy Zlgial Siety f San Dieg San Dieg, Califrnia Artifiial inubatin f bird eggs is nt a new aviultural pratie, althugh the atual rigins have been lst in the passage f thne. One f the first rerds f human beings artifiially inubating and hathing eggs was written in the furth entury B.C. by Aristtle. In his writings abut animals, he desribed sme f the earliest knwn tehniques: "in sme ases, as in Egypt, they are hathed spntaneusly in the grund,by being buried in dung heaps. Instanes have urred f eggs being depsited in warm vessels and getting hathed Candling is a valuable diagnsti tehnique whih allws the hathery tehniian t mnitr the health and develpment j'tke embry. Kiwis lay the largest egg inprprtin t the size fthe bird than any ther speies. This egg has reptilian-like qualities and is artifiially inubated under still-air nditins withut turning. ) CfJ.~ (9 r:: >-.. <5..: a.. Over 2 difjerent speies fbird eggs have been suessfully artificially inubated at the Avian Prpagatin Center (APC) at the San Dieg Z. > > (1) (1) C ~ ~ C/) C/) >Q) (1) ' ' ru ru ', '6> (5 N N ' C en en.~.~ r r (9 (9 r:: a: >- > : a....: a.. <5 <5 Weighing eggs thrughut inubatin and alulating the egg wet'ght lss (water lss) frrn set t pip is a valuable methd t evaluate the humidity nditins within the inubatr. afa WATCHBIRD 37

2 spntaneusly" (Aristtle, 191). De Reaumur (175) als wrte abut the suess f the sun-dried mud brik (adbe) inubating vens f anient Egypt, and is quted as saying "Egypt ught t be pruder f them than her pyramids." Tehniques invlving hiken and duk eggs als riginated during the same time perid in anient China and spread t what are nw the Philippine Islands, Vietnam, Las, Cambdia and Taiwan. During the 2th entury, the pultry industry elevated the art f artifiially prduing hikens int the realm f mdern siene, and tday it is an internatinal fd industry. Tehniques fr prduing, string, inubating and hathing eggs are well researhed and ntinually imprving. Unfrtunately, the rret husbandry tehniques fr artifiially hathing mst exti r "nndmesti" bird eggs are still in the experimental phase. Hwever, the basi priniples whih gvern the develpment f the hiken in an artifiial envirnment als applies t ther bird speies. Pultry literature is an exellent sure fr learning tehniques and determining auses f mrtality in exti birds. Tday the rle f the aviulturist is expanding, and effetive aptive prpagatin prgrams inrprate knwledge frm disiplines suh as avian siene, field bilgy, genetis, nutritin, veterinary siene and behavir. The exti bird industry whih invlves zs, nservatinists and private aviulturists is evlving very rapidly. Age-ld aviultural wisdm mbined with pultry tehniques, suh as artifiial inubatin and infrmatin abut birds in the wild, imprves husbandry and maximizes reprdutin in a aptive envirnment. The benefits f artifiially inubating bird eggs are well knwn. Captive birds d nt always inubate r hath their eggs suessfully and inadequate parental are ften results in egg abandnment, breakage and hik mrtality. Manipulating egg prdutin by remving eggs frm the nest fr artifiial inubatin and hathing als indues hens t "duble luth" and lay additinal eggs during the 38 April/May 1993 breeding seasn. This is a management tl whih has been used suessfully when the prdutin fadditinal hiks is ritial, as in the ase f endangered speies suh as the Whping Crane (Crus ameriana), San Clemente Lggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludviianus mearnsi) (Kuehler et al., 1992) and the Califrnia Cndr (Cymngyps alifrnianus) (Eriksn and Derriksn, 1981; Kuehler and Witman, 1988). The suessful hathing f eggs in an inubatr requires tw things: a "ptentially hathable" egg and an adequate inubatin envirnment. First, in rder fr an egg t be ptentially hathable it shuld be lean and free fviral, baterial and fungal infetin, and it must have been prdued by genetially and nutritinally sund parental stk. Cntaminatin, inbreeding and inadequate maternal diet an result in eggs whih are nt hathable under nditins f either natural r artifiial inubatin. The send requirement is the rret inubatin envirnment. This means that the dry bulb temperature, humidity level and turning press is apprpriate fr ptimal embryni develpment. Egg Strage T imprve the hanes fr a suessful hath, eggs shuld be set as sn as pssible. Egg strage is a husbandry tehnique whih enables breeders t hath luthes tgether and simplify the hik rearing press by prduing birds whih an be brded in like-age grups. Hwever, prper tehniques fr egg strage are ften verlked whih results in an inrease in early embryni mrtality, pr hathability, prlnged inubatin perids and weaker hiks (Prudft, 1968; Chahil and Jhnsn, 1974). Lss f hathing viability appears t be speies dependent and very little is knwn abut the strage tlerane f nn-dmesti bird eggs. Fr example, Chukar (Aletrus graea hukar) eggs an be stred fr as lng as 28 days withut any effet n hathability, while Ckatiel (Nymphius hllandius) luthes stred fr nly six r seven days shw a redued hath rate; eggs stred fr lnger than eight days d nt hath at all (Wdard and Mrzenti, 1975; Rudybush, 1984). If strage is neessary, nndmesti eggs shuld be maintained at 12.8 t 18.3 C (55 t 65 F), at a relative humidity f 8 t 9 perent, fr n mre than seven days (Shwartz, 1977; Rudybush, 1984; Kuehler, pers. bs.). Hlding temperatures abve 26.7 C (8 F) will allw ell divisin t ntinue at an abnrmal rate resulting in dereased hathability and abnrmalities in the brain and eye regins f develping embrys. There is als sme evidene suggesting that plaing eggs in finepred plasti bags that allws sme air irulatin, inreases the hathability f stred eggs. The inubatin perid is still lnger than nrmal beause sme embrys, frm stred eggs, require a lnger develpmental perid (Bwman, 1966; Shwartz, 1977). Sanitatin/Egg Cntaminatin Parent birds and the hathery itself are bth regnized as ptential sures f infetin in newly-hathed hiks and inubating eggs. Beause the hen uses a mmn passage fr bth eggs and feal matter, and the inubatr envirnment is warm and mist, embryni diseases are aused bth by the intestinal ntents f parent birds and ntaminatin frm inubatrs and hathers. Mirbial ntaminatin resulting in infetin is f tw types: exterir eggshell-brne diseases and interir egg-brne diseases. Cntaminants are mre easily eradiated frm the surfae f the shell than frm within the egg. Hathery sanitatin shuld inlude maintenane f disease-free birds and a well ventilated, easily leaned inubatin and hathing area. Prtls whih emphasize egg handling with lean, dry hands and a flw pattern whih minimizes traffi frm areas that are pssible sures f ntaminatin (suh as adult breeding stk) are ptimum. One f the mst mmn ntaminants is Pseudmnas, but E. li infetin, infetius brnhitis, Newastle's disease, staphylal and Salmnella infetins have all been impliated in embryni and early I

3 Judge us by the mpany we keep USDA u.s. Center fr Disease Cntrl May Clini Saudi Ryal Family Slan-Kettering Institute Walt Disney Wrld Bush Gardens Opryland Six Flags Lin Cuntry Safari U.S. Army U.S. Air Fre VA Hspitals Cuntless Zs Universities and Game Preserves thrughut the Free Wrld Write fr ur free atalg! The Humidaire Inubatr Cmpany Department W, P.O. Bx 9, New Madisn, OH (513) FAX (513) Serving the wrld fr 61 years hik mrtality. In general, avian eggs are mre suseptible t gram negative baterial infetin. There is a diret relatinship between baterial ntaminatin f eggs, the inidene f embryni malfrmatins and mrtality, and the degree f ylk sa infetins in resulting hiks (Biswal and Mrrill, 1954; Harry, 1957; Bard, 1974; Brandt, 1987). Many aviulturists are unaware that weak hiks, "pr ders," that d nt eat r thrive may have hathed with ylk sa infetins due t ntaminatin f the egg prir t laying r during the inubatin press. Nt all ylk sa infetins are aused by pr seals r ntaminatin at hath (Harry, 1957; Calle etal., 1989). Prir t being laid, eggs an be infeted transvarially and in the vidut prir t egg utile frmatin. Transvarial infetins with Salmnella are well dumented. Salmnella an infet the vary via the hematgenus rute frm gastrintestinal infetins r sepsis. Infetins in the vidut an result frm an asending vidut infetin. One rutine sanitizing tehnique is the fumigatin f eggs with frmaldehyde gas.' This predure is mst effetive iflean eggs are fumigated as sn as pssible after laying, prir t egg strage, befre baterial penetratin an ur. The aepted predure is: 2-1/2 fluid unes f frmalin (41) and 1/3 une f ptassium permanganate (KMN4) per 1 ubi feet, in an earthenware ntainer r apprximately 1.5 m1 f frmalin (41) and 1 g f ptassium permanganate (KMN4) per.1 ubi meters (Burr, 1987). Disinfetin is mst effetive at a temperature f at least 32.2 C (9 F); wet bulb reading 31.1 t 32.2 C (88 t 9 F), fr at least 2 minutes. The enlsed envirnment f an ld, fred-air inubatr with a irulating fan system is a desirable fumigant abinet. Pultry eggs are nt fumigated during the first five days f develpment beause frmaldehyde is teratgeni and inreases the inidene f embryni malfrmatins (Lanaster et al., 1954). Additinally, hiks that have been ver-fumigated during late inubatin may develp a highafa WATCHI3IRD 39

4 The best methd t learn artifiial inubatin is t pratie with hikens. This is an embry grwn in a petri dish t den1nstrate avian embryni develpment. > Q.) (5 C a3 ' >. Q) ' CO u ', (5 N C pithed, whistling-type hirp r respiratry prblems (Hfstad et. ai., 1984). It is advisable nt t rutinely fumigate nn-dmesti bird eggs during the initial stages f inubatin until researh has been nduted n the effets f fumigatin n exti birds. Many speies f birds lay eggs with shells that are nsiderably thinner and mre prus than pultry eggs and the teratlgial effets f fumigatin may be mre extreme. A send methd fr disinfeting eggs is egg washing. Extreme are shuld be taken when utilizing this methd beause imprper egg washing an spread disease and ntalninate previusly lean eggs. Disinfeting slutins ntaining quaternary ammnia r hlrine mpunds are usually used. The wash-water shuld be warmer than the eggs 43.3 t 48.9 C (11 t 12 F), t prevent the wash mpund frm being '\:: r (9 a: >.. (5.... Altriial birds, suh as Gld-rested Mynahs, are partiularly hallenging t inubate and raise. Elegant Crested Tinamu with an abnrn1al beak due t inrret fumigatin tehniques. Blak-baked Fn.tit Dves are ne j'many pigens and dves hathed and reared at the APC in reent years. 4 April / May 1993

5 Marsh Farms INCUBATORS FEATURING fully autmati turners. Adjustable temperature and humidity ntrl. absrbed thrugh the pres f the shell and ntaminating the egg. A sample stk slutin f egg disinfeting mpund nsists f 1% quaternary ammnium disinfetant (alkyldimethyl benzyl ammnium hlride),.4% ethylenediaminetetraaeti aid (EOTA; disdium salt) (15 grams/4 liters), and 4.2% sdium arbnate (16 grams/4 liters). Fr egg washing, use 3 ml f the stk slutin in 12 liters fwater (Hfstad, 1984 and Ernst, 1987). Interir eggbrne diseases are muh mre diffiult t identify and treat. Measures t ntrl baterial infetins in fertilized eggs inlude differential pressure and temperature dips and injetins int the air ell, albumen, r ylk (Calle et al., 1989). Hathery and hathery equipment leanliness annt be ver emphasized. Wet bulbs, water pans, egg trays and hathing trays are all ptential sures f infetin. The warm, humid envirnment f an inubatr r hather is the ideal limate fr grwth f bateria, viruses and fungus. Additinally, imprper artifiial inubatin tehniques may result in hiks with pr seals whih are mre suseptible t infetin. Artifiial Inubatin Birds are the best inubatrs fr develping avian embrys. Nature has designed parent birds, the nests they build, and the eggs they prdue, t be an evlutinary mathed fit, in rder t maximize reprdutive suess (White and Kinney, 1974). The bdy temperature f the brding parent prvides the rret amunt f heat t maintain develpment. Generally heat is transferred t the embry as a still-air gradient frm the bdy f the bird t the tp f the egg, dwn thrugh t the bttm f the nest. The eggshell and humid nditins f the nest mirlimate keep the egg frm desiating, while the utile and pre struture f the shell ats t failitate gas exhange between the embry and the envirnment and prvides a barrier t ntaminants. Behavirally, the parent bird ntributes t the inubatin press by turning the egg and giving the hik auditry and tatile stimulatin in rder t prmte hathing (Ar et al., 1974; Ku, 1932; Gttlieb, 1965; Impekvan and Gld, 1973; Bruning, 1973), Artifiial inubatin, using a mahine, prvides a very different physial envirnment fr the develping embry and is generally nt as effiient as an inubating parent (Burnham, 1983). Mst bird eggs will benefit frm sme natural inubatin prir t being remved frm the nest and plaed in an inubatr. Simkiss (198) suggests that parentallyinubated eggs are subjeted t sillating temperatures during develpment whih failitates alium metablism frm the shell t the embry. Burnham (1983) has hypthesized that the nsistent heating envirnment f an inubatr dereases alium metablism and subsequent eggshell ndutane. This may be why artifiial inubatin f fresh eggs is less suessful, mpared with eggs reeiving natural inubatin prir t being remved frm the nest and set in an inubatr. It is very diffiult t reliably mimi the variable temperature gradient f a parent bird transferring heat t its egg, with a mahine. Still-air inubatrs attempt t d this by prviding a heat sure at the tp f the inubatr s the eggs experiene a temperature gradient. This is a very suessful hathing system. Hwever, the drawbak fthis methd is that a limited number f eggs an be set in the inubatr befre arbn dixide build-up urs and suffates the develping embrys. Mst hatheries use the irulating fan system f fred-air inubatin develped by the pultry industry. This type fsystem inreases the ventilatin within the mahine, ir- TURN-X Up t 72 eggs. ROLL-X Up t 29 eggs. MANUFACTURED BY l-jgnr:~ 2765 MAIN STREET Dept. W CHULA VISTA, CA 9211 U.S.A. TELEPHONE: (619) "~-. WE ACCEPT ID!~ afa WATCHBIRD 41

6 ulates the heat and maintains a mre nsistent temperature thrughut the inubatr than wuld be fund at the tp f an egg under an inubating bird. Cnsequently, mre eggs an be inubated at ne time. Generally, eggs whih are inubated in a still-air system are set at a temperature whih is tw t three degrees higher (similar t the tp f the egg under an inubating bird) than in a fred-air system whih prvides a lwer, mre nsistent temperature thrughut the egg and inubatr. This prmtes similar develpmental rates in bth types f inubating systems. DryBulb Temperature The dry bulb inubatin temperature is the mst ritial inubatin parameter. Eggs inubated at temperatures t high r t lw shw inreased embryni malfrmatins and mrtality (Rmanff and Rmanff, 1972). The rret dry bulb parameters fr artifiial inubatin f mst bird eggs have nt been established beynd the requirements fr hikens, turkeys, dmestiated pheasants, hukar, quail, and dmestiated waterfwl (Wdard et. ai, 1978; Ernst and Cates, 1981). Aviulturists must rely n the limited published infrmatin n speifi grups f birds and shared experienes (Bruning, 1973; Arhibald, 1974; Burnham, 1983; Kuehler and Gd, 199). In establishing dry bulb temperature parameters fr nn-dmesti birds, the inubatin requirements f the hiken shuld be viewed as a baseline guide. The ptimum temperature fr the 21-day inubatin perid fthe dmesti hiken has been established t be 37.5 C (99.5 F) in a fred-air inubatr, 38.6 t 39.2 C 1.5 t 12.5 F) under still-air nditins. Generally, eggs larger than a hiken's have a lnger inubatin perid and may require a lwer artifiial inubatin temperature. Eggs smaller than a hiken usually have a shrter inubatin perid, develp at a faster rate and may require an inubatin temperature f 37.5 C (99.5 F) r higher. Hwever, the best methd t determine a rret dry bulb temperature is t mpare the artifiial inubatin perid with the natural inubatin perid f the speies in questin. In the absene f ther prblems suh as inbreeding, hiks that hath earlier than the knwn nat- 42 April / May 1993 ural inubatin perid were prbably inubated at a temperature that was t high. Chiks delayed in hathing were prbably inubated at nditins that were t lw. Wet Bulb Temperature Althugh imprtant, the wet bulb temperature r relative humidity envirnment is nt as ritial as the dry bulb temperature. Reently, muh researh has been devted t the fatrs affeting the gas/water exhange between the avian embry and its envirnment. The rate f water lss (weight lss) is dependant upn the shell thikness, prsity and the water vapr nentratin in the atmsphere arund the egg (Ar, et. ai, 1974; Rahn et. al., 1977). Weighing the egg thrughut inubatin t rerd the weight lss will prvide an indiatin f water lss. Exessive humidity may inrease the mrtality f embrys. Humidity that is t lw may result in dwarfing r dereased alium metablism (Rmanff, 1929 & 193). The establishment f humidity parameters is dependant upn infrmatin n the mirlimate f the nest under natural nditins. Birds that lay their eggs in wet, sggy nditins generally require a high inubatin humidity. Desert speies usually have evlved eggs with thik shells r speialized pres whih resist desiatin and usually require drier, artifiial inubatin nditins (Swart et. ai, 1987). Evaluatin f the nditin f the hathlings als prvides ritial infrmatin n prper humidity. Chiks that are edematus r "stiky" at hathing, may have been inubated under nditins whih were either t wet r t dry. Egg Turning The third parameter f artifiial inubatin in additin t dry bulb and wet bulb temperature, is egg turning. Turning during avian develpment is essential t minimize adhesins and disruptin f embryni membranes, and t derease the pssibility f hik malpsitins within the egg (New, 1957; Rbertsn, 1961a,b). Rtatin shuld alternate between lkwise and unterlkwise diretins; ntinued turning in ne diretin an ause twisting f the halazae r rupturing f the ylk sa r bld vessels in a develping embry (Olsn and Byerly, 1936). Candling Candling is a tehnique whih allws the hathery tehniian t bserve the develpment f the avian embry thrughut inubatin. It is a valuable diagnsti tehnique whih requires time and experiene t learn aurately. By shining a high intensity light thrugh the shell, embryni strutures, ylk sa irulatin integrity, air ell size and embryni health an be mnitred. Beause the embry lives in a fluid-filled envirnment suspended by deliate membranes, are shuld be taken when plaing an egg against the ht light sure t avid verheating r rapid jerky mvements whih uld ause damage. Clean, dry hands are imperative t redue the risk f ntaminatin. Rtten r dead embrys shuld nt be handled prir t andling. The best methd t learn andling tehniques is t aquire hiken eggs and inubate them. Candle the eggs daily bserving all the develpmental hanges with the aid f pitures frm a gd embrylgy text. Nt all speies f birds have the same shell prsity, air ell size and develpmental rate. Stages f develpment have been ategrized and published fr preial hiken embrys (Hamburger and Hamiltn, 1951) and mre reently fr altriial katiel embrys (Abbtt et al., 1992). Bth series serve as gd guidelines fr aviulturists. Remember, never presume an embry is dead unless yu are sure -"if in dubt, dn't break it ut.", 'Breakuts" Helping Weak Chiks at Hath Oasinally it may beme neessary t "breakut" r help a hik hath if it is having diffiulty mpleting the hathing press. Usually, if it bemes neessary t breakut hiks, the artifiial inubatin r hathing parameters are inrret (inrret temperature r humidity) r the hik is weak due t prblems suh as infetin, nutritinal defiienies, r malpsitining. This tehnique shuld nly be used as a last resrt and the ause f the prblem shuld be rreted prir t future eggs being laid. The rret pip-t-hath intervals fr many nn-dmesti bird eggs are unknwn and are must be taken when assisting a hik during hath-

7 ing. In all ases, membranes shuld be mistened with sterile water prir t slw remval f piees fshell ver a several hur perid. Plaing the egg in a small plasti bag (partially pen) helps t retain misture and derease membrane drying during the press. Ruptured bld vessels and unretrated ylk sas, resulting frm ver anxius interventin, an ause the death f the hik. Additinally, waiting t lng t help an ause an inrease in the inidene f rked neks, "pr ders" and "pip and dies." Data Clletin Optimum artifiial inubatin parameters fr mst nn-dmesti speies f birds are unknwn. In rder t determine rret artifiial inubatin nditins and evaluate auses f embryni mrtality and weak hiks, nsistent, aurate rerd keeping is neessary. Inubatin rerd keeping in a aptive situatin falls int three ategries: 1) pre-inubatin fatrs, 2) inubatin data and 3) evaluatin f the embry/hik at death r at hath. Fllwing is a list fthe imprt- ant infrmatin required: Pre-inubatin fatrs parental pedigree parental nutritin parental inubatin behavir pre-inubatin handling feggs egg size and shape degree feggshell thinning air ell membrane integrity Inubatin data inubatr/hather type turning mehanism inubatin/hathing temperature inubatin/hathing humidity egg weight/water lss air ell size andling pip t hath interval Evaluatinfthe embry/hik at deathrhath baterial ulture fylk and albumin baterial analysis f inubatrs/ hathers determinatin fembryni stage at time fdeath embryni psitin embry/hik measurements (te, DIGITAL IN/OUTSIDE THERMOMETER &CLOCK lisasai Features: Ot +17 F. Measures temperature at TWO Latins Fr inubatr, brder Extra LARGE (3/4") display fr viewing Knw temperature at aglane Replae hard t read thermmeters Versatile - Munts n wall r sits n brder Weatherprf Outside Sensr with 1' able Clk - Eletrni quartz auray Battery and instrutins inluded One year limited warranty Replaement Battery $2.5 $ $1.5 P&H UPS C.O.D. ED'S EXOTIC BIRDS WE BUY, SELL, & TRADE ALL SPECIES SHIPPING AVAILABLE I SOFTDILLS I TRULY EXOTIC SPECIES AVAILABLE FOR PRIVATE AND PUBLIC COLLECTIONS Bradbills Fairy Bluebirds Barbets Leafbirds Bulbuls CALL (714) Laughing Thrushs Grund Thrushs Mynahs Fruit Dves Als... Exti Parrts AndMany Speies ffinhes, and Other Birds Our new latin is 8481 Heil Ave., #B Westminster, CA Tuans Hneyreepers Jays Wdpekers Oriles FAX (714) afa WATCHBIRD 43

8 speializing in: White-bellied Caiques als Australian King Parrts and Mutatin Priness f Wales Mutatin Lady Guldian Finhes (818) Ralph Lima P.O. Bx 6496 Wdland Hills, CA The Fster Parrt,. State f the art brder fr tday's breeders" NEW: Optinal Humidity System with Digital Hydrmeter (inside dimensins 12"Wx 24"L x 12"H) Designed and engineered speifially fr the needs f exti birds The Fster Parrt prvides unifrm. nsistent heat fr ttal bdy warmth and irulating, filtered fresh air. Features: New digital thermmeter Temperature range 7' -1'. See thrugh frnt Easy t dean filter. Reusable dust filter Lightweight - t take alng Emerald Frest Bird Gardens (619) Rute 6. Bx 14. Fallbrk, CA 9228 OUR 46TH BIRDMART EVERYBODY'S BIRD MART June 27, 1993 L.A. Cunty Fairplex Bldg. #4 Pmna, Califrnia 9:3 a.m. t 4: p.m. Admissin: $4, Yuths 5-15: $1 The Bird Mart has beme the marketplae fr buyers and sellers. BIRDS CAGES. FEEDERS. NESTBOXES VITAMINS SEED. PERCHES. GIFT ITEMS PARKING $3. Use White Ave. parking lt (Tram servie frm parking lt t building G) a divisin f J. Williams Finanial Servies In. P.O. Bx 794, Atn, CA 9351 (85) The Original, The #1 Bird Mart 44 April / May 1993 nare, ylk sa, bdy weight) harateristi embryni abnrmalities (e.g., lubbed dwn) degree fylk sa retratin amunt f residual albumen "stikiness" r edema in hik hath weight grwth rate (hath t death) neurlgial status (e.g., stargazer) begging respnse degree fylk sa depletin pip musle fluid depletin te prblems "nisiness" f hik pasted vent additinal nerpsy and ulture results (Osbrn andkuehler, 1989) Causes fembryni Mrtality andweak Chiks 111e nrmal mrtality urve fr avian embrys has been determined t be apprximately ne-third f the deaths urring in the first third f inubatin during rgan system develpment, s that the rate f mrtality during this ritial perid an be a guide t the fate f the entire hath. The majrity f ther deaths ur during the last third f inubatin as the hik prepares t hath (Rmanff, 1949; Riddle, 1965). A summary f sme f the knwn auses f inubatin failure, sme f whih are appliable bth t artifiial and natural inubatin as well as t breeding in the wild, is given belw. In sme ases, the nditin listed may affet the egg r embry at mre than ne stage f develpment and the pint at whih it bemes apparent may depend n its severity. Egg harateristis: 1) Abnrmal egg shape: viral infetins (e.g., Newastle's disease); parental reprdutive trat abnrmalities; age f hen (immature r beynd ptimum breeding age); inbreeding, pestiide ntaminatin. 2) Abnrmal r pr quality eggshells: nutrient defiienies (alium, phsphrus, manganese, vitamin D); age f hen; exhaustin f parents frm ver-extended prdutin; pestiide ntaminatin. 3) Pr air-ell quality: viral infetins; exessive jarring f eggs thrugh mishandling r transprtatin (e.g., helipter vibratins r DDT an ause membranes t slip); air pressure hanges in airplanes. (Tur, 197; Hays and Sanbrn, 1924; Bukner et al., ; Knx and Olsn, 1936; Hays and Talmadge, 1949; Swansn and Bell, 1975; B. Waltn, pers. mm.). Infertility: 1) Age: ne r bth parents immature r beynd ptimum breeding age. 2) Inbreeding: redued fertility. 3) Inmpatibility r behaviral prblems f parents: asynhrnus breeding nditin; preferential mating; lak f pair-bnding; abnrmal imprinting; infrequeny f mating, an inrease in the age f the sperm dereasing egg fertility. 4) Disease: unfit parent birds fail t mate; side effets f antibitis leading t sendary vitamin defiienies whih affet fertility; hrni disease affeting fertility thrugh dereased fd intake r utilizatin. 5) Parental reprdutive trat abnrmalities aused by pr inubatin praties during embryni develpment. 6) Weather: dereased fertility in ld r ht weather; inrret phtperid. 7) Parental diet: insuffiient fd intake thrugh disease r stress; nutrient defiienies arising frm inrret diet r abnrmal fd imprinting. 8) Inrret artifiial inseminatin predures (e.g., wrng diluent, insuffiient r inrret penetratin, ntaminated semen samples). (Parker, 1949; Lrenz, 1959; Rmanff, 196; Ernst Abbtt, 1973; Abbtt, 1979, unpub!. a; Brwn, 1979; Ernst, 1987.) Death r abnrmalities f embrys arising during eah f the three stages fthe inubatin perid. Stage 1 1) Egg handling; strage at inrret temperature r fr t lng; exessive jarring f eggs; washing at t high a temperature. 2) High inbreeding effiient resulting in fertile eggs with n develpment; parthengenesis; prelaying mrtality; hrmsme abnrmalities. 3) Inubatin faults: inadequate r inrret egg turning; inrret temperature thrugh inubatr failure r abandnment by parents an ause death r malfrmatin f embry; suffatin thrugh inadequate inu-

9 batr ventilatin; fumigatin at wrng develpmental stage. 4) Disease: viral infetins, parent t egg transmissin; baterial infetins, parent t egg and egg t egg transmissin. 5) Parental nutrient defiienies leading t egg nutrient defiienies: vitamin E defiieny ausing frmatin f a "lethal ring" (the embry is surrunded by tissue). 6) Aged r abnrmal sperm. 7) Develpmental; abnrmalities f unknwn auses: failure f develpment f amnin; hetertaxia (embrys turn t right instead f left interfering with heart develpment). (full, ; Adamstne, 1931; Lanaster et a!., 1954; Harry, 1957; Bard, 1966, 1974; Blm, 1969; Ldge et ai., 1971; Rmanff and Rmanff, 1972; Cahil and Jhnsn, 1974; Brwn, 1979; Abbtt, unpubl. b, ). Stage 2 1) Parental nutrient defiienies: ribflavin defiieny ausing abnrmal artilage develpment (hndrdystrphy), dwarfism, urled tes, lubbed dwn, kidney degeneratin, edema, underdevelped limbs (mirmelia); B12 defiieny ausing hemrrhaging, enlarged thyrid, edema, shrt beaks, dead embrys withut visible malfrmatin; bitin defiieny ausing skeletal defrmities (shrtened, twisted bnes, edema, webbing between tes); fli aid defiieny ausing mirmelia, urved tibitarsus, syndatylism, beak defets (parrt beak); manganese defiieny ausing mirmelia, edema, shrtened leg bnes and sftening f bnes; zin defiieny ausing abnrmal limb develpment, parts f limb missing; vitamin K defiieny ausing hemrrhaging, ausing skeletal defrmities. 2) Sendary vitamin defiienies: drugs, prlnged antibiti therapy destrying vitamin-prduing flra; insuffiient fd intake r diet imbalanes. 3) Disease; viral infetins ( ewastle disease, infetius brnhitis); Gram-negative baterial infetins (salmnella, staphylus, streptus and E. lo; fungal infetins, spres transmitted int egg; parental prtzal infetins r parasite infestatins leading t insuffiient fd intake and prdutin f pr quality eggs with redued hathability. 4) Pr handling f eggs befre r during first days f inubatin; jarring r shaking f eggs ausing twinning and dupliatins; inadequate egg turning ausing malfrmed r ysti embrys. 5)Inubatr nditins; inadequate ventilatin r high level f arbn dixide ausing suffatin; inrret temperature ausing irulatin prblems in embrys and disprprtinate grwth f rgan systems wing t temperature sensitivity f enzymes. 6)Lethal genes: ften result fexessive inbreeding. (Landauer, 1967; Beer, 1969; Stt & Krk, 1972; Ernst & Abbtt, 1973; Bard, 1974; Ann., 1977; Abbtt, 1979, unpub!. b, ; Brwn 1979). Stage 3 1) Lethal malpsitining; aused by inrret r insuffiient turning; parental inbreeding; abnrmal egg size r shape; inrret inubatin temperature. 2) Pr inubatr ventilatin: hik suffates n pipping int air-ell. 3) Lethal genes. 4) Old eggs: time lag between laying and setting. 5) Disease. 6) Nutritinal defiienies: vitamin E defiieny affeting mrtality f late embrys withut harateristi malfrmatins; panttheni aid defiieny: late mrtality and subutaneus hemrrhage; fli aid defiieny: apparently nrmal hiks dead in shell. 7) Egg ling early in inubatin. 8) Imprper egg handling prir t inubatin, partiularly eggs wet befre setting. 9) Inadequate r inrret turning during inubatin leading t malpsitin r malfrmed embrys. 1) Inubatin temperature t lw: hiks dead in shell r retarded develpment; hik exhaustin at hathing; residual albumen. 11) Temperature t high: malfrmatin f embry (hernia and "rumplessness") ; hik dead in shell r aelerated develpment; unretrated ylks-sas. 12) Humidity t lw r transfer int hather t late: membranes dry after hik pips: hik exhausted at hath; skeletal abnrmalities wing t insuffiient alium transprt at end f inubatin beause f retrated inner shell membrane. 13) Inubatin humidity t high r The Wright Rst., Jeri Wright (26) NOW HAND-FEEDING Hyainths & ther maaws, Ckats Cnures & Amazns Dmesti, Clse-Banded Rudybush Distributr (Virginia residents, add 4'12% sales tax.) Exp. arne Kathleen Szab H:lrring dmesti hand raised babies (35) LUV THEM BIRDS, INC. P.Q Bx 285, Gulds, FL3317 ELECTRONIC DIGITAL SCALES Reslutin Pwer Supply Unit Prie CR-17 with Tare Funtin CR-18A Mdel CR-17 I CR-18A Capaity 2 Kg. I 5 Kg. Cnversin Gm-Oz wlseletable swith 1 Gm I 2 Gm Banery - 6x AA (nt inluded); AC adaptr (nt inluded) $49.95 I $59.95 $3 shipping harges per unit. C.O.D. rder, add $S Great fr hme/ffie use! TO ORDER: Send hek r mney rder. Charge VISA/MASTERCARD Exlusive Agent JACKCO COMPANY UMITED 274 Sni Drive, Dept. WB Virginia Beah, VA Tel: (84) Fax: (84) $3.5 Shipping Charge Business Liense HlS13 Dealer Inquiry Welme afa WATCHBIRD 45

10 transfer t hather t early: "hik drwns" (dead in shell); unretrated ylk-sa and pr seal: residual albumen. (Rmanff, 1929, 193; Dve, 1935; Olsn & Byerly, 1936; Lanaster et al., 1954; Rbertsn, 1961; Bard, 1966; Rmanff & Rmanff, 1972; Ernst & Abbtt, 1973; Abbtt, 1979, unpubl. a, b, ; Brwn, 1979). Prandabnrmalhiks 1) Inrret inubatin temperature, general symptms: pr seals, ylk sa infetins; urled r rked tes, splayed legs; reprdutive trat abnrmalities affeting later fertility and egg prdutin. 2) Temperature t lw (effet prprtinal t degree f errr): delayed hath; unretrated r partially retrated ylk sas; bent neks; residual albumen prduing "stiky hiks"; abnrmal "sft" dwn; small, weak hiks with stunted grwth; nervus disrders (usually due t inrret temperatures during early develpment). 3) Temperature t high (effet prprtinal t degree f errr): early hath; abnrmal "sruffy" dwn; dry membranes at pipping; small nisy hiks; neurlgial prblems, inluding ataxia and "star gazing"; head abnrmalities (hernias); unretrated ylk sas. 4) Humidity t lw: pr, weak hiks; skeletal abnrmalities beause f inability t transprt minerals frm shell during Stage 3 f inubatin; "sruffy" dwn; bent neks; abnrmally large air ells at pipping. 5) Humidity t high: large, sft "blbby" hiks, weak hiks; pr seals, unretrated ylk-sas and infetins. 6) Unsuitable hathing substrate: splayed legs; slipped tendns. 7) Parental nutrient defiienies: small, weak hiks; depressed grwth rates. 8) Parental inbreeding: general weakness and depressed grwth rates: speifi develpmental abnrmalities (e.g., splitft). Determinatin f rked r urled te nditin an be made by histlgial examinatin f the siati nerve. Curled tes an be aused by ribflavin defiieny r inrret inubatin temperature. Crked tes are a geneti tendeny aggravated by substrate, inbreeding and infra-red brding. (Harry, 1957; Pekman, 1972; 46 April / May 1993 Ernst & Abbtt, 1973; Abbtt, 1979, unpubl. b, ; Greenwell et al., 1982; Wdard & Ernst, 1983), Inubatin Equipment There are fewer bad inubatrs than there are bad inubatr users. It is neessary t take the time t understand the mahine. If yu understand it -yu an wrk with it effetively. What is the air flw system (fred-air r still-air)? Where are the ht spts? What kind f thermstat des it have? Is there a bakup thermstat? Sme imprtant nsideratins befre purhasing an inubatr r hather are: 1) Size and speies f bird eggs t be inubated. Large ratite eggs require different nditins than small, altriial, sftbill eggs and pssibly different sized mahines. 2) Cst. D yu want ne high teh mahine fr a few valuable eggs r several medium pried mahines t inubate several different speies whih require different artifiial inubatin parameters? What is the st f a new thermstat, turner r water pan? 3) Reliability. Hw easy is it t aquire replaement parts? Can yu install them yurself? Is there smene t answer yur questins after yu buy? Is a wiring diagram available? 4) Spae. Inubatrs and hathers wrk mst effetively in a temperature ntrlled envirnment. D yu have the spae, r is this ging int the garage? 5) Turning mehanism. Hw des it wrk? Will it effetively turn the eggs yu are nsidering inubating, r will it ver-turn small eggs and under-turn large eggs? 6) Thermstat. Is it a wafer system whih will require nstant adjustment r slid-state, light bulb, r merury ntrl? 7) Sanitatin. Hw easy is it t lean the inubatr; an yu take it apart? Are water pans easily remvable? There are many different types f fred-air and still-air inubatrs available fr purhase by zs and aviulturists (see appendix). Mst imprtant is the purhase f high quality thermmeters and wet bulbs. Fllwing is a table listing the speies suessfully artifiially inubated and hathed at the San Dieg Z and San Dieg Wild Animal Park frm and the parameters used. This table is nly a guideline. Artifiial inubatin parameters vary based n many fatrs suh as type f inubatr, altitude, and relative humidity. The key ingredients fr suessful artifiial inubatin are the desire t keep learning and experimenting, a hlisti utlk and an pen mind... * Frmaldehyde is aringeni and teratgeni. Fumigatin f eggs using this disinfetant shuld be arried ut with extreme are under wellventilated nditins. Under n irumstanes shuld this predure be undertaken by a pregnant wman. Aknwledgements Artifiial inubatin and handrearing f birds wuld nt be pssible withut the hard wrk and effrts f all the Bird Department staff at the San Dieg Z and San Dieg Wild Animal Park. Appendix Agriulture Publiatins University fcalifrnia Agriulture and Natural Resures 671 San Pabl Ave. Oakland, CA Grumbah Inubatrs 1224 Spener Rad Saginaw, MI 4869 Humidaire Inubatr C. 217 West Wayne Street New Madisn, OH Internatinal Hathery Pratie P.O. Bx, Driffield Nrth Humberside Y25 8BJ England Kuhl Crpratin Kuhl Rd. P.O. Bx 26 Flemingtn, N.J Lyn Eletri C. Manufaturers fmarsh Farms Prduts 2765 Main Street Chula Vista, CA 9211 Petersime Inubatr C. 3 Nrth Bridge Street Gettysburg, OH Editr's Nte: Beause Keuhler's literary referenes were 96 in number and her inubatin parameter harts upied 11 pages, it is ntpratial t publish them here. They are available by requesting themfrm the AFA Hme Offie.