Zoology Labs BIOL 240

Transcription

1 Zoology Labs BIOL 240 Dr. Dan Clemens Fall 2018

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3 Table of Contents Introduction... ii Laboratory Safety Rules... iii Lab 1 ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION... 1 Lab 2A SPONGES... 3 Lab 2B CNIDARIANS... 3 Activity 2C CORALS and CORAL REEFS... 5 Lab 3A FLATWORMS... 7 Lab 3B NEMATODES... 7 Lab 3C ANNELID WORMS... 9 Lab 4 MOLLUSKS Activity 5 MEIOSIS REVIEW Activity 6 POPULATION GENETICS AND NATURAL SELECTION Lab 7 ARTHROPODS Part 1: Chelicerates and Crustaceans Lab 8 ARTHROPODS Part 2: Insects and Myriapods Lab 9 ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT Lab 10 ECHINODERMS Activity 11 FIELD TRIP to BODEGA BAY Lab 12 CHORDATES I: Invertebrate Chordate and Fishes Lab 13 CHORDATES II: Tetrapods Lab 14 VERTEBRATE SKELETON Lab 15A MUSCLE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Lab 15B MAMMALIAN ANATOMY: Muscular System Lab 16 MAMMALIAN ANATOMY: Digestive and Respiratory Systems Lab 17 MAMMALIAN ANATOMY: Circulatory System Lab 18 MAMMALIAN ANATOMY: Urinary and Reproductive Systems Lab 19 HISTOLOGY Tissues in Organs i

4 Introduction The following pages contain the outlines and assignments for the Biology 240 General Zoology labs. Most of the labs follow exercises in the lab manual, Laboratory Studies in Integrated Principles of Zoology by Hickman, Kats and Keen. In the labs, you will observing many different kinds of animals and animal structures, learning taxonomic and anatomical terms, making detailed observations and interpretations, and answering questions for each lab exercise. The first several labs focus on nine major animal phyla that comprise much of the diversity and range of body plans within the animal kingdom. The second half of the lab program emphasizes form and function of vertebrate animals. As you navigate the ocean of information in contemporary zoology, try not to lose the forest for the trees. Learning the detailed terminology is an important part of the program, just like learning the vocabulary of a new language. But the heart of the course lies in integrating these details into the larger concepts of evolution, form-function relationships, and interactions between animals and their environments. The tree of life that contains you and every other organism on earth is awesome, intricate and beautiful. So climb aboard, embrace the challenge, and have fun! Dr. Dan Clemens August 2018 Part of a cladogram ( tree of life ) showing phylogeny of the animal kingdom. source: David Hillis lab website. ii

5 Laboratory Safety Rules Your participation in this laboratory requires that you follow safe laboratory practices. You are required to adhere to the safety guidelines listed below, as well as any other safety procedures given by your instructor or the instructor(s) in charge of the course. You will be asked to sign a form certifying that you were informed of the safety guidelines and emergency procedures for this laboratory. Violations of these rules are grounds for expulsion from the laboratory. Note: You have the right to ask questions regarding your safety in this laboratory, either directly or anonymously, without fear of reprisal. Locate the emergency shower and eyewash station. Locate the fire extinguisher and fire alarm. The Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) contain information on all known health hazards of the chemicals used in this course. In addition, there is information concerning the cleanup of spills and the accidental exposure to the chemical (e.g. skin contact or inhalation). You are encouraged to inspect the contents of the MSDS binder located in the Instructional Assistant s office. Dispose of all broken glassware, needles and scalpel blades (sharps) in the specially marked receptacle. Never place any of those items in the trash can. Dispose of all animal material in designated plastic waste bags. Exercise care in working with surgical instruments. Notify you instructor immediately if you receive any type of injury in the laboratory, no matter how slight. Never pipette fluids by mouth. Pipetters will be available for your use. Check odors cautiously. Never taste a chemical. Do not drink water from the taps in the laboratory. College regulations prohibit eating or drinking at laboratory tables. If you wish to bring food/drink to lab, it must be stored in a designated clean area and eaten outside the lab. Shoes must be worn in the laboratory. Do not wear open-toed shoes or sandals. We suggest that you do not wear loose long sleeves, and wear a lab coat for dissection exercises. If you have long hair, we suggest that you tie it back so that it cannot fall into your work. Children and pets are not allowed in the laboratory. Wash hands before and after working in the lab. Wear gloves as needed. Turn off the Bunsen burner, gas outlet, and heating plate when you are not using them. If any hazardous reagents are spilled, notify your instructor at once. Before obtaining any reagents, carefully read the labels on the bottles. Many chemicals have similar names. Never return unused chemicals to the original dispensing bottle. iii

6 Follow the instructor s directions for disposal of chemicals. When no specific directions are given, dispose of non-hazardous, water-soluble substances in the sink, and put insoluble and solid materials such as filter paper in the wastebasket. Perform only the experiment assigned; do not experiment on your own. No unauthorized experiments are allowed. Every chemical in a laboratory must be properly labeled. Many chemicals have similar names and you should read the name twice. If a chemical is a solution, the concentration will also appear on the label. Solution concentration is commonly described by molarity (e.g., 6M HCl) or by percent concentration (e.g., 0.9% NaCl). Use the proper instrument (eye-dropper, scoopula, etc.) to remove reagents from bottles. Do not cross contaminate reagents by using the same scoopula for 2 different reagents (e.g., don t use the mustard knife in the mayonnaise jar). All biohazardous materials are to be disposed of in a designated biohazard receptacle. All biohazardous spills are to be reported to the instructor or to the instructional assistant and are to be cleaned up using disinfectant and disposed of properly. iv

7 Lab 1 I. Taxonomy A. Taxonomic hierarchy Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species B. Nine major animal phyla Porifera Cnidaria Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida Mollusca Arthropoda Echinodermata Chordata ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION Lab Manual: Exercise 6A and Ch in Campbell Biology textbook C. Binomial nomenclature Genus + species epithet* or Genus + species epithet II. Phylogeny and Systematics Selected Terms phylogeny systematics cladogram (= phylogenetic tree) monophyletic group (= clade) ancestral character derived character outgroup biological species *the epithet is the second part of the species name (as in sapiens). The scientific name of the species always includes the genus (as in Homo sapiens) 1

8 Lab 1 Activities and Questions Part A: Animal Classification 1. Make a list of the nine major animal phyla that we will be studying in this course. Then, write the name of each of the following animal species (common name and scientific name in parentheses) next to the name of the phylum to which it belongs. earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris), honeybee (Apis mellifera), pigeon (Columba livia), human liver fluke (Clonorchis sinensis), ochre sea star (Pisaster ochraceus), frilled anemone (Metridium senile), California mussel (Mytilus californianus), calcareous sponge (Grantia sp.), intestinal roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides). 2. Write out the full taxonomic classification for yourself showing all major taxonomic categories (D, K, P, C, O, F, G, S). (Note: humans are in the Order Primates and Family Hominidae). Question: What other kinds of animals are in the same order as humans? 3. Draw a cladogram for the following animals: sponge, squid, tiger, jellyfish, shark Start by determining which animal represents the outgroup the animal that is most distantly related to all the others in the list (refer to Exercise 6 in your lab manual). Use prominent features of the body plan (such as symmetry, organs, appendages, backbone) as a basis for determining the branching points (nodes) on your cladogram. Question: Show what characteristics you used to arrange these animals on your cladogram. 4. Draw a cladogram for the following animals: shark, human, tiger, lizard, gorilla Question: Indicate which animal represents the outgroup in this cladogram. Question: Show what characteristics you used to arrange these animals on the cladogram. 5. Refer to the cladogram shown below the Introduction on page ii. This is a segment of a tree of life that is based on macromolecular similarities (homology) among major taxonomic groups. Question: Does this cladogram indicate that mammals are more primitive than birds? If not, how do you explain the position of mammals in relation to other higher vertebrates (reptiles and birds) on the cladogram? 2

9 Lab 2A I. Taxonomy Kingdom Animalia Phylum Porifera II. Specimens to Observe Whole specimens: Various sponge skeletons Live sponges (if available) Euplectella (Venus s flower basket) Slides: syconoid sponge (Grantia) spicules spongin SPONGES Lab Manual: Exercise 8 III. Selected Terms and Structures spongocoel osculum dermal ostium (pl. ostia) choanocytes spicules spongin syconoid canal system radial canal incurrent canal leuconoid canal system flagellated chamber Lab 2B CNIDARIANS I. Taxonomy (Required taxonomic names in bold face) Phylum Cnidaria Class Hydrozoa - hydroids and hydromedusae Class Scyphozoa - jellies ( true jellyfish ) Class Anthozoa - anemones and corals II. Specimens to Observe Slides Obelia (Class Hydrozoa) Aurelia (Class Scyphozoa) planula strobila ephyra nematocysts Preserved specimens Gonionemus Aurelia Various coral skeletons Live specimens Metridium senile - frilled anemone Anthopleura elegantissima - aggregating anemone III. General Terms and Structures radial symmetry polyp medusa planula larva sessile pelagic oral surface aboral surface diploblastic epidermis gastrodermis gastrovascular cavity 3 mesoglea tentacles cnidocyte nematocyst Lab Manual: Exercise 9 Additional Terms and Structures Obelia hydranth gonangium perisarc Gonionemus radial canal gonads velum tentacular bulb Aurelia oral arm mouth radial canal strobila ephyra Metridium oral disc mouth pharynx septa (mesenteries) complete (primary) septum incomplete (secondary) septum acontia hard corals exoskeleton coral reef symbiosis zooxanthellae

10 Lab 2 Activities and Questions A. Sponges Station 1: Various sponges and sponge skeletons 1. What level of body organization and type of body symmetry characterizes the sponges? Station 2: Microscopic observation of a syconoid sponge (Grantia) 2. What is a choanocyte, and what is its function? 3. Draw a diagram of the water flow system of a syconoid sponge. Use arrows to show the direction of water flow and label the following structures: incurrent canal, radial canal, dermal ostia, osculum, spongocoel, choanocytes Station 3: Microscopic observations of spicules and spongin 4. What are spicules and what substances can they be made of? What is spongin and what material is it composed of? B. Cnidarians Station 1: General questions 5. List the level of body organization (cell, tissue, organ, or organ system), type of symmetry, and number of germ layers that characterize the cnidarians. 6. What are the two main body forms of a cnidarian? Draw a diagram of these two body forms, label the main body layers, and show the location of the mouth, gastrovascular cavity, and tentacles 7. Define cnidocyte and nematocyst. Where are these structures typically found in cnidarians? Station 2: Obelia slide Identify the two kinds of polyps in an Obelia colony and distinguish their functions. 8. What stage(s) of the Obelia life cycle function as dispersal stages? Why is it advantageous to have a dispersal stage in the life cycle of a cnidarian? Station 3: Gonionemus observation (dissecting microscope) Observe a specimen and identify the structures listed on the previous page. Station 4: Aurelia (preserved specimen and slide) 9. Diagram and identify the major life cycle stages of Aurelia, starting with the planula larva. Station 5: Anemones: Metridium and Anthopleura 10. What are two characteristics of the Class Anthozoa that distinguish it from other cnidarian classes? Observe live Metridium senile and Anthopleura elegantissima in the tide pool aquarium and under the dissecting microscope. 11. What is the response of these animals to tactile stimuli? What types of cells or tissues are involved in this response? 4

11 Activity 2C CORALS and CORAL REEFS Film: Life on the Reef. Answer the following questions after viewing the film. 1. What material forms the exoskeleton of reef-building corals? 2. What are the general habitat requirements for reef-building corals? 3. Explain the symbiotic relationship that enables reef-building corals to thrive in nutrient-poor tropical waters. 4. Explain how sexual reproduction in reef-building corals differs from that in a hydrozoan cnidarian such as Obelia or a scyphozoan cnidarian such as Aurelia. 5. Why are coral reefs ecologically important? 6. Discuss two reasons why increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration poses a major threat to coral reefs. (Hint: one reason has to do with increased CO 2 levels in the air and the other involves increased dissolved CO 2 in the ocean.) 7. How might the loss of coral reefs affect human populations in coastal areas? 5

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13 Lab 3A I. Taxonomy Phylum Platyhelminthes Class Turbellaria - free-living flatworms Class Trematoda - flukes Class Cestoda - tapeworms II. Specimens to Observe Slides planarian (whole mount & cross section) flukes: Clonorchis - liver fluke Schistosoma - blood fluke tapeworm: Taenia Preserved specimens planarians Fasciola (sheep liver fluke) tapeworms III. General Terms acoelomate triploblastic incomplete digestive tract gastrovascular cavity monoecious dioecious parasite definitive host (primary host) intermediate host Lab 3B I. Taxonomy Phylum Nematoda II. Specimens to observe Ascaris - intestinal roundworm Trichinella - trichina worm Turbatrix - vinegar eels III. General Terms cuticle pseudocoel pseudocoelomate hydrostatic skeleton complete digestive tract FLATWORMS NEMATODES Lab Manual: Exercise 10 Structures to identify in planarians ciliated epidermis eye spots (ocelli) auricles muscles: circular, longitudinal, dorsoventral pharynx intestine: anterior trunk posterior trunks diverticula of intestine Structures to identify in Clonorchis oral sucker ventral sucker uterus testis life cycle stages (Clonorchis and Schistosoma) miracidium cercaria adult Structures to identify in tapeworms proglottids: immature proglottid mature (gravid) proglottid scolex suckers rostellum ovaries testes genital pore Lab Manual: Exercise 11A Structures to identify in Ascaris mouth pharynx intestine longitudinal muscles dorsal and ventral nerve cords female reproductive system: ovary oviduct uterus male reproductive system: testis vas deferens Structures to identify in Trichinella cysts (in skeletal muscle) 7

14 Lab 3 Activities and Questions A. Flatworms Station 1: 1. On Table A (next page), list the level of body organization (cellular, tissue, organ or organ system), type of symmetry, and number of germ layers that characterize the Phylum Platyhelminthes. 2. Compare the digestive systems of the three major classes of flatworms (turbellarians, flukes, and tapeworms) and explain how differences in the structure of the digestive system is correlated with differences in life style. Station 2: Planarians (Class Turbellaria) Observe the whole-mount and cross-section slides of planaria and identify the listed structures. Station 3: Flukes (Class Trematoda) Observe the slide of Clonorchis and identify the listed structures. 3. Diagram the life cycle of the blood fluke (Schistosoma mansoni). Which animal is the definitive host and which animal is the intermediate host of this species? Which phase(s) of the life cycle function for dispersal? Station 4: Tapeworms (Class Cestoda) Observe the slide of the tapeworm (Taenia) sections and identify the listed structures. Compare the immature and mature proglottids. 4. What structures fill the mature proglottids? 5. How is a tapeworm normally transmitted to humans? 6. What is the function of the scolex? B. Nematodes Station 5: Ascaris (intestinal roundworm) Examine preserved specimens of Ascaris. Observe the slides of Ascaris cross-sections, both male and female, and identify the listed structures. Distinguish the different parts of the reproductive systems in the male and female. 7. Fill in the information in Table A for Phylum Nematoda. Station 6: Turbatrix ( vinegar eels ). Observe the movements of live Turbatrix under a dissecting microscope. 8. Explain the concept of hydrostatic skeleton as it applies to nematode movement. Station 7: Trichinella Examine the slide of Trichinella encysted in vertebrate skeletal muscle. 8. How is trichinosis contracted by humans, and how can it be prevented? 8

15 Lab 3C ANNELID WORMS I. Taxonomy Phylum Annelida Class Polychaeta* - marine segmented worms Class Clitellata Subclass Oligochaeta - earthworms Subclass Hirudinea - leeches II. Specimens to Observe in Detail earthworm (Lumbricus) earthworm model preserved specimen clam worm (Nereis) preserved specimen Slides earthworm cross-section Nereis parapodium III. General Terms and Structures metamerism coelom septum (pl. septa) peritoneum circular muscles longitudinal muscles hydrostatic skeleton closed circulatory system Lab Manual: Exercise 13 Structures to identify in Nereis parapodium setae pharynx jaws Structures to identify in Lumbricus clitellum cuticle epidermis setae pharynx esophagus crop gizzard intestine aortic arches ( hearts ) (5 pairs) dorsal blood vessel ventral blood vessel cerebral ganglion ventral nerve cord seminal vesicles testes (enclosed in seminal vesicles) ovaries oviducts seminal receptacles (not visible on model) nephridia * The polychaete worms are a diverse, paraphyletic group that includes several clades. In some classifications, the motile polychaetes are grouped in the Clade Errantia, while the sedentary polychaetes (tube worms and burrow dwellers) are placed in the Clade Sedentaria. Lab 3C Activities and Questions Annelids 1. List the major features of the body plan that characterize the Phylum Annelida in Table A. Observe a preserved specimen of Nereis and identify the listed structures. Study the earthworm model and identify the listed structures 2. What is the coelom? What are two important functions of the coelom in an earthworm? 3. Describe the function of setae in a marine polychaete and an earthworm. 4. What are two main functions of parapodia in polychaete worms? 5. What is a closed circulatory system, and what is a major advantage of a closed system compared to an open circulatory system? 6. Describe how the clitellum functions in earthworm reproduction. 9

16 Table A. Characteristics of 3 Major Phyla of Worms (plus Mollusks) Fill in the following table: Phylum Platyhelminthes Type of Symmetry # of Germ Layers Acoelomate, Pseudocoelomate or Coelomate Organ or Organ System organization Incomplete or Complete digestive tract Segmentation (metamerism) Yes/No Circulatory system present/absent; open/closed Nematoda Annelida Mollusca* * to be completed in Lab 4 B. Phylum Cladogram Complete the following cladogram by drawing in the missing lines to show currently-accepted phylogenetic relationships. Phylum Cnidaria Platyhelminthes Mollusca Annelida Nematoda Arthropoda Clade: Lophotrochozoa Ecdysozoa Clade: Protostomia Deuterostomia* Clade: Radiata Bilateria Subkingdom: Eumetazoa * to be studied in later labs 10

17 Lab 4 I. Taxonomy Phylum Mollusca Class Polyplacophora Class Gastropoda Class Bivalvia Class Cephalopoda II. Specimens to Observe in Detail clam model squid (Loligo or Doryteuthis) Additional specimens to observe Chitons (live and shells) mossy chiton (Mopalia muscosa) black leather chiton (Katharina tunicata) Gastropods (live, shells and preserved) black turban snail (Tegula funebralis) limpets abalones (Haliotis) other marine gastropods: moon snail, conchs, whelks periwinkles, cone snails garden snail (Helix) banana slug (Ariolimax californicus) nudibranchs [photographs] Bivalves (live and shells) bay mussel (Mytilus trossulus) California mussel (Mytilus californianus) rock-boring clam other clam shells Cephalopods (preserved and shells) cuttlefish (Sepia) Octopus Nautilus III. Terms and Structures to Identify A. General terms coelom / coelomate mantle mantle cavity foot visceral mass shell (valve) radula trocophore larva open circulatory system B. Additional terms for gastropods torsion spiral shell (dextral or sinistral) aperture operculum tentacles MOLLUSKS 11 Lab Manual: Exercise 12 C. Structures to identify in bivalves 1. External features umbo hinge ligament lines of growth shell layers: periostracum prismatic layer nacreous layer byssal threads (in mussels) 2. Inside surface of shell lateral teeth (hinge teeth) pallial line muscles (scars): anterior adductor anterior foot retractor posterior adductor posterior foot retractor 3. Soft superficial features incurrent aperture / incurrent siphon excurrent aperture / excurrent siphon mantle cavity foot gills labial palp 4. Deep features heart pericardium stomach intestine rectum anus gonad D. Structures to identify in the squid 1. External features eyes mantle arms tentacles suckers with chitin rings ( cookie cutters ) funnel (= siphon) 2. Dissected specimen jaws mantle cavity funnel valve gills ink sac male: stomach testis rectum branchial hearts female: systemic heart ovary pen nidamental glands

18 Lab 4 Activities and Questions After you have observed the specimens and identified the structures listed on page 1, answer the questions below. 1. Characterize the Phylum Mollusca with respect to the following (Table A and Cladogram B, page 10): a. body symmetry b. number of germ layers d. presence and type of body cavity c. level of body organization e. digestive system f. circulatory system g. position in the cladogram of the animal kingdom 2. The mantle and mantle cavity are characteristic structures of mollusks. List several important functions of the mantle and the mantle cavity in a clam and in a squid. 3. Define cephalization. Rank the following mollusk classes from lowest to highest degree of cephalization: Polyplacophora, Gastropoda, Bivalvia, Cephalopoda 4. Diagram the water flow pattern through the mantle cavity of a marine snail, showing the incurrent and excurrent flows. What substances are discharged with the excurrent flow? What is the function of the holes in an abalone shell? 5. What structures function to close the valves of a clam shell? What structure opens the valves? 6. Describe how a clam burrows into sand or mud. What specific muscle(s) does it use? 7. What is a radula and how does it function in a snail such as Helix? 8. Make a table that includes several of the species you have studied and divide them into the following groups: ciliary-mucoid filter feeders radular grazers active predators 12

19 Activity 5 MEIOSIS REVIEW Start with a diploid parent cell homologous pair 1 with 2n = 4 chromosomes, that is, 2 homologous pairs of chromosomes. What is the diploid chromosome homologous pair 2 number in humans? 2n = How many homologous pairs are there in humans? Prior to meiosis, the DNA replicates to form 4 duplicated chromosomes. Each chromosome now consists of 2 identical sister chromatids Prophase of Meiosis I - The chromosomes condense; sister chromatids - The homologous pairs come together to form a tetrad tetrad which consists of 4 chromatids. (Crossing over can occur at this stage.) Metaphase of Meiosis I The homologous pairs line up across from each other at the metaphase plate. The alignment of each homologous pair is random and independent of the other pairs: or Anaphase of Meiosis I - the homologous pairs separate and move to opposite sides of the cell. At the end of Meiosis I - two haploid cells are formed, but the sister chromatids are still together. In Meiosis II - the sister chromatids separate (similar to mitosis). At the end of Meiosis II, there are four haploid gametes, each with n = 2 chromosomes: or 13

20 Case 1 - Unlinked genes. In this case, there are two genes, each with two alleles (A,a and B,b). Genes A and B are on different chromosomes. The parent genotype is AaBb. In the diagrams below, fill in the alleles of genes A and B on the chromosomes of the parent cells in metaphase of Meiosis I, and in each of the possible gamete types at the end of meiosis. Recall that each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids and that each chromatid carries an allele of one of the genes. or This is an example of independent assortment. With respect to genes A and B, How many different gamete types can be formed? Is each type equally likely to be formed? What is the probability of each type? 14

21 Case 2 - Linked genes, no crossing over. In this case there are two genes with two alleles (A,a and B,b). The parent genotype is AaBb. Genes A and B are on the same chromosome (they are linked) as follows: allele A is linked to B and allele a is linked to b. Fill in the alleles of genes A and B on one homologous chromosome pair of the parent cell in metaphase of Meiosis I, and all the possible gametes types at the end of meiosis. Assume there is no crossing over during meiosis. (Note that the second homologous pair is not shown for simplicity.) In this case, the alleles of A and B do not show independent assortment because the genes are linked. With respect to genes A and B, How many different gamete types can be formed? What is the probability of each type? Which of the gamete types that were formed in Case 1 were not formed in this case? 15

22 Case 3 - Linked genes, with crossing over. In this case there are two genes with two alleles (A,a and B,b). The parent genotype is AaBb. Genes A and B are on the same chromosome with allele A linked to B and allele a linked to b. Genes A and B are separated by a short distance and there is a 10% chance that crossing over occurs between gene A and gene B. In the diagram below, crossing over has occurred between genes A and B on one of the two chromatid pairs of the homologous chromosomes. Fill in the alleles of genes A and B on the chromosomes of the parent cell in metaphase of Meiosis I (after crossing over has occurred), and in all possible gamete types at the end of meiosis. In this case, the alleles of A and B do not show independent assortment because the genes are still linked, but there is some recombination of alleles that results from crossing over. How many different gamete types can be formed? Identify the parental type gametes and the recombinant types in the diagram above. What is the probability of each type being formed? 16

23 Activity 6 POPULATION GENETICS AND NATURAL SELECTION This exercise demonstrates application of the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium model in a quantitative study of population genetics and demonstrates how natural selection results in directional change in the frequency of alleles (i.e., evolution) in a model population over successive generations. Introduction Paper worms have two color morphs, green and white. Color is controlled by one gene G with two alleles: green (G) is dominant and white (g) is recessive. The initial population of 200 paper worms has 51% green and 49% white worms, and is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Questions 1. Write the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation and relate each term in the equation to the corresponding diploid genotypes of gene G in the starting population. 2. What are the allele frequencies of gene G in this population? 3. What are the genotype frequencies in this population? Field Experiment The population will be exposed to intense predation by ravenous Zo birds (a.k.a. students). After each round of predation, the surviving worms mate randomly and produce enough offspring to bring the population size back up to 200 before the next round of predation. The Hardy-Weinberg formula will be used to calculate the new frequencies of alleles and genotypes in the population each generation following selection and random mating. We will go through three to four rounds of predation with a different group of Zo birds for each round. Each group will have 30 seconds to collect as many worms as they can. The group will then count and report the number of green and white worms that they collected. Analysis An Excel spreadsheet will be used to enter the data for the number of worms of each color collected, apply the Hardy-Weinberg formula to calculate the genotype frequencies of the offspring of the surviving worms, and graph the resulting changes in phenotype and allele frequencies for each generation. The spreadsheet will calculate: 1. the number of survivors of each color 2. the allele frequencies of the survivors 3. the resulting genotype frequencies of the survivors offspring following random mating 4. the resulting phenotype frequencies and total number of green and white worms in the next generation, assuming a population size of 200. Green and white worms will be added into the population according to the calculations to bring the total back up to 200, and another round of predation will ensue. The class will observe and graph the changes in allele and phenotype frequencies in each generation, and interpret the results. 17

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25 Lab 7 ARTHROPODS Part 1: Chelicerates and Crustaceans Lab Manual: Exercises 14 & 15 I. Taxonomy Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Chelicerata Class Merostomata - horseshoe crabs Class Arachnida - spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites Subphylum Crustacea* Class Branchiopoda Order Anostraca - fairy shrimp Order Cladocera - water fleas Class Maxillopoda Subclass Copepoda - copepods Subclass Cirripedia - barnacles Class Malacostraca Order Isopoda - isopods Order Decapoda - crabs, lobsters, crayfish, true shrimps * This is only a partial list that includes a few representative crustacean groups. Refer to Fig 14-5 in your lab manual for examples of these and other crustacean types. II. Specimen to observe in Detail A. Live and preserved specimens garden spider tarantula scorpions acorn barnacles (Balanus) gooseneck barnacles (Pollicipes) lined shore crab (Pachygrapsus crassipes) hermit crab (Pagarus) B. Dissection crayfish (dissection, model and diagram) III. General Terms and Structures jointed appendages exoskeleton metamerism tagmata a) cephalothorax, abdomen b) head, thorax, abdomen serial homology of appendages chitin molting ecdysis open circulatory system Structures to identify in spiders: chelicerae fangs pedipalps walking legs (4 pairs) spinnerets book lungs tracheae Structures to identify in crustaceans: antennae (2 pairs) compound eyes mandibles carapace gills biramous appendages IV. Additional structures in the crayfish A. External features (dissection) appendages (note serial homology): uropods swimmerets (5 pairs) copulatory swimmeret (in male) walking legs (5 pairs) chelipeds (= first pair of walking legs) claws (chelae) maxillipeds (3 pairs) maxillae (2 pairs) mandibles (1 pair) antennae antennules B. Internal features (model or diagram) antennal gland cardiac stomach gastric teeth pyloric stomach digestive gland 19

26 Characteristics of the Phylum Arthropoda from Hickman et al., Zoology,13 th ed. McGraw-Hill, Bilateral symmetry, segmented body. Segments specialized and divided into tagmata: cephalothorax and abdomen (e.g. arachnids, crustaceans); head, thorax and abdomen (insects), or head and trunk (myriapods). Jointed appendages; ancestrally one pair to each segment but number is often reduced; appendages often modified for specialized functions. Cuticular exoskeleton; containing chitin, protein, lipid, and often calcium carbonate secreted by underlying epidermis and shed (molted) at intervals. (ecdysis = shedding of cuticle) Complex muscular system; with exoskeleton for attachment, striated muscles for rapid action, smooth muscle for visceral organs. Locomotion by extrinsic muscles attached to exoskeleton. Reduced coelom in adult, most of body cavity consisting of hemocoel (sinuses, or spaces, in the tissues) filled with blood. Complex digestive system; mouthparts modified from ancestral appendages and adapted for different modes of feeding. Open circulatory system, with dorsal contractile heart, arteries, and hemocoel. Respiration via body surface, gills, tracheae (air tubes), or book lungs. Paired excretory glands called coxal, antennal, or maxillary glands present in some; others with excretory organs called malpighian tubules. Nervous system consisting of dorsal brain connected to a double nerve chain of ventral ganglia; well-developed sense organs including mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and compound eyes in some. Sexes usually separate, with paired reproductive organs and ducts; usually internal fertilization. Complex life cycles with metamorphosis in some (e.g., insects). Lab 7 Questions 1. Discuss two major, defining features of the Phylum Arthropoda that help explain the extraordinary success of this phylum in both aquatic and terrestrial environments. 2. What are tagmata and how do they relate to body segmentation? Name the tagmata of a crustacean and an insect. 3. Distinguish between chelicerae and mandibles. How are chelicerae used in feeding by a spider? 4. Briefly describe and compare the three major types of respiratory systems in arthropods: book lungs (chelicerates); branchial system (crustaceans); tracheal system (insects). 5. What are the chelipeds of a decapod crustacean and what are their main functions? 6. Explain the concept of serial homology as it applies to the body organization of an arthropod such as the crayfish. 20

27 Lab 8 ARTHROPODS Part 2: Insects and Myriapods Lab Manual: Exercise 16 and Hexapods chapter I. Taxonomy Phylum Arthropoda Subphylum Myriapoda - centipedes and millipedes Subphylum Hexapoda Class Insecta - insects Order Odonata - dragonflies, damselflies Order Orthoptera - grasshoppers, crickets Order Coleoptera - beetles Order Lepidoptera - butterflies, moths Order Diptera flies, mosquitoes Order Hymenoptera - ants, bees, wasps II. Specimens to observe in Detail grasshopper (preserved and model) honeybee (Apis mellifera) (refer to lab manual) mounted insect collection preserved centipedes and millipedes III. General Terms for Insects tagmata: head thorax abdomen wings walking legs antennae specialized mouthparts (sucking, chewing, sponging, etc.) compound eyes tracheal system: spiracles tracheae metamorphosis: incomplete (gradual) metamorphosis nymph (instars) adult complete metamorphosis larva pupa adult IV. Additional terms for insects A. Grasshopper: External features mandibles maxillae labium prothorax mesothorax metathorax forewings hindwings coxa femur tibia tarsus abdomen tympanum spiracles B. Honeybee pollen basket pollen comb sting social insects castes: queen workers drones C. Beetles elytra 21

28 From: Solomon, Berg and Martin, Biology, 8th ed. Thomson Brooks/Cole,

29 Lab 8 Insect Worksheet Name # 1. Order Odonata Type (common name) of insects in this order: Distinguishing characteristics: Type of mouth parts: Life cycle details (stages; incomplete or complete metamorphosis): Interesting facts you learned about this order: 2. Order Orthoptera Type (common name) of insects in this order: Distinguishing characteristics: Type of mouth parts: Life cycle details (stages; incomplete or complete metamorphosis): Interesting facts you learned about this order: Note: be able to identify external structures of the grasshopper on a preserved specimen and on a model or diagram. 23

30 3. Order Coleoptera Type (common name) of insects in this order: Distinguishing characteristics: Type of mouth parts: Life cycle details (stages; incomplete or complete metamorphosis): Interesting facts you learned about this order: 4. Order Lepidoptera Type (common name) of insects in this order: Distinguishing characteristics: Type of mouth parts: Life cycle details (stages; incomplete or complete metamorphosis): What are some differences between butterflies and moths? Facts you learned about this order that relate to: chemical communication mimicry ecological specialization 24

31 5. Order Diptera Type (common name) of insects in this order: Distinguishing characteristics: Type of mouth parts: Life cycle details (stages; incomplete or complete metamorphosis): Interesting facts you learned about this order: 6. Order Hymenoptera Type (common name) of insects in this order: Distinguishing characteristics: Type of mouth parts: Life cycle details (stages; incomplete or complete metamorphosis): Facts you learned about this order that relate to: social behavior chemical communication 25

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33 Lab 9 I. Specimens to observe in Detail sea star embryo (slides) frog embryo (slides) amphioxus embryo stages (models) ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT Lab Manual: Exercises 3B-C II. Structures and Developmental Stages to Identify Sea star Slide cleavage stages Cleavage morula Cleavage blastula Blastula gastrula Gastrula blastocoel Gastrula blastopore Gastrula ectoderm Gastrula mesoderm Gastrula endoderm Gastrula archenteron Gastrula Frog Slide early cleavage stages Cleavage blastula Blastula animal pole Blastula vegetal pole Blastula blastocoel Blastula and Gastrula gastrula Gastrula blastopore Gastrula dorsal lip of the blastopore Gastrula yolk plug Gastrula ectoderm Gastrula mesoderm Gastrula endoderm Gastrula archenteron Gastrula neural plate Neural Plate notochord Neural Plate, Neural Groove, Neural Tube neural groove Neural Groove neural fold Neural Fold neural tube Neural Tube neural crest Neural Fold, Neural Tube somite 4 mm and 7 mm sagittal sections lateral mesoderm 4 mm and 7 mm cross sections gut 4 mm and 7 mm sagittal and cross sections pharynx 4 mm and 7 mm sagittal and cross sections heart 7 mm sagittal and cross sections brain 7 mm sagittal and cross sections mouth 7 mm sagittal section 27

34 Lab 9 Assignment A. Drawing - Draw the following developmental stages from the slides and label pertinent structures: 1. Sea star gastrula, longitudinal section 2. Frog gastrula (mid gastrulation), longitudinal section 3. Frog neurula, cross section, with complete neural tube 4. Frog late neurula/4 mm embryo, longitudinal section showing somites B. Questions 1. Briefly compare the process of gastrulation in the sea star and the frog and explain why they appear different. 2. What two characteristic structures of chordates are visible in the neurula and later stages of the frog embryo cross-sections? What is the developmental association between these structures? (Hint: induction.) 3. What are somites? List two major structures (or series of structures) in the frog that are derived from somites. (Fun fact: the muscles that move your eyeballs develop from somites in the head region.) 28

35 Lab 10 I. Taxonomy ECHINODERMS Phylum Echinodermata Class Asteroidea sea stars Class Ophiuroidea brittle stars Class Echinoidea sea urchins, sand dollars Class Holothuroidea sea cucumbers Class Crinoidea sea lilies & feather stars II. Specimens to observe in Detail ochre sea star (Pisaster ochraceous) purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) Preserved specimens and tests: various sea stars sea urchins sand dollars sea cucumbers III. General Terms deuterostome pentaradial symmetry dermal endoskeleton water vascular system tube feet Lab Manual: Exercise 17 Structures to identify in sea stars: oral surface aboral surface spines tube feet ambulacral grooves ambulacral spines madreporite plate dermal branchiae (skin gills) pedicellariae Structures to identify in the sea urchin: spines madreporite tube feet pedicellariae test (endoskeleton) Aristotle s lantern teeth (how many?) Lab 10 Questions 1. Identify the major features of the body plan that characterize the Phylum Echinodermata. (germ layers, developmental pattern, larval and adult symmetry, skeleton, coelom, organ systems) 2. Diagram the components of the water vascular system of a sea star, and discuss the functions of this system in the living sea star. 3. Describe some of the unique structures found on the body surface of a sea star and sea urchin that perform the following functions: protection; respiration; locomotion. 4. Describe feeding by Pisaster ochraceous on its prey, Mytilus californianus. What are the two parts of the stomach and how are they used in feeding? 29

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37 Activity 11 FIELD TRIP to BODEGA BAY Possible destinations: Spud Point Marina, Bodega Marine Laboratory, Bodega Head I. Checklist of animals observed Refer to the list on the bottom of this page and add to it if possible. A. Genus or scientific name (or common name, if you don t know) B. Phylum, Subphylum (if applicable), Class C. Anatomical features used for classification II. Observe the following: A. Feeding style B. Behavior C. Habitat 1. Water and weather conditions 2. Microhabitat Animal Checklist Porifera cylindrical sponges (syconoid or asconoid) encrusting sponges Cnidaria Obelia anemones: Metridium senile (frilled anemone) Anthopleura: A. elegantissima (aggregating anemone) A. xanthogrammica (green anemone) jellies: Aurelia Bryozoa Watersipora (bryozoan colony with fan-like folds) Mollusca Mopalia muscosa (mossy chiton) limpets Tegula funebralis (black turban snail) Haliotis (abalones) nudibranchs mussels: Mytilus californianus Mytilus trossulus Annelida scale worms (e.g. Nereis) tube worms other polychaete worms Arthropoda Balanus (acorn barnacle) Pollicipes (gooseneck barnacle) amphipods isopods skeleton shrimp true shrimp crabs: Pachygrapsus crassipes (lined shore crab) Cancer antennarius (Pacific rock crab) Pugettia (kelp crab) Pagurus (hermit crab) Echinodermata Pisaster ochraceous (ochre sea star) Pisaster giganteus (giant sea star) Patiria miniata (bat star) Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (purple sea urchin) Chordata Styela (stalked sea squirts) Metandrocarpa (orange social sea squirt) colonial sea squirts marine vertebrates: Sebastes (rock fish) Onchorhynchus (salmon) Oligocottus (tidepool sculpin) Larus (sea gulls) Pelecanus occidentalis (brown pelican) Zalophus californianus (California sea lion) Phoca vitulina (harbor seal) 31

38 Field Trip Assignment: Short Report On the field trip to Bodega Bay, you observed a variety of animals that inhabit the intertidal zone. The intertidal zone is a rich environment that provides abundant nutrients and a diversity of microhabitats. The intertidal zone also presents major challenges to organisms. These challenges include: desiccation (when organisms are exposed during low tides) mechanical stress from wave action competition for space vulnerability to predation fluctuations in temperature and salinity (especially in tide pools and around estuaries). For your report, choose two animal species that you observed on the field trip and describe key adaptations that enable each species to deal with one or more of the challenges listed above. Give specific details of relevant aspects of animal structure, function and/or behavior. Discuss a different challenge and strategy for success for each animal you choose. The report should be typewritten, double-spaced, checked for spelling and grammar, and should not exceed two pages. 32

39 Lab 12 I. Taxonomy CHORDATES I: Invertebrate Chordate and Fishes Lab Manual: Exercises Phylum Chordata Subphylum Urochordata - tunicates (sea squirts) Subphylum Cephalochordata - lancelets (amphioxus) Subphylum Vertebrata - vertebrates 1. Agnathans - hagfishes and lampreys 2. Gnathostomes - vertebrates with jaws A. Cartilaginous fishes Class Chondrichthyes - sharks and rays B. Bony fishes Class Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes Clade Sarcopterygii - fleshy-finned fishes 1. Lobe-finned fishes (coelacanths) 2. Lungfishes (3. Tetrapods ) II. Specimens to observe in Detail various tunicates (live and preserved) Slides: tunicate larva amphioxus (Branchiostoma) ammocoetes (lamprey larva) Models: amphioxus bony fish Preserved specimens: amphioxus shark jaws and skeleton dogfish shark lungfish bony fish skeleton assorted bony fishes III. General Structures for Chordates notochord dorsal hollow nerve cord pharyngeal gill slits post-anal tail The Amphioxus Song It's a long way from Amphioxus It's a long way to us It's a long way from Amphioxus To the meanest human cuss Well it's good-bye to fins and gill slits And it's welcome lungs and hair It's a long, long way from Amphioxus But we all came from there. Additional structures for tunicates: tunic incurrent siphon excurrent siphon atrium Additional structures for amphioxus: oral hood tentacles pharynx gill bars gill slits myotomes Additional structures for ammocoetes: brain eye oral hood gill bars myotomes IV. Structures in cartilaginous fishes: cartilaginous endoskeleton placoid scales pectoral fins pelvic fins dorsal fins caudal fin (heterocercal) external gill slits spiracle lateral line V. Structures in ray-finned fishes: bony endoskeleton cycloid and ctenoid scales fin rays dorsal fins pectoral fins pelvic fins anal fin caudal fin (homocercal) myomeres epaxial muscles hypaxial muscles operculum gills swim bladder VI. Terms for locomotion in water: lateral undulation streamlined body form stabilization in a 3-d medium: pitch, roll, yaw 33

40 Lab 12 Questions 1. Identify major features of the body plan of the Phylum Chordata (germ layers, symmetry, coelom, etc.), including the four (or five) unique chordate features. 2. Draw a cladogram of the major, living chordate groups up to and including the three major groups of jawed fishes. (We will consider tetrapods in the next lab). 3. Identify some of the main similarities and one or more key differences between the cephalochordate amphioxus and the vertebrate ammocoetes (lamprey larva). 4. Make a table that identifies some of the main differences in body structure between cartilaginous fishes and bony fishes. 5. Explain the role of the fins (caudal, dorsal, pectoral, pelvic, anal) in generating movement and stabilizing a fish as it swims. (Include the terms pitch, roll and yaw in your answwer.) 6. What is the function of the swim bladder of bony fishes? How does gas get into and out of the swim bladder? 7. Explain how the oral cavity, gills, and operculum function in aquatic respiration in a bony fish A Partial, Nested Taxonomy of the Chordates (required terms in boldface type) Phylum Chordata Subphylum Urochordata (= Tunicata) - tunicates (sea squirts) Subphylum Cephalochordata - lancelets (amphioxus) Subphylum Vertebrata - vertebrates I. Agnathans - jawless fishes (2 extant clades) A. Class Myxini - hagfishes B. Class Cephalaspidomorphi - lampreys II. Clade Gnathostomata - gnathostomes - vertebrates with jaws A. Class Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes: sharks and rays B. Clade Osteichthyes - bony fishes and tetrapods 1. Class Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes 2. Clade Sarcopterygii - fleshy-finned fishes and tetrapods a. Class Actinista - lobe-finned fishes (coelacanths) b. Class Dipnoi - lungfishes c. Clade Tetrapoda - tetrapods - vertebrates with limbs* 1) Class Amphibia - amphibians a) Order Anura - frogs and toads b) Order Urodela (= Caudata) - salamanders 2) Clade Amniota - amniotes - tetrapods with amniotic development a) Class Reptilia - reptiles and birds i. Order Chelonia (= Testudines) - turtles and tortoises ii. Clade Lepidosauria - reptiles with overlapping scales 1] Order Squamata - lizards and snakes iii. Clade Archosauria - crocodilians, dinosaurs and birds 1] Order Crocodilia - crocodilians 2] Subclass Aves - birds b) Class Mammalia mammals *Tetrapods some limbless vertebrates such as snakes that evolved from a four-limbed ancestor. 34

41 Lab 13 Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata (continued) Clade Tetrapoda (within Sarcopterygii) A. Class Amphibia - amphibians B. Clade Amniota - amniotes 1. Class Reptilia 2. Subclass Aves (formerly Class Aves) 3. Class Mammalia II. Specimens to observe Preserved specimens Mounted skeletons III. General Terms and Concepts skeletal adaptations for life on land: vertebral specialization tetrapod limbs and limb girdles locomotion on land (primitive tetrapods): lateral undulation with limbs limbs out to the side diagonal gait (trot) gas exchange on land: skin breathing (cutaneous) lungs (pulmonary) IV. Amphibians locomotion: walking, jumping, burrowing reproduction and development: aquatic eggs and larvae metamorphosis taxa to know: Order Anura - frogs and toads Order Urodela - salamanders V. Reptiles skull types: anapsid, synapsid, diapsid teeth: homodont dentition integument: keratinized epidermis, scales and claws amniotic egg: amnion chorion allantois yolk sac taxa to know: Order Chelonia - turtles & tortoises Order Squamata - lizards & snakes Order Crocodilia - alligators & crocodiles CHORDATES II: Tetrapods Lab Manual: Exercises (parts) and Mammals chapter in Hickman Zoology 35 VI. Birds feathers primary, secondary endothermy wings adaptations for flight: morphological (skeleton, muscles) physiological (respiratory, circulatory) taxa to know: Order Falconiformes - birds of prey (not owls) Order Galliformes - fowl Order Anseriformes - waterfowl Order Charadriiformes - shorebirds Order Apodiformes - hummingbirds Order Passeriformes - perching songbirds VII. Mammals hair mammary glands horns, antlers, hoofs, claws & nails endothermy jaws and teeth (adaptations for mastication): jaw structure temporomandibular joint heterodont dentition: incisors, canines, premolars, molars secondary palate herbivores vs. carnivores skull and dentition mammalian adaptations for locomotion: fore-aft limb movement limbs under the body dorso-ventral spinal flexion hoofed mammals (ungulates): reduction of digits and elongation of distal limb bones Taxa to know; monotremes - egg-laying mammals marsupials - pouched mammas placental mammals Order Rodentia - rodents Order Chiroptera - bats Order Carnivora - carnivores Order Artiodactyla - even-toed ungulates (e.g. deer, bison, giraffes, pigs) Order Perissodactyla - odd-toed ungulates (e.g. horses, rhinoceros) Order Cetacea* - whales and dolphins Order Primates - prosimians, monkeys, apes & humans * recent phylogenetic analysis places the Cetacea within the Artiodactyla clade.

42 Lab 13 Questions 1. Draw a cladogram of the major classes of tetrapod vertebrates and show their relationship to the sarcopterygian fishes (continuation of the cladogram from the previous exercise). 2. Summarize some of the features of amphibians that are adaptations for life on land, and some features that are associated with aquatic life and/or aquatic ancestry. 3. Identify key features of reptiles that represent improvements for life on land. 4. Identify key features of the avian body plan that are specializations for flight. 5. Compare the pattern of locomotion and associated body design in a generalized reptile (such as a lizard) and a mammal (such as a cat). 6. Discuss some of the specializations for locomotion in large ungulates such as an elk and a horse. 7. Compare relevant features of mammalian skull morphology and dentition between a typical carnivore and a herbivore. 36

43 Lab 14 VERTEBRATE SKELETON Lab Manual: Exercise 23A (also figs. 20.3, 21.1 and 22.1) This exercise focuses on the skeletal system of mammals, but you should also identify the corresponding bones (except for the skull bones) in mounted skeletons of an amphibian, reptile, and bird. For the mammal skeleton, identify the listed bones in both mounted and disarticulated skeletons (loose bones) of the cat and human as well as in a variety of other mounted and unmounted specimens displayed in lab. Observe the homologies of the bones among different mammals as well as specializations of bone morphology that are associated with differences in body size, locomotion, and feeding. Types of Bone Tissue compact bone spongy bone Parts of a Long Bone diaphysis ( = shaft) epiphysis (pl. epiphyses) epiphyseal line marrow cavity periosteum Axial Skeleton Skull bones (partial list): frontal bone orbit parietal bone temporal bone occipital bone foramen magnum sphenoid maxilla maxillary teeth nasal bone zygomatic (= jugal) zygomatic arch (formed with temporal bone) mandible mandibular teeth hyoid bone Vertebral column: cervical vertebrae (7 in most mammals) C1 = atlas C2 = axis thoracic vertebrae (12 in humans) lumbar vertebrae (5 in humans) sacral vertebrae (sacrum) caudal vertebrae (coccyx in humans) ribs sternum Appendicular Skeleton Pectoral girdle scapula glenoid fossa ( = shoulder socket) clavicle coracoid (absent in mammals) Forelimb (upper limb in humans) humerus ulna radius carpal bones (8 in humans) metacarpals (1 st - 5 th ) phalanges (proximal, middle, distal) Pelvic girdle hip bone ( = coxal bone = innominate bone): ilium ischium pubis acetabulum ( = hip socket) Hindlimb (lower limb in humans) femur patella tibia fibula tarsal bones (7 in humans) calcaneus ( = heel bone) metatarsals (1 st - 5 th ) phalanges Additional structures for the bird skeleton: keel of the sternum synsacrum coracoid furcula ( = clavicle) 37

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45 Lab 15A MUSCLE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION A. Skeletal Muscle Models Identify the following structures on anatomical models. 1. Neuromuscular Junction Model This model shows a section of a skeletal muscle fiber in the region of the neuromuscular junction axon of motor neuron myelin sheath axon terminal synaptic cleft motor end plate sarcolemma nuclei of muscle cell myofibrils (note striations) 2. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Model This model shows an ultra-high magnification view of the interior of a muscle fiber showing three myofibrils and a portion of the membrane system sarcolemma myofibrils transverse (T) tubules sarcoplasmic reticulum terminal cisternae triads sarcomere A band I band Z disk H zone M line glycogen granules 39

46 Some Superficial Muscles of the Human Body pectoralis major biceps brachii brachialis (under biceps) sartorius sternocleidomastoid deltoid infraspinatus serratus anterior rectus abdominis external oblique trapezius latissimus dorsi triceps brachii gluteus medius gluteus maximus quadriceps: rectus femoris vastus lateralis vastus medialis (vastus intermedius under rectus femoris) hamstrings: biceps femoris semimembranosus semitendinosus tibialis anterior gastrocnemius soleus (under gastrocnemius) 40

47 Lab 15B MAMMALIAN ANATOMY: Muscular System Lab Manual: Exercise 23B Identify the following muscles on the fetal pig diagrams in your lab manual and human models as indicated. Also, describe the action of muscles where indicated (see example for masseter and temporalis muscles). 1) Muscles of the jaw and neck masseter action: elevates (closes) the jaw temporalis sternohyoid (pig) sternothyroid (pig) sternocephalic (pig) (= sternocleidomastoid in humans) action(s): 2) Muscles of the back and trunk (models) trapezius latissimus dorsi pectoralis major serratus anterior external oblique rectus abdominis 3) Muscles of the shoulder and arm (models) deltoid supraspinatus two of the four infraspinatus rotator cuff muscles biceps brachii brachialis triceps brachii action: action: action: action: action: 4) Muscles of the hip, thigh and leg (models) gluteus maximus action: gluteus medius biceps femoris semitendinosus hamstrings action(s): semimembranosus sartorius rectus femoris vastus lateralis quadriceps action: vastus medialis femoris (vastus intermedius) gastrocnemius action: soleus tibialis anterior 41

48 Digestive System Model (lower half) Key 1. Gallbladder 2. Quadrate lobe of liver 3. Falciform ligament 4. Caudate lobe of liver 5. Left lobe of liver 6. Right lobe of liver 7. Cystic duct 8. Common bile duct 9. Hepatic portal vein 10. Duodenum 11. Common bile duct 12. Accessory duct of the pancreas 13. Transverse colon (cut) 14. Major duodenal papilla 15. Ascending colon (with haustra) 16. Teniae coli of ascending colon 17. Ileocecal sphincter (valve) 18. Cecum 19. Appendix 20. Esophagus 21. Fundus of the stomach 22. Lower esophageal sphincter 23. Cardia of the stomach 24. Body of the stomach (with rugae) 25. Greater curvature of the stomach (with edge of greater omentum) 26. Lesser curvature of the stomach 27. Spleen 28. Pyloric antrum 29. Pyloric sphincter 30. Pancreas and pancreatic duct 31. Hepatopancreatic ampulla 32. Jejunum 33. Descending colon 34. Ileum 36. Rectum 35. Sigmoid colon 37. Anal canal 42

49 Lab 16 MAMMALIAN ANATOMY: Digestive and Respiratory Systems Lab Manual: Exercise 23C and G Identify the following structures in your dissection of the fetal pig and understand their function. Structures marked with a are to be identified on both human anatomical models and the pig; structures marked with (m) are to be identified on human models only. 1. Head and neck region parotid glands submaxillary (= submandibular) glands tongue hard palate soft palate (m) nasopharynx (m) entrance to auditory (eustacian) tube (m) oropharynx larynx (m) epiglottis (m) glottis trachea thymus (part of the lymphatic system) thyroid gland (part of the endocrine system) 2. Thoracic cavity primary bronchi lungs parietal pleura visceral pleura pleural cavities mediastinum* pericardium heart esophagus aorta diaphragm 3. Abdominal cavity liver gallbladder stomach cardiac region fundus body of the stomach pylorus (m) pyloric sphincter spleen (part of the lymphatic system) pancreas parietal peritoneum visceral peritoneum mesentary small intestine duodenum jejunum ileum large intestine cecum colon rectum Questions 1. What major organs and structures are located within the mediastinum? 2. What are some major structures that pass through the diaphragm 3. What are two important functions of the mesentary? 43

50 Surface Features of the Heart, Anterior View Frontal Section of the Heart, Anterior View From G.J. Tortora and M.T. Nielsen. Principles of Human Anatomy, 11 th ed. Copyright 2009 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. All Rights Reserved 44

51 Lab 17 A. The Heart MAMMALIAN ANATOMY: Circulatory System Lab Manual: Exercise 23E Identify the following structures on the models of the human heart and in your dissection of the fetal pig. All listed structures are to be identified on the heart models; those structures marked with a are to be identified on both models and the pig. Be able to trace the direction of blood flow through the heart and indicate where blood is normally oxygenated and deoxygenated. right atrium right auricle left atrium left auricle right ventricle left ventricle superior vena cava inferior vena cava pulmonary trunk (artery) pulmonary veins ascending aorta right coronary artery left coronary artery B. Blood Vessels arch of the aorta brachiocephalic trunk left common carotid artery left subclavian artery ligamentum arteriosum interventricular septum tricuspid valve bicuspid (mitral) valve pulmonary valve aortic valve fetal heart (diagram): foramen ovale ductus arteriosus Identify the listed blood vessels in your pig dissection. In addition, be able to describe: 1) major organs or areas of the body supplied or drained by each blood vessel; 2) which vessels are paired (left and right) and which vessels are unpaired; 3) whether blood in the vessel is normally oxygenated or deoxygenated (in the adult circulation) 4) major differences between the fetal circulation and the adult circulation. Arteries pulmonary trunk ascending aorta coronary arteries aortic arch ductus arteriosus [fetal circulation] brachiocephalic trunk (artery) right subclavian artery right common carotid artery left common carotid artery left subclavian artery brachial arteries descending aorta (thoracic aorta*) abdominal aorta celiac artery (celiac trunk*) anterior (superior*) mesenteric artery renal arteries genital (gonadal*) arteries (= ovarian or spermatic [testicular*] arteries) posterior (inferior*) mesenteric artery external iliac arteries internal iliac arteries umbilical arteries [fetal circulation] femoral arteries Veins precava (superior vena cava*) innominate (brachiocephalic*) veins internal jugular veins external jugular veins subclavian veins brachial veins postcava (inferior vena cava*) hepatic veins hepatic portal vein anterior (superior*) mesenteric vein renal veins genital (gonadal*) veins (ovarian or spermatic [testicular*] veins) umbilical vein [fetal circulation] * corresponding human anatomical term 45

52 Questions 1. Which chamber of the heart has the thickest walls? Why? 2. Complete the following sentences (name the specific valves): When the heart is relaxed and filling with blood the valves are open and the valves are closed. When the heart is contracting and ejecting blood, the valves are open and the valves are closed. 3. Explain why the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus of the fetus are referred to as right to left shunts. Use the terms pulmonary and systemic in your answer. 4. What areas of the body and major organs are supplied by the branches of the arch of the aorta? 5. List three major organs that are supplied by the celiac artery. 6. What is the difference between the hepatic portal vein and the hepatic veins? 7. What is the functional gas exchange organ of the fetus? What blood vessel of the fetus contains fully oxygenated blood? 46

53 Lab 18 MAMMALIAN ANATOMY: Urinary and Reproductive Systems Lab Manual: Exercise 23D Identify the listed structures on models and in your dissection of the fetal pig. Structures marked with a are to be identified on both models and the pig. Identify non-bulleted structures on models only. 1. Urinary system a. Kidney model renal cortex renal medulla renal pyramid renal pelvis renal artery afferent arteriole efferent arteriole glomerulus glomerular capsule (Bowman s capsule) parietal later visceral layer - podocytes proximal convoluted tubule distal convoluted tubule loop of Henle collecting duct b. Pig dissection and human models kidneys: adrenal glands (part of endocrine system) ureters urinary bladder (allantoic bladder in fetal pig) urethra 2. Female reproductive system ovaries oviducts (= uterine tubes = fallopian tubes) uterus horns of the uterus (pig only) body of the uterus (model only) cervix (model only) vagina urogenital sinus (pig only) vulva (model only): labia majora labia minora clitoris 3. Male reproductive system scrotum testis (pl. testes) epididymis ductus deferens (vas deferens) spermatic cord inguinal canal seminal vesicles (model only) prostate gland (model only) bulbourethral gland (Cowper s gland) penis urethra (spongy urethra in penis) 47

54 48

55 Kidney-Nephron-Renal Corpuscle Model renal cortex renal medulla renal artery renal pyramid renal pelvis major calyx minor calyx renal papilla ureter 49

56 cortical nephron juxtamedullary nephron PCT DCT renal corpuscle distal convoluted tubule afferent arteriole glomerulus glomerular capsule proximal convoluted tubule descending limb of loop of Henle ascending limb of loop of Henle collecting duct vasa recta efferent arteriole parietal layer of Bowman s capsule DCT glomerulus (fenestrated capillaries) proximal convoluted tubule visceral layer of Bowman s capsule (podocytes) afferent arteriole 50

57 Lab 19 HISTOLOGY Tissues in Organs Lab Manual: Exercise 4 Textbook: chapters 48, 49, and 51 Observe and identify the following slides of mammalian organs and the associated microscopic structures and tissues that comprise them. Relate the microscopic and macroscopic structure of each organ to its functions in the body. 1. Trachea mucosa - pseudostratified cilated columnar epithelium submucosa - connective tissue hyaline cartilage 2. Lung (demonstration slide) alveoli - simple squamous epithelium bronchioles - simple columnar epithelium smooth muscle 3. Esophagus mucosa - stratified squamous epithelium submucosa - connective tissue with esophageal (mucous) glands muscularis skeletal muscle (upper ½) smooth muscle (lower ½) 4. Small Intestine mucosa - simple columnar epithelium absorptive cells with microvilli goblet cells submucosa muscularis - smooth muscle circular layer (inner) longitudinal layer (outer) serosa (= visceral peritoneum) Figure 1. Layers of the small intestine. 5. Kidney renal cortex glomerulus glomerular (Bowman s) capsule - simple squamous epithelium proximal convoluted tubule - simple cuboidal epithelium with microvilli distal convoluted tubule - simple cuboidal epithelium renal medulla loop of Henle* collecting duct* * identify these structures on the model only 51