People and wild felids: conservation of cats and management of conflicts

Transcription

1 HAPTER 6 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits /Andrew J. Lveridge, Snam W. Wang, Laure G. Frank, and Jhn Seidstiker A liness killed in an illegal wire snare by pahers.. AJ. Lveridge. Intrdutin Wild felids and peple have a mplex and ft paradxial relatinship. n the ne hand, humankind admires and reveres felids; ats appear as ultural ins and symbls arss the ages. In additin, there is a grwing awaress f the value f wild felids as key mpnts f esystems, turist attratins gerating inme, umbrella speies fr nserving esystems, and flagships fr gdering publi supprt fr nservatin. These psitive values smetimes ntrast strngly with the relatinship betwe wild felids and peple in areas where they exist. Human nflits with wild ats, verexplitatin f felid and prey ppulatins, and habitat lss and fragmtatin have extirpated felid ppulatins and still threat many mre. The ways in whih peple value and interat with rganisms and their habitats is at the heart f nservatin. This hapter explres sme f the interrelatinships betwe peple and wild felids, where human atins threat felid ppulatins. Why nserve wild felids? We preserve arnivres fr aestheti, symbli, spiritual, ethial, utilitarian, and elgial reasns. Felids are ulturally valued and are imprtant as ultural ins and symbls. Felids are widely depited in art,

2 162 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids frm Stne Age petrglyphs and ave paintings t mre mdern depitins f ats as art, reminding us that humans have interated with felids fr as lng as we have be humans. Human ulture is rihed by the symbli use f felid images. Felids adrn many urries, are heraldi symbls n ats f arms and appear widely n the badges f natinal sprts teams. They were revered by many ultures, fr instane, the lin-headed gddess Sekhmet represted war and disease in anit Egypt. The jaguar (Panthera na) features signifiantly in tral Amerian ultures. Similarly, the tiger (P. tigris) is ulturally imprtant in Suth and East Asian ultures (Weber and Rabinwitz 1996). Perhaps beause f their plae in ur nsiusness and the ease with whih they are regnized, felids are used as umbrella and flagship speies t nserve habitat, befiting bth felids and bidiversity gerally. Large arnivres are ft highly mbile and viable ppulatins require large trats f suitable habitat and adequate prey ppulatins. Thus, strategies fr the prtetin f large felids als ffer prtetin fr large 'funtining esystems' (Sule and Simberlff 1986; Nss etal. 1996; Seidstiker era/. 1999). It is muh easier t mtivate the publi and gvernmts t prtet a harismati arnivre than a speies that is seldm se and utwardly unremarkable. Examples f this inlude the prtetin, thrugh an initiative alled Pase Panthera (the Path f the Panther), f bilgial rridrs n the Panamanian Isthmus, used by jaguars, pumas (Puma nlr), and ther wildlife. 'Tiger Reserves' prtet signifiant areas f bidiversity in India, as well as halting the deline f tigers, and tigers are used as a flagship t prmte nservatin effrts alng brder regins in the Indian subntint and Indhina (Weber and Rabinwitz 1996; Rabinwitz 1999; Seidstiker et al., hapter 12, this vlume; Sunquist and Sunquist 22). Mral philsphers and animal welfarists are united in their argumts that every speies has an intrinsi nservatin value that implies it has a right t survive. Intrinsi nservatin values have served as an impetus fr nservatin. Hwever, intrinsi value in itself has be insuffiit t seure suessful nservatin beause humans are mtivated mre by mi self-interest than by ideas (Kellert et al. 1996). Enmi befits an prvide pwerful intives t lal mmunities t prtet bidiversity. Felids are mi assets and, wh used sustainably thrugh turism, trphy hunting, r mmerial explitatin an ntribute substantially t bth their wn nservatin and that f their habitats. Fr example, Afrian lins (Panthera led) earned Ambseli Natinal Park, Kya, US $27,0 per lin per year in turism revues (Western and Hry 1979). Trapping f furbearers r unregulated trphy hunting an lead t ntrversial delines in ppulatins. Hwever, where it is arried ut n a well-managed and sustainable basis, it an prvide intives fr lng-term prtetin, a gd example being sustainable harvests f anada lynx (Lynx anadsis) furs. Finally, felids play an imprtant and ft regulatry rle within the esystems they inhabit (Mills and Biggs 199; Karanth and Stith 1999; Grange and Dunan 26). This elgial rle needs t be fatred int any valuatin we make f felids in the wild. It must als be inluded in any assessmt we make in valuing ur relatinship with nature and the pristine habitats that shuld frm the baseline fr all nservatin effrts. Hw peple impat felids: anthrpgi threats t felid ppulatins Habitat lss is a glbal phmn, affeting all speies. The earth's human ppulatin has inreased frm billin t 6 billin sine The glbal my has inreased sixfld and fd prdutin inreased by 2.5 times. Nearly 25% f the earth's terrestrial surfae is nw under ultivatin. The past years have se a sharp inrease in the amunt f land nverted t agriulture, and prjetins suggest that further nversin is t be expeted in the future (Millnium Esystem Assessmt 25). nversin f natural habitat t agriultural land, urban develpmt, and destrutin r fragmtatin f habitats thrugh lgging, building infrastruture (e.g. dams, rads, pwer lines, il, and mineral extratin), and ther human ativity has serius impats n wild felid ppulatins. Equally imprtant is lss f prey ppulatins thrugh ver-hunting, retaliatry perseutin, habitat lss, r fragmtatin. Predatr ppulatin dsities are lsely rrelated with prey-ppulatin

3 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 16 bimass, thus lss f prey speies (either thrugh verexplitatin, suh as the bushmeat trade, r habitat destrutin) auses linked delines in felid ppulatins (Karanth etal. 24; Hshel 27). Against a bakdrp f glbal habitat lss, felids fae a number f prximate anthrpgi threats. ne f the mst imprtant ways in whih peple impat felids is thrugh inreasing rates f nn-natural mrtality (Fig. 6.1). Fr felid ppulatins belw their arrying apaity, anthrpgi mrtality is thught t be largely additive rather than mpsatry t natural levels f mrtality (Lindzey et al. 1992). By ntrast, in highly prteted ppulatins anthrpgi mrtality is rare, fr instane nly ne (7%) f 14 lepard (Panthera pardus) deaths rerded in Kruger Natinal Park, Suth Afria, by Bailey (199) was due t pahing; the rest were due t intraspeifi fights, predatin, and starvatin. In geral, anthrpgi mrtality in many studied felid ppulatins is high. While this may in part be due t the fat that nservatin bilgists hse t study ppulatins that are under threat, it is als an indiatr f the impat that humans have n felid ppulatins. mmn sures f anthrpgi mrtality are legal hunting and trapping, pahing, prblem animal ntrl (bth legal and illegal), and vehile aidts. Furthermre, felid ppulatins an als be expsed t diseases arried by dmesti arnivres, ft as a result f human rahmt int wild habitats. In sme ppulatins, anthrpgi mrtality an be extremely high and lead t ppulatin delines. Fr instane in Laikipia, Kya, 17 f 18 tagged lins whih died were killed in retributin fr livestk raiding, with the ppulatin delining by abut 4% per annum (Wdrffe and Frank 25). Similarly, lin dsity was signifiantly redued by nflit with lal peple n grup ranhes surrunding Masai Mara Reserve, Kya (gutu et al. 25). In a study f Amur Tigers, all sev rerded deaths f individually regnized adult females were due t pahing and 57% f ub mrtality in this ppulatin was anthrpgi (Kerleyefa/. 22, 2). Utilizatin f felid ppulatins varies substantially in intsity, with mrtalities frm this sure ranging frm arund 7% in Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in Switzerland (Shmidt-Psthaus etal. 22a) t 27 (62.7%) f 4 deaths f radi-llared lins arund Hwange Natinal Park, Zimbabwe (Lveridge etal., hapter 11, this vlume). Trphy hunting made up betwe 11.7% and 50% f rerded mrtality in pumas (Lgan etal. 1984; Lindzey etal. 1988; unningham etal. 21), 7.5% in radi-tagged lepards in Natal, Suth Afria (Balme and Hunter 24), and trapping Figure 6.1 Liness killed by a steel wire snare. Wire snares set fr bth predatrs and prey speies may inrease levels f mrtality within predatr ppulatins. (Phtgraph urtesy f P. Lindsey and Sang Ranh, Save Valley nservany.)

4 164 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids made up arund 45-66% f mrtality f marked bbats (L. rufus) in Mississippi and Maine, United States (Litvaitis etal. 1987; hamberlain etal. 1999). Trapping mrtalities made up 19 (70%) f 27 rerded deaths f anada lynx (I. amadsis) in the Nrthwest Territries (Ple 1994). Hwever, fr many explited ppulatins few demgraphi data are available and this is partiularly true f sme ppulatins hunted and trapped fr the fur trade (e.g. sptted ats in Suth Ameria in the 1960s and 1970s). nflit with peple an lead t high levels f mrtality, partiularly where predatr eradiatin urs. Fr instane, an average f 29 (range 10-42) lins are destryed eah year in farmland arund Etsha Natinal Park, Nambia, where they pse a threat t livestk, with 56 lins killed ver a 20-year perid (Slander 25b). In puma ppulatins mnitred in Arizna and Utah, United States, 47% and 24%, respetively f marked animals that died were killed in defe f livestk (Lindzey et al. 1988; unningham et al. 21). Arund 5 pumas per year are killed by peple (thrugh sprthunting, prtetin f livestk, and vehile aidts) in the western United States (Papuhis 24). Pahing an ntribute substantially t mrtality within a ppulatin. Ferreras et al. (1992) fund that 42% f deaths f Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in Dnana Natinal Park, Spain, were due t illegal pahing. Pahing aunts fr a signifiant prprtin f tiger mrtality in India and Russia (Kumar and Wright 1999; Miquelle etal. 25a) and Kney etal. (1994, 1995) suggest that ev mderate levels f pahing ver relatively shrt time perids (~6 years) an lead t massive ppulatin delines f up t 95% in this speies. In the Russian Far East, haprn et al. (28b) suggest that tiger ppulatins annt rever if annual mrtality rates exeed 15%. Finally, rad aidts an als be signifiant sures f mrtality in sme felid ppulatins. Frty-five per t f elt (Lepardus pardalis) mrtality in Texas (Haines et al. 25) and 48% f rerded puma deaths in Flrida were due t rad aidts (Taylr etal. 22). In this hapter we idtify tw key areas where felid ppulatins fae anthrpgi threats. Firstly, we explre the way felids impat peple's lives and livelihds and in turn the way in whih peple retaliate. We th nsider the impats f trade and verexplitatin n the nservatin status f felid ppulatins. In eah setin, we ffer a synthesis f the pttial nservatin and managemt slutins. nflits betwe felids and peple Key areas f nflit betwe peple and felids are thrugh depredatin n dmestiated animals r game speies and, less frequtly, wh large felids kill r injure peple. Livestk raiding r human deaths ft lead t retaliatry killing f the felids respnsible. We will disuss, in the setins belw, the issues f livestk depredatin and human killing, the nseques fr felid ppulatins, and pttial managemt slutins in situatins where suh depredatins ur. nseques f nflit fr felid ppulatins Lss f human life r livelihd prvides the impetus fr peple t attempt lalized r smetimes wide-sale eradiatin f predatrs. Histrially, eradiatin f arnivres has be a state-supprted pririty, intivized by rewards and bunties. Frm 1860 t 1875, 4708 tigers and lepards were reprted killed in India (Bmgaard 21). In the United States, ver 1160 pumas were ulled frm 1987 t 1990 in an attempt t limit livestk lsses in ranhing areas (Jhnsn et al. 21b). Wide-sale lethal ntrl f predatrs still urs in sme frntier areas. Fr example, Mihalski et al. (26a) fund that jaguars and pumas were killed ver a 12-mnth perid by prfessinal predatr hunters in suthern Amaznia, Brazil. ntemprary gvernmt pliies regarding predatr managemt are gerally mre lighted. Hwever, in areas where depredatins are pereived t impat livelihds, bth legal and illegal retaliatry killing f felids an extirpate ppulatins. Frank et al. (26) desribe the deimatin f the lin ppulatin ver large areas f Kyan Masailand, where lin ppulatins had previusly be seure. The inreasingly negative attitudes t wild predatrs in Masailand are at least nminally due t livestk depredatin. Hwever, limited invlvemt by lal peple in wildlife

5 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 165 turism and lak f aess t the revue gerated, upled with ready aess t agriultural pisns, may als be mtivatins behind inreasing levels f illegal predatr ntrl. In Kya, tday, the use f agriultural insetiide Furadan (arbfuran) t kill predatrs is prbably the single greatest sure f lin mrtality; in Laikipia and Kajiad distrits alne, a minimum f 70 lins are knwn t have be pisned sine 21 (L.G. Frank, S. Malnan, and A. tterill, unpublished data) and ppulatins f vultures and ther savging birds are plummeting thrughut the untry (S. Thmsett, persnal mmuniatin). Predatin by felids n ungulate game speies Large felids an me int nflit with peple ver mpetitin fr wild prey speies. Predatrs were ev perseuted as vermin in sme natinal parks until as late as the 1950s, beause arnivres were thught t suppress 'game' numbers (Davisn 1967; Smuts 1976). A wrldwide meta-analysis f human-predatr nflit fund that predatrs are reprted t kill frm 0.02% t 2.6% f livestk, but 9% f game speies annually (Graham et al. 25). Where wild ungulates are utilized by peple fr either mmerial gain (mmerial hunting and game farming) r fr leisure (sprt hunting), mpetitin and nflit may ur betwe users and large felids. Fr example, heetahs in Namibia kill mially valuable wild ungulates n mmerial game farms, leading t perseutin f the ats by farm wners (Marker era/., hapter 15, this vlume). Similarly, hunters in the Russian Far East me int nflit with tigers ver real r pereived mpetitin fr ungulates (Miquelle et al. 1999a). Eurpean lynx are perseuted wh they mpete with sprt hunters fr prized ungulate trphy speies (Breitmser etal., hapter 2, this vlume). Livestk depredatin by felids Felids are bligate arnivres. Humans and felids me int nflit in esystems, where a high prprtin f ungulate bimass is made up f dmestiated speies. Fr the mst part, the smaller felid speies d nt ause mially signifiant lsses t dmesti livestk, althugh speies suh as serval (Leptailurus served), wildat (Fells silvestris), and guina (Lepardus guigna) may asinally prey n small stk r pultry (Sandersn et al. 22; Sunquist and Sunquist 22). Gerally, speies ranging in size frm the araal (araal araal; ~12 kg) t the size f the tiger (~25 kg) have be fund t be the mst prblemati stk raiders. With the exeptin f the araal and Eurasian lynx (~2 kg) all f the mst imprt livestk-killing felids are 50 kg r heavier (Inskip and Zimmermann 29). Table 6.1 prvides sme examples f livestk depredatin by felids. mparisn f trds betwe studies is mpliated by gegraphi and elgial differes, varying spatial and tempral sales f the studies, and reprting f widely differt parameters and data. This makes rigrus evaluatin f trds diffiult; hwever, there are a number f brad patterns that emerge and these are disussed in mre detail in the fllwing text. Patterns f livestk depredatin Differt size lasses f livestk are vulnerable t differt suites f felid predatrs. Smaller felids, suh as lynx and araals, prey n the smaller size lasses f livestk suh as sheep and gats, while the largest felids prey n the full size range f livestk. Intermediate-sized felids, suh as pumas and lepards prey n smaller livestk and juviles f the larger speies. The spatial distributin f livestk depredatin is ft unev. Stahl etal. (21a, b) fund that in the Frh Jura Muntains, there were nsistt 'ht spts' f lynx predatin n sheep. The areas were ft als areas with high re deer (aprelus aprelus) dsities, suggesting that lynx ppulatins may have be sustained by reservirs f natural prey. Similarly, in suthern and tral Brazil, livestk were mst vulnerable t puma and jaguar predatin within r in lse prximity t frest fragmts r riverine frest, habitats that prvide felids with ver and residual levels f natural prey (Mazzli et al. 22; Palmeira et al. 28). In suthern Afria, livestk predatin by lins and lepards is ft higher lse t the bundaries f prteted areas (Fig. 6.2). This was fund t be the ase adjat t Khutse Game Reserve, Btswana (Shiess-Meier et al. 27) and hirisa Safari Area, Zimbabwe (Butler 20). In

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10 170 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids Figure 6.2 A village headman displays the remains f a w killed by lins, Tshltsh mmunal Land, adjat t Hwange Natinal Park. AJ. Lveridge. lsses t lins and lepards were lwer during drught years wh wild prey were in pr nditin and therefre easier fr predatrs t apture (gada era/. 2). Peaks in livestk predatin may als be due t seasnal availability r vulnerability f livestk. In areas with marked seasnal variatin in limate, livestk may be in pr nditin during the lean seasn, whih may make them easier prey fr felids during this perid (Hgesteijn etal. 199; Butler 20). Nates f dmestiated speies are ft mre suseptible t predatin than adults. This vulnerability an result in inreased levels f depredatin during the lambing r alving perid. Peak lsses t jaguars and pumas n attle ranhes in suthern and tral Brazil and tral Vezuela ft inide with the alving seasn (Plisar et al. 2; Mihalski et al. 26a; Palmeira etal. 28). Seasnal hanges in husbandry r herding praties may als result in perids f vulnerability fr livestk. In Frane, peak lsses (May-Nvember) f sheep t lynx inided with perids wh sheep were kept in fed fields fr the tire 24-hur perid, presumably inreasing their availability t lynx and therefre the prbability f depredatin (Stahl etal. 21b). Villages arund Bhadra Tiger Reserve, India, experied lwer levels f livestk lss during the harvest seasn, wh it is thught that inreased human ativity in surrunding fields may als inadverttly prvide prtetin fr stk (Madhusudan 2). nrthern amern, levels f lin depredatin were inversely rrelated with distane t Waza Natinal Park (Van Bmmel etal. 27). Tempral patterns f livestk depredatin are ft preditable and in many ases vary with levels f available natural prey. In many areas f Afria, livestk depredatin peaks during the seasn wh natural prey is mst diffiult fr predatrs t aquire. This is usually the wet r rainy seasn, wh prey are in better nditin and ft mre widely dispersed (Pattersn et al. 24; Bauer and Ingh 25; Klwski and Hleamp 26). Hemsn (2) fund that in the Makagadigadi esystem, Btswana, livestk-raiding lins killed fewer livestk during perids wh migratry wildebeest (nnhaetes taurinus) and zebra (Equus burhelli) were prest in their ranges (Lveridge et al., hapter 11, this vlume). In Laikipia, Kya, livestk Enmi impat f livestk depredatin Impats f felid depredatin n livestk vary, depding n the sale f livestk wnership, husbandry tehniques, livestk type, stking dsity, and dsity f predatrs. Small-sale, subsiste livestk wners are ft disprprtinately impated by lsses, in part beause they may lak resures t prvide effetive prtetin fr their stk. Lss f ev an individual animal t small-sale livestk wners has a prprtinally higher impat n herds r flks than the same lss t wners with mre stk. Fr this reasn, Ikeda (24) fund that small-sale yak (Bs grunnis) herders in Kanhjunga nservatin Area, Nepal, were mre heavily impated by snw lepard (Panthera und) predatin n their herds than wealthier, medium- t large-sale wners.

11 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 171 Snw lepard predatin in the Spiti Regin, India, amunted t lsses f betwe 25% and 52% f annual per apita inme fr small-sale farmers (il et al. 1994; Mishra 1997). In Afria, subsiste farmers in Kya and Zimbabwe lst betwe 11% and 12% f annual inme t lin and lepard depredatin (Butler 20; gada era/. 2). Villages n Kyake Grup Ranh adjat t the Maasai Mara Reserve, Kya, lst apprximately US$1890 t lins and US$984 t lepard depredatin ver 14 mnths (Klwski and Hleamp 26). Tiger depredatin n livestk arund Bhadra Tiger Reserve, st villagers 16% f annual inme (Madhusudan 2). Arund Jigme Singye Wanghuk Natinal Park, Bhutan, tigers and lepards aused lsses f 17% f annual per apita inme, hwever fr husehlds atually affeted by lsses this represted up t 84% f annual ash inme (Wang and Madnald 26; Wang 28). These lsses are signifiant impats n the livelihds f peple, wh ft have few alternative means f earning a living. In ntrast, large ranhes lse relatively less t depredatin. Large ranhes in Alta Flresta, Brazil, lst relatively fewer attle t depredatin than intermediatesized ranhes, with n ranh lsing mre than 1.24% f its herd (Mihalski et al. 26a). n large-sale ranhes in Kya, it is estimated that the st f maintaining a lin was US$290 in suthern Kya and US $60 in Laikipia (Pattersn et al. 24; Frank et al. 25), while the st f maintaining a lepard st ranhers US$2-211/year in Laikipia (Mizutani 1997; Frank et al. 25). The st f tlerating asinal depredatin was nsidered t be lw by these relatively wealthy ranhers (Mizutani 1999). Lsses due t depredatin by arnivres are ft muh smaller than lsses due t disease, pr husbandry, r theft. n a Laikipia ranh, average lss f stk t predatrs ver a 2-year perid was 4 attle and 66 sheep a year. Hwever, annual lsses t disease were 2.5 times higher fr attle and nearly 4 times higher fr sheep. Lsses attributed t theft were similar t lsses t arnivres (Mizutani 1997). In Kwg distrit, Btswana, 0.4% f livestk was lst t arnivres eah year (althugh lsses t individual wners were higher at % f hldings). Hwever lsses t disease, starvatin, and aidt aunted fr % f stk (Shiess-Meier et al. 27). n tral Brazilian ranhes, 0.4% f stk was lst t predatrs, while 1.7% was lst t disease, malnutritin, and mismanagemt (Palmeira et al. 28). In ntrast, arund Bhadra Tiger Reserve lsses f stk t predatrs were arund 4 times higher than lsses t disease r starvatin (Madhusudan 2). In Gkwe, Zimbabwe, levels f lss f livestk t predatrs (~5%) were similar t lsses t starvatin and disease (Butler 20). Attitudes t livestk depredatin Peple's attitudes t and tlerane f depredatins by wild felids vary widely. Antipathy twards arnivres may be a result f histrial r ultural attitudes, as well as based n past experies and persnal values. Althugh geralizatins are diffiult arss widely variable si-ultural irumstanes and it is ft diffiult t distinguish betwe the underlying reasns fr negative pereptins peple hld twards predatrs, there is sme evide that levels f tlerane livestk wners have fr predatrs are related t magnitude and impat f lsses. In the Pantanal, Brazil, tlerane f jaguars by ranhers was at least partially explained by levels f livestk lss (Zimmermann et al. 25a). Hwever, ther studies indiate that persnal and sietal beliefs and pereptins may be equally imprtant in shaping respnses t nflit with predatrs (see avalanti et al., hapter 17, this vlume; Murphy and Madnald, hapter 20, this vlume). Enmi irumstane may als ditate levels f tlerane. Subsiste farmers in Annapurna nservatin Area, Nepal, wh suffered signifiant lsses t depredatin held highly negative attitudes twards snw lepards and nsidered ttal exterminatin f these felids the nly slutin t the prblem (il etal. 1994). Hwever, in the Indian Trans-Himalaya, where peple had alternative inmes and lwer depde n livestk, they were mre tlerant f snw lepards (Baghi and Mishra 26). Subsiste pastralists n grup ranhes in Laikipia, Kya, were mre likely t attempt t eradiate predatrs than neighburing mmerial ranhers (Wdrffe and Frank 25). In this ase, mmerial ranhers tlerate lsses t large felids bth beause f a ultural appreiatin f wildlife and beause wild felids have value t eturism peratins (Mizutani 1997, 1999). In ther areas, peple are willing t tlerate mderate lsses. In India, villagers ft graze livestk n gvernmt frest

12 172 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids lands and are willing t tlerate mderate lss as the prie f aess t grazing resures (Srivastav 1997; Karanth and Gpal 25). Human injury and fatality aused by felids Perhaps the mst striking relatinship peple have with felids is that large felids asinally prey upn, kill, r injure peple. Evide that hminids have always suffered depredatin by felids mes frm the Swartkrans aves in Suth Afria, where the exavated skull f a hminid hild bears the tth marks f a lepard (Brain 1969; de Ruiter and Berger 20). arnivres frm the families Felidae, anidae, and Ursidae are all n rerd as killing peple (uigley and Herrer 25). Due t the need t verpwer and kill their vitims, human-killing felids are invariably the largest speies, with lins and tigers being the mst dangerus and widely publiized (Table 6.2). Famus histrial ases f man-eating big ats inlude the man-eating lins f Tsav, whih, in 1898, are reputed t have killed arund 128 nstrutin wrkers n a railway line being built frm Mmbasa t Nairbi, Kya (Pattersn et al. 2). ther histrial examples inlude man-eating tigers and lepards in nrthern India, ne f whih (a tigress) reputedly killed 46 peple befre being hunted and sht (rbett 1946). Bmgaard (21) reprts that in India, in 1875 alne, tigers and lepards killed 109 peple. Hwever, human deaths due t large ats are nt a thing f the past. Human deaths and injuries aused by lins are relatively mmn in tral and suthern Tanzania, with arund 56 Tanzanians killed betwe 1990 and 24 (Paker et al. 25b). Similar numbers f peple are killed and injured in the Sundarbans f India and Bangladesh, with 294 peple killed betwe 1984 and 21 in the Indian Sundarbans (Siddiqi and hudhury 1987; Karanth and Gpal 25) and 79 peple killed betwe 22 and 27 in the Bangladesh Sundarbans (Khan 27). Human attitudes t man-eating and their nseques At a glbal sale human killing by felids is relatively rare, muh rarer than human deaths due t traffi aidts fr instane. Hwever, beause f the terrible emtinal nseques attahed t the lss f human life, human killing puts nservatinists in a diffiult mral dilemma. It makes nservatin and prtetin f big ats diffiult fr nservatinists t justify t lal peple wh suffer lsses. Baldus (24, 26) gives an example f a man-eating inidt in the Mkng Divisin, Rufiji distrit, adjat t Selus Game Reserve in Tanzania, that illustrates the traumati disruptin t peple's lives. In this ase, at least 4 peple were killed and 10 injured by lins ver a perid f 20 mnths, with mst inidts urring in rp-lands suth f the Rufiji River, whih divides the distrit. Evtually, almst the tire human ppulatin had fled t the nrthern banks f the river t esape the lins, leaving hmes and rps unguarded. Leaving aside the emtinal and psyhlgial nseques f living alngside man-eating arnivres, the pereptins and attitudes f peple twards wildlife and nservatin f large arnivres are seriusly impated. In pr untries, mpsatin fr lss f human life is ft grssly inadequate. In Tanzania, mpsatin fr lss f human life t wild animals is arund USS0-50 (Baldus 24). Appart undervaluatin f human life may further mpund ambivalt attitudes f lal mmunities twards nservatinists and nservatin managers, redue publi aeptane f big at nservatin, and undermine nservatin effrts. Indisriminate retaliatry killing f ats ft results frm inides f human killing. In the ase f the Rufiji maneater, wire snares were set thrughut the area t ath the ulprit, killing at least eight lins (whih may r may nt have be maneaters) and prbably many ther nn-target speies, befre the atual maneater was evtually sht (Baldus 26). Attempts t eliminate maneaters may impat the viability f lal ppulatins f arnivres. The magnitude f the prblem Table 6.2 prvides sme examples f aidtal killing, injury, r predatin n peple by felids. Felids frm the gus Panthera are the mst nsistt maneaters, althugh this behaviur is rarely rerded in P. na (Rabinwitz 25). Pumas (Puma nlr) are knwn t attak and kill peple, but inides are extremely rare, with 10 deaths and 48 injuries thrughut the

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15 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 175 United States and anada frm 1890 t 1990 (Beier 1991). Lins and tigers, the largest living ats, are respnsible fr mst inidts, with episdes f lepards as maneaters being asinally reprted, partiularly in nrthern India (rbett 1946; Athreya 26; Athreya et al. 28). Levels f human killing by felids vary widely. Human fatalities t tigers were 0.01 peple/10 km 2 /year in the Russian Far East, where human ppulatin dsity was lw and interatins with tigers rare and usually aidtal (Miquelle et al. 25a). This ntrasts strngly with the 50 peple/ 10 km 2 /year killed by lins speifially targeting peple as prey items in Rufiji distrit (Baldus 24, 26). By their nature, inidts f human killing by felids td t be lumped in spae and time, s mpilatins f inidts arss large spatial sales r lng time perids td t under-represt the lal impat. Likewise, reprts that inlude inidts ver a shrt time-span and lalized sale may verstate the glbal imprtane f man-eating as a behaviural trait f felids, while at the same time apturing the traumati impats suh inidts have n human mmunities living alngside ppulatins f large felids. It is nt always pssible t unambiguusly distinguish betwe thse inidts that were the result f aidtal unters betwe a persn and large felid and thse where the persn was viewed as a prey item by the felid in questin. Karanth and Gpal (25) mpare the examples f Kahna Tiger Reserve, India, where human deaths are relatively lw (but nt infrequt), with the Sundarban Tiger Reserve, India, where human killing by tigers is frequt. In Kahna, tigers asinally me int ntat with peple in the dsely ppulated areas surrunding the park, leading t asinal human deaths wh tigers are disturbed r aidtally unter peple harvesting frest prduts. Hwever in the Sundarban Tiger Reserve it is lear, bth frm the high inide f human deaths and the irumstanes f the attaks, that peple are the intded prey f sme tigers (Table 6.2). haraterizatin f human-felid nflit Situatins wh livestk depredatin r man-eating are mre likely t ur fall int a number f bradly defined irumstanes. These are saris wh - unters betwe peple r livestk and felids are mre frequt beause either felids disperse frm existing r emerging ppulatins r wh peple ter felid habitat. nflit may als be mre likely t ur wh levels f natural prey have be depleted. These three situatins are disussed in mre detail belw. Dispersal f felids int marginal, human-dminated habitat Irnially, the nseque f suessful prtetin f ppulatins f large felids is that surplus individuals may need t disperse ut f habitats r refugia already upied by nspeifis. If the surrunding areas prvide n nnetivity t ther habitat pathes and/r are marginally suitable habitat, already used by peple, nflit with human ppulatins in these areas an result. Examples f this inlude tigers dispersing int buffer areas surrunding hitwan Natinal Park, Nepal. This has led t 88 human deaths betwe 1980 and 25, with many f the dispersing tigers being ld individuals displaed frm their ranges (MDugal 199; Gurung et al. 26a). A similar example f mpetitin fr spae leading t displaemt int areas f human settlemt urred in Lupande Game Managemt Area, Zambia, where a pride f lins, displaed frm Suth Luangwa Natinal Park by a strnger pride, killed three peple (Yamazaki and Bwalya 1999). nflits betwe peple and large felids ver livestk lss are mmn n the bundary f many prteted areas in Afria and Asia. Large felids disperse int marginal bundary areas and kill livestk. Fr example, dispersing lins kill livestk arund Etsha and Hwange Natinal Parks (Stander 25b; A.J. Lveridge, persnal bservatin). Similar nflits betwe lins, peple, and livestk ur in the bundary areas f Gir Frest, India (Saberwal et al. 1994). Prblems f dispersing arnivres frm emerging ppulatins have be experied in western Eurpe, where reintrdued Eurpean lynx have me int nflit with sheep farmers (Kazsky 1999). Human rahmt n felid habitat Peple and their livestk ter (legally and illegally) large felid habitat fr a number f reasns, the mst

16 176 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids mmn being fr hunting r extratin f frest prduts, use f grazing resures, and asinally fr ther reasns suh as leisure ativities, turism, r as refugees (Jhnsn era/. 21b; Kruuk 22). These ativities bring peple int ntat with felids and may result in either aidtal killing f peple (and/ r felids) r prvide pprtunities fr felids t prey upn peple r livestk. In the Sundarbans f Bangladesh, there are n permant settlemts in the frest but peple use the frest fr extratin f frest prduts bth legally and illegally. Here sme tigers appartly regularly prey upn peple, with flutuatins in numbers f fatalities rrelated with perids f high use f the frest (Khan 27). Similarly, injury r death aused by tigers in the Russian Far East appears t ur wh peple aidtally unter tigers while hunting in the frest (Kerley etal. 22; Miquelle etal. 25a). Livestk lsses are high in areas where livestk are grazed in r in lse prximity t frested habitats with residt felid ppulatins (Wang and Madnald 26; Palmeira etal. 28). In Nrway, sheep are grazed unprteted in frested habitats, leading t high lsses t arnivres (Swsn and Andr 25). Anther reasn peple rah n felid habitat is t settle in these areas. Nyhus and Tilsn (24b) rerd the inreasing inide f livestk lss and man-eating by tigers in Sumatra during the 1970s- 80s wh settlemt f the island by transmigrants was uraged and peple rahed n tiger habitat during the massive transfrmatin f the lwland rainfrests int il palm plantatins. Hwever, inidts delined during the mid-1980s as tiger habitat was destryed and tiger ppulatins n the island delined. This pattern f nflit fllwed by ppulatin deline has be lsely dumted fr tigers n the Indnesian islands f Java and Sumatra and in India betwe 16 and 1950 by Bmgaard (21). Similar patterns f depredatin by tigers may have urred arss suth-east Asia as human ppulatins inreased and lnized frest habitats thrughut the nineteth tury (MDugal 199). Rapid fragmtatin and nversin f frested habitats t agriultural land in Amaznia bring peple and felids int ntat and result in high levels f nflit (Mihalski et al. 26a). Similarly, the inreasing rahmt f human residtial develpmt int puma habitat in Nrth Ameria may inrease the hanes f peple untering pumas and aunt fr the inreases in puma attaks n peple in the past deade-and-a-half (ugar Managemt Guidelines Wrking Grup 25). Peple als beme vulnerable wh irumstane fres them t intrude int big at habitat, as illustrated by the example f Mzambian refugees, fleeing int Suth Afria, via the Kruger Natinal Park, being killed and eat by lins (Kruuk 22). Prey depletin auses felids t swith t alternative prey Evide frm sme studies suggests that felids have a prefere fr natural prey. This may be beause availability f dmestiated speies is nt refleted by their numerial abundane, as livestk is ft prteted and livestk-raiding animals risk higher levels f mrtality in human-dminated virnmts. Eurasian lynx in Nrway did nt selet habitat pathes with high livestk dsities, but preferred areas with high re deer dsity, and preyed predminantly n re deer, despite the fat that sheep dsities were eight times higher (Ma et al. 26; dd et al. 26). Rabinwitz and Nttingham (1986) fund that jaguars prefer natural prey t dmesti stk. Hemsn (2) fund that lins appeared t 'prefer' wild prey, at least during perids f high wild ungulate abundane. In this ase, they killed livestk less than expeted based n availability in the gd seasn and in prprtin t availability in lean seasn. Ardingly, it was suggested that maintaining suitable levels f natural prey in prteted-area buffer znes may serve t limit depredatin n livestk. A mmn suggestin in reprts f depredatin n bth livestk and peple is that levels f natural prey have be depleted and this may prvide an explanatin fr these behaviurs. While this has rarely be quantified, a number f examples appear t supprt the suggestin and may explain a prprtin f the ases. Fr example, Asiati lins attaked peple arund Gir Wildlife Santuary, wh natural prey dsities delined after a prlnged drught (Saberwal et al. 1990; Saberwal et al. 1994). In the ase f man-eating lins in tral and suthern Tanzania, their natural prey was depleted, fring the lins t swith t prey (bush pigs, Ptamherus prus) fund in prximity t human settlemt.

17 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 177 This may inrease the likelihd f unters with peple guarding their rps, pttially leading t man-eating evts (Paker et al. 25b). Hgesteijn (22) and rawshaw (24) fund that lss f natural habitat and prey predispses jaguars t kill livestk. Similarly, lsses f dmesti stk t snw lepards were high, making up arund 58% f snw lepard diet, in areas with lw abundane f natural prey (Mishra 1997; Baghi and Mishra 26) Mitigatin f nflit harateristis f prblem animals Defining a large at as a prblem requiring a slutin depds n bth where it is and hw it is behaving. Linnell era/. (1999) distinguish betwe tw kinds f 'prblem animal'. The first are animals that are in the 'wrng plae' (gerally in a wide-sale matrix f habitats, where nt all individuals have aess t livestk within their hme ranges). Individuals dispersing ut f prteted areas r individuals ming int ntat with livestk r human intruders int their habitat might fall int this ategry. The sd 'type' f prblem animal is ne that kills mre livestk (r peple) per unter than d nspeifis. Animals with ld injuries r habitual livestk raiders (Stander 1990) uld be inluded in this definitin. There are a number f fatrs that appear t predispse individual felids t beming prblem animals. Male felids appear t be mre likely t beme stk raiders (Stander 1990; unningham era/. 21; Funstn 21a; dd et al. 22). dd et al. (22) fund that male Eurasian lynx were nt nly mre likely t kill livestk than females, they were als mre likely t make multiple kills during a raiding inidt. Speifi male behaviurs may als be fatrs that influe whether r nt livestk is tak (Linnell et al. 1999). Bunnefeld et al. (26) fund male lynx were mre likely t be fund in prximity t human habitatin than females with kitts, whih may explain bth higher male mrtality and predispsitin t livestk killing by males f this speies. Similarly, beause felids are markedly sexually dimrphi, with males being larger than females, ne might expet that male felids wuld have a greater size range f livestk available t them, leading t higher rates f predatin. Hwever, there are few data t diretly supprt this suggestin. Higher rates f livestk killing by male felids uld als be due t larger male hme ranges and wider dispersal distanes and therefre an inreased likelihd f untering livestk (Linnell et al. 21). This is ertainly the ase in lins, a speies where subadult males ft disperse widely. Pattersn et al. (24) fund that 66% f stk-raiding lins in suthern Kya were subadult males, while Funstn (21a) rerds that f 1 livestk-raiding lins in ranh land adjat t Kgalagadi Transfrntier Natinal Park, 59 were subadult males. In this ase, a further 1% f raiders were females with ubs, suggesting the pssibility that inreased nutritinal requiremts f latating females r females feeding depdt yung may predispse them t stk raiding. In a study n the bundary f Etsha Natinal Park, Namibia, Stander (1990) was able t distinguish betwe habitual and asinal stk-raiding lins. Arund 70% f habitual raiders were adult males, while 54% f asinal raiders were subadult individuals. He fund that 11 f 12 'asinal' raiders translated did nt reffd; hwever, 'habitual' raiders quikly returned t their hme ranges and livestk raiding unless they were translated > 1 km. Infirmity and disability have ft be ited as a pssible reasn fr man-eating and livestk depredatin and there are a mpelling number f examples f maneaters and livestk raiders with ld injuries r damaged teeth. This may r may nt ause the animal diffiulty in apturing r subduing wild prey. Fr example, ver 50% f 17 man-eating tigers frm hitwan had ld injuries aused by gunsht wunds, intraspeifi fights, r had wrn r brk teeth (Gurung etal. 26a). ne f the tw 'man-eating lins f Tsav' had defrmities f skull and jaw (Peterhans and Gnske 21) and the maneater f Rufiji was a.5- year-ld male with severe abessatin in its lwer jaw (Baldus 26). A number f the ntrius man-eating tigers and lepards sht by rbett were ld and had be suffering frm disability (rbett 1946). In pstmrtem examinatins f Belize jaguars, Rabinwitz (1986) fund that f 1 livestk raiders, 10 had ld injuries (many aused by ld gunsht wunds), while in a sample f 17 nn-livestk killers all were healthy. Hgesteijn etal. (199) reprt similar trds in Vezuelan jaguars, where 10 f 19 attle killers suffered

18 178 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids frm ld gunsht injuries. The ntin that ld age r disability uld be the ause f aberrant predatin n humans r livestk is appealing. While this appears t be the ase in sme inides, it is equally likely that ld r infirm individuals lse mpetitive intraspeifi interatins in prime habitats and are thus displaed frm re areas and int marginal habitat, where they me int ntat with peple and livestk. Habitual livestk raiders may have be mre likely t have be sht at in the past. Indeed, Pattersn et al. (2) fund that the skulls f lins killed as prblem animals arund Tsav Natinal Park, Kya, were n mre likely t shw signs f disability, r tth breakage than thse in museums, whih were presumed t have be lleted at randm. Slving and mitigating human-fetid nflits Designing nservatin pliy and building managemt apaity In develped untries where there is a strng mmitmt t arnivre nservatin, mpsatin shemes have be established t mitigate lsses, upled with seletive remval f individual prblem predatrs. In many develping untries, lak f atttin by gvernmts r lw and delayed mpsatin disurages livestk wners frm partiipating in similar shemes where these exist. The nly pereived slutin is t kill the predatr, and ft many nn-target animals are killed in the press. Peple wh fear fr their safety r pereive that they are at mi risk will nt supprt nservatin effrts. nservatin pratitiners need t design framewrks fr implemting a mprehsive respnse t prblem animals. Suh framewrks ft inlude reatin f prfessinal prblem animal respnse teams and rafting f natinal pliies and prtls fr respnse t nflits betwe humans and large felids. Respnse teams shuld be prfessinal, well trained and adequately equipped, and have the experie and nfide t handle the range f situatins that are untered and fully understand the nseques f their atins. Many untries have n writt pliies fr dealing with prblem arnivres; situatins are handled n a ase-by-ase basis with n guidelines and withut the prper staff training, equipmt, and resures. A natinal pl- iy prvides a set f prtls that learly delineate apprpriate atins fr the varius situatins likely t be untered and guide the press f determining the apprpriate respnse ptins. While every situatin is unique, a geral prtl that empwers lal wildlife managers t make deisins, makes them auntable, and prvides respnse teams with guidelines t fllw fr hsing the apprpriate urse f atin is a ritial first step in dealing quikly and effiitly with prblem animals. Beause lal supprt fr, r at least tlerane f, large felids is ne f the key fatrs determining the fate f all wild ppulatins, eliminatin f real r pereived threats is pivtal. The ability t retain a prblem animal within the wild ppulatin will depd n the abilities f the respnse persnnel, effetive liaisn with lal mmunities, and the severity f the prblem, as well as whether ffiial intervtins are adequately direted, resured, and supprted. Lethal ntrl Predatr redutin r eliminatin, either thrugh state-spnsred predatr ntrl r unregulated killing, has histrially be the methd f hie fr prteting livestk. In this way, large felid ppulatins have be extirpated frm large areas f Nrth and Suth Ameria, Afria, Eurpe, and Asia. While mplete eradiatin f predatrs is n lnger pratised in many areas, redutin f predatr numbers r limitatin f ppulatin grwth thrugh lethal ntrl methds may be mpatible with managemt plans that inlude znatin f predatr managemt. Where mplete eradiatin f predatrs is nt desirable, lethal ntrl f speifi prblem animals an be used t deal with livestk raiding r inidts f human death r injury. Hwever, it is smetimes diffiult t idtify the individual animal respnsible and indisriminate lethal ntrl may kill many nn-target individuals r speies, partiularly if wire snares r pisn are used. ntrl methds that speifially target prblem animals, suh as txi llars n vulnerable livestk (Burns et al. 1996), use f dgs r skilled trakers t fllw prblem animals, and shting r trapping f ulprits wh they return t retly made kills may prvide

19 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 179 mre fused ntrl f prblem individuals (dd et al. 22; Wdrffe and Frank 25). Trphy hunting is smetimes advated as a means t redue predatr dsities r t target speifi prblem animals. Trphy hunting has be shwn t temprarily redue ppulatin dsities in sme felid speies (e.g. puma, Lindzey et al. 1992; Eurasian lynx, Herfindal et al. 25a; Stner et al. 26) depding n the sustained level f the hunting pressure. Felid ppulatins ft rever quikly frm ppulatin redutins, if there are nearby sure ppulatins (e.g. lins, Smuts 1978; Eurasian lynx, Stahl et al. [21a]). Therefre, unless hunting is used n a nsistt basis t limit ppulatin grwth, the befits t livestk wners are likely t be temprary. Furthermre, vaant hme ranges are ft filled by dispersing subadults, a demgraphi grup that appear mre likely t beme prblem animals. There is evide that ranges made vaant may be divided betwe multiple subadult dispersers resulting (at least temprarily) in inreased ppulatin dsity (Laing and Lindzey 199). This may esalate rather than reslve nflits. This being the ase, sustainable sprt hunting whih seeks t maintain viable predatr ppulatins (and therefre hunting pprtunities) may be inmpatible with predatr redutin (r eradiatin) in livestk raising areas, unless livestk wners are prepared t tlerate sme lsses. In an alternative apprah t reduing ppulatin dsity, Andersn (1981) desribes prative ulling f pttial livestk-killing lins in Hluhluwe-Umflzi Natinal Park, Suth Afria. It was fund that animals dispersing frm the Park and ausing livestk lsses n surrunding farms were predminantly subadult males (18-42 mnths ld, 59 f 79 prblem lins destryed). Prative ulling f subadult males in the Park resulted in a greatly redued inide f livestk lss n surrunding farmland. Hwever, highly targeted intervtins suh as this may nly be pratial in intsively managed situatins, suh as small-fed reserves where animals are ft regularly mnitred and individually regnized. Reduing felid ppulatin dsities thrugh hunting an prvide temprary befits t livestk wners thrugh redued depredatin. Hwever, use f hunting as a tl t seletively target speifi prb- lem animals appears t be a limited and temprary slutin (Stahl et al. 21a; Herfindal et al. 25a). Furthermre, idtifiatin f the prblem animal after the fat is nt always straightfrward and in situatins where turist hunting pprtunities are sld mmerially, bgus laims f prblem animals need t be guarded against. Lethal ntrl f speifi prblem animals may be better undertak by prfessinal prblem animal ntrl persnnel, rather than the sprt-hunting publi; the frmer is likely t be a mre targeted and timely respnse. This is partiularly the ase wh dealing with man-eating predatrs (ugar Managemt Guidelines Wrking Grup 25). Where prblem animals are part f a rare r dangered ppulatin, lethal ntrl may nt be the ptin favured by nservatinists. Nevertheless, partiularly in ases where peple's lives and livelihds are at risk, remval f a prblem animal by lethal ntrl may be the mst expedit and effiit ptin available. Unsuessful r ill-neived intervtins r unwillingness n the part f managers r nservatinists t deal effetively with prblem animals may lead t a pereptin that the welfare f animals is valued ver the lives and livelihds f lal peple. In this ase, supprt fr nservatin effrts may be undermined (Tilsn and Nyhus 1998). Translatin ther ptins fr remval f prblem animals inlude translatin bak int prteted areas, t zs r ther prteted sites. This intervtin has be used in a number f areas, partiularly with lins and lepards in Afria, but suess is equival due t high pst-release mrtality, extsive mvemts, and hming behaviur f translated animals. In Tsumkwe distrit, eastern Nambia, Slander et al. (1997a) translated six livestk-raiding lepards a ttal f 12 times t sites km frm their ranges. All individuals returned within 2 days and killed livestk again in an average f 8.2 (range 1-20) mnths. Man-eating lepards translated frm Pune distrit, India, t ther frests and reserves ntinued t reffd at the new sites (Athreya 26) and similar behaviur by lepards is desribed in east Afria (Hamiltn 1976). f 14 stk-raiding male lins (tw territrial adults, tw

20 180 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids nn-territrial adults, and 10 subadults) translated distanes f km frm their hme ranges in the Kgalagadi Transfrntier Park, Suth Afria, all exept three subadults returned and killed livestk again within 170 ± 7 days. Mst were repeatedly translated (betwe tw and six times) but either returned r were destryed while killing livestk (Funstn 21a). Similarly, 40% f the 54 lins translated frm arund Etsha Natinal Park returned t their hme ranges (Stander 25b) and fr the same reasn apture and repatriatin f stk-raiding Asiati lins failed t ntrl livestk raiding arund Gir Wildlife Santuary, India (Saberwal et al. 1990). Similar pst-release behaviur has be bserved in ther large felids. Rabinwitz (1986) reprts that tw livestk-killing jaguars translated t ksmb Basin Natinal Park, Belize, sn left the park. ne ntinued t kill livestk and was sht after 5 weeks; the ther disappeared. An experimtal translatin f 14 ugars in New Mexi resulted in 25% mrtality within mnths and, verall, nine animals died during the study perid. Tw mature males mved bak ~477 km t their riginal ranges in 166 and 469 days. Eight ugars mved >80 km bak twards their riginal range befre establishing new hme ranges (Ruth et al. 1998). Translatins are mst likely t be suessful if prblem animals are mved lng distanes arss signifiant landsape barriers t areas with reasnable prey dsities and few livestk r peple. Hwever, suh areas are infrequtly available and td t have already established ppulatins f the speies being translated. Translatin f nn-territrial, subadult individuals, whih wuld disperse anyway in a natural setting, appears t be the mst likely t be suessful. In pumas, translatin was mst effetive fr animals aged mnths and least effetive fr lder individuals (Ruth etal. 1998). Based n the results f lin translatin peratins in Namibia, Stander (1990) remmded that habitual prblem animals be destryed while asinal raiders, partiularly subadults, uld be rehabilitated by translatin. While in this ase translatin ativities redued the number f lins that had t be destryed, it required extsive rerd-keeping and expertise t apture, mark, and re-idtify stk raiders. This kind f intsive managemt is rarely pssible in develping untries. Althugh translatin f prblem felids is in geral unsuessful as an intervtin, livestk-killing heetahs (Ainnyx jubatus) and prblem Amur tigers have be suessfully translated. In Zimbabwe, in the mid-1990s, 21 heetahs were mved frm the suth f the untry ~450 km t Matusadna Natinal Park in the nrth, and suessfully established a ppulatin there (Purhase 1998; Purhase and Vhurumuku 25). f fur Amur tigers aptured and translated after killing dmesti livestk r attaking peple in the Russian Far East (Fig. 6.), tw were suessful in that they aused n further nflit with peple, killed wild prey, and survived their first winter (Gdrih and Miquelle 25). As well as translating prblem animals t alternative wild habitats, sme prblem animals are asinally mved int aptive settings. Five f 7 man-eating tigers frm hitwan were aptured and hused in zs (Gurung et al. 26a), but failities t huse large numbers f suh animals are limited and quikly beme saturated (e.g. fr tigers in Nepal, India, Malaysia, and Indnesia; lepards in India and Sri Lanka; and pumas in Nrth Ameria). Furthermre, wild-aught felids d nt gerally settle well in aptivity (Karanth and Gpal 25). Hwever, mvemt int aptive settings might be justified fr highly dangered speies, espeially if release f ffspring int the wild uld hane reintrdutin prgrammes at a later date. In additin t limited suess, translatin peratins are stly and require high levels f tehnial expertise and lgistial supprt. Funstn (22) estimates that repatriatin f lins that brke ut f Kgalagadi Transfrntier Park st in exess f US$218 per lin. Karanth and Gpal (25) nte that tigers are ft injured r disabled during translatin, ft thrugh damaging their teeth in steel ages that are nt adequately designed (Fig. 6.4). n balane, translatin des nt appear either partiularly suessful r a viable tl fr managemt, partiularly in untries with limited resures. Prtetin f livestk and imprved livestk husbandry Histrially, traditinal livestk husbandry praties have sught t limit the availability f livestk t predatrs. Hwever, in areas where predatrs have be extirpated this knwledge has ft be lst.

21 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 181 Figure 6. An Amur tiger is released bak int the wild by WS and Inspetin Tiger after being resued frm a paher's snare. J. Gdrih, Wildlife nservatin Siety. This is the ase ver muh f western Eurpe, where traditinal herding methds suh as herd guarding by shepherds and guard dgs and use f seure lsures have be largely abandned. This has ntributed t nflits betwe farmers and re-emerging predatr ppulatins suh as Eurasian lynx (Kazsky 1999; Stahl et al. 21b). Where livestk are grazed extsively withut supervisin r prtetin, lsses t predatrs are liable t be high. Fr example, in Nrway sheep graze unsupervised in frested habitats, where they suffer high levels f predatin t lynx and ther arnivres. In ntrast, sheep are usually kept in fed lsures in Swed and lss t predatrs is limited (dd et al. 22; Swsn and Andr 25). Similarly, free-raming attle in tral and Amaznian Brazil and tral Vezuela were subjet t relatively high lsses t jaguars and pumas (Plisar etal. 2; Mihalski etal. 26a; Palmeira etal. 28). By ntrast, in suthern Brazil, managed flks and herds suffered lwer levels f depredatin than thse that were free-raming (Mazzli et al. 22) and arund Jigme Singye Wanghuk Natinal Park, Bhutan, livestk lsses were high in villages that did nt have stables r rrals, r where livestk was grazed in frest habitats (Wang and Madnald 26). Prtetive bmas (rrals; Fig. 6.5) and herd guarding (ft by yung m and bys) are widely used arss Afria t redue livestk lsses (Frank et al. 25). Shiess-Meier et al. (27) fund that ver a - year perid nly three f 2272 livestk-killing inidts (largely by lins and lepards) tk plae inside bmas in tral Btswana. Similarly, gada et al. (2) fund that livestk lsses were redued with atttive herding, strngly built bmas, and the prese f guard dgs and peple. Enlsures nstruted f ples r wiker were superir t thse built f thrny Aaia branhes r wire mesh, beause they redued the hanes f stk paniking at the sight f a predatr and breaking ut f the prtetive lsure. Similar redutins in depredatin resulted frm

22 182 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids Figure 6.4 An Afrian lepard trapped in a steel age trap. are needs t be tak in design f suh traps t avid damage t the felid's teeth and laws. In geral, trapping and translatin f large felids is nt a suessful r viable managemt intervtin. A.J. Lveridge. stne and wire mesh rrals built t prtet sheep against snw lepards in Ladakh, India (Jaksn et al. 22). Hwever, Klwski and Hleamp (26) fund that n ranhes adjat t the Masai Mara Reserve, Kya, lepards prefertially targeted stk in lsures, partiularly thse built f ples, but that in geral fes, guard dgs, and human ativity deterred predatrs. Guard dgs an be used t prtet small livestk (Linnell etal. 1996). In Nambia, farmers using livestk-guarding dgs reprted a 7% redutin in livestk lss t heetahs (Marker et al. 25a). Similarly, llamas {Lama glama) and dmesti buffal (Bubalus bubalis) have be used t prtet flks and herds frm pumas and jaguars (rawshaw 24; Hgesteijn and Hgesteijn 28). Visual and austi repellts, suh as bright lights (Sehele and Nzehgwa 22) and nises (e.g. shtgun blasts, playbaks f bi-austi sunds suh as sunds f barking dgs; Kehler et al. 1990), may be useful in deterring arnivres. Hwever, arnivres habituate quikly t unusual stimuli and it is nt lear whether suh methds are effetive in the lng term. Deterrts suh as eletrni shk llars and taste aversin wrk reasnably well under experimtal nditins, but have nt be widely applied t manage livestk raiding (Frank and Wdrffe 22). Imprved animal husbandry may als redue livestk lsses t predatrs. Free-raming attle in areas suh as the Pantanal, Brazil, and Llans f Vezuela are ft in pr nditin, inreasing their vulnerability t jaguar predatin (uigley and rawshaw 1992; Rabinwitz 25). Vulnerable stk suh as alves and sheep ft require mre intsive managemt. Peak lsses t livestk wners ft ur during the alving r lambing seasns (Plisar et al. 2; Mihalski et al. 26a; Palmeira et al. 28). In areas f Suth Ameria where puma and jaguar predatin is a prblem, use f pastures away frm frest fragmts and lse t human habitatin is remmded fr alving lsures (uigley and rawshaw 1992; Palmeira et al. 28). In additin, managemt f breeding in attle herds aimed at limiting birthing t a shrt perid may allw fr intsive prtetin fr part f the year and als at t swamp predatin (rawshaw 24; Palmeira et al. 28). In areas f Nrway where sheep are vulnerable t lynx predatin, Linnell etal. (1996) remmd shifting t attle farming, as attle are nt preyed upn by lynx. Lsses in prdutivity ft far exeed lsses t predatrs. attle raised under semi-wild nditins have extremely lw prdutivity, with pregnany rates reahing nly 40-50% and have very high

23 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 18 Figure 6.5 Livestk kept at night in a seure ple 'bmas' r rrals suffer lwer levels f depredatin than thse left ut t graze. J.E. Hunt. natal mrtality and mrtality t disease (Hgesteijn 22). Imprved husbandry nt nly limits pprtunities fr predatin by felids, but als redues lsses t disease, aidt, and theft and therefre als the pttial fr lsses due t pr managemt t be blamed n felid depredatin (Hgesteijn 22). mpsatin Damage mpsatin shemes prvide ne apprah t mitigate damage aused by arnivres. Paymt f mpsatin fr damages has the effet f spreading the mi burd and finanial risk betwe thse wh must live alngside arnivres and thse wh wish t see wildlife prteted. mpsatin fr atual arnivre depredatin (smetimes alled pst-damage mpsatin) is widely used in Nrway, Swed (Swsn and Andr 25), and India (Karanth and Gpal 25). Hwever, while it is lear that mpsatin may alleviate sme f the sts and pttially prmte tlerane f damage aused by predatrs, this apprah suffers frm sme majr disadvantages. Verifiatin f damage (t eliminate fraudult laims and ver-estimates f lss) an be time-nsuming and expsive and lead t animsity betwe nservatin managers and livestk wners. mpsatin withut the requiremt t demnstrate adptin f apprved prevtative measures (as is required in Swed; Swsn and Andr 25) an lead t a perverse intive t neglet livestk. There may als be intives t wrngly attribute lsses due t pr husbandry, aidt, r disease t arnivres in rder t laim mpsatin. Furthermre, mpsatin may at as an agriultural subsidy, prviding intives t expand farming ativities with the pttial fr nversin f additinal natural habitat (Nyhus etal. 25). Lng time delays betwe urre f damage and paymt f mpsatin and bureaurati diffiulties in making laims may als be prblemati. Saberwal (1990) fund that 81% f villagers suffering lsses t lins arund Gir Wildlife Santuary did nt bther t make laims, due t predural bureauray. Similarly, failure t fully mpsate fr lsses may hamper the effetivess f mpsatin shemes. Fr instane, arund Bhadra Tiger Reserve, where signifiant lsses f livestk t tigers urred, lw levels f mpsatin were reeived (% f estimated lsses, with nly 20% f laims suessful; Madhusudan 2). rrupt r prly managed mpsatin shemes may deep antipathies and mistrust f managers and nservatin effrts. Furthermre, t prvide a sustainable lng-term slutin signifiant finanial resures

24 184 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids are required (Miquelle et al. 25a). Fr instane, in Nrway, mpsatin sts 5 millin Eurs/year (Linnell and Breseth 2). Shemes are rarely feasible in untries with limited nservatin resures unless supprted by internatinal spnsrship r nn-gvernmtal rganizatin (NG) funding. Unfrtunately, few evaluatins f pst-damage mpsatin shemes have be undertak (Nyhus et al. 2; Nyhus et al. 25). It is nt knwn if they are st-effetive and there is little evide that mpsatin paymts are effetive in imprving peple's tlerane r reduing attempts t eradiate predatrs. In ne f the few analyses available, Hazzah (26) fund that mpsatin did nt imprve attitudes t lins r prevt retaliatry killing n Mbirikani Grup Ranh, Kya. Private insurane shemes t ver sts f arnivre damage have als be attempted; hwever, in many ases rural farmers are unwilling t ver the relatively expsive premiums required (Nyhus et al. 25). This unwillingness may stem in part frm nepts f wnership f wildlife and the pereptin that mpsatin is the respnsibility f the gvernmt r wildlife managemt institutin. Hwever, suess f insurane-based shemes has be laimed in imprving tlerane f snw lepards in Pakistan, althugh this sheme was subsidized thrugh eturism revues (Hussain 2b). Viability f insurane mpsatin shemes may rely n innvative finanial mehanisms suh as this. An alternative t pst-damage mpsatin is nservatin perfrmane paymts r mpsatin in advane (Shwerdtner and Gruber 27; Zabel and Hlm-Muller 28). Suh paymts are made based n the expetatin that damage is likely t ur and is usually linked t suessful nservatin utmes (e.g. redued levels f arnivre mrtality and prtetin f arnivre habitat). In the Sami reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) husbandry area f Swed, nservatin perfrmane paymts are made n the basis f the number f ertified reprdutins f lynx and wlverines (Gul gul). The level f paymt is alulated frm the expeted lsses due t eah arnivre during its lifetime and amunt t arund US$29,0 per individual ffspring (Zabel and Hlm-Muller 28). The advantage is that paymts are made regardless f damage; therefre, livestk prtetin effrts are nt dis- trted in that there is n disintive t prtet livestk frm predatrs. Similarly, beause paymt is made n the basis f expeted damage, there is n time-lag in paymts, whih eliminates unertainty and prmtes transpary and trust. Nevertheless, transatin sts remain high, as arnivre ppulatins still need t be indepdtly assessed and agreemt needs t be reahed ver levels f paymt. In mmn with pst-damage mpsatin paymts, viability f shemes requires signifiant funds ver extded perids. are needs t be tak that paymts d nt urage new immigratin int the area r subsidize inreases r expansin in livestk wnership. Alternative livelihds, befit sharing, and stakehlder partiipatin Antipathy twards arnivres may be a result f histrial and ultural attitudes as well as based n experies f lss r damage. These attitudes may be diffiult t hange r amelirate. Hwever, there are examples where stakehlder attitudes t bth nservatin and prese f arnivres have be imprved by aess t alternative revue r livelihd hies, befit sharing, and lal partiipatin. -managemt and stakehlder partiipatin appear t imprve attitudes twards nservatin effrts. In reindeer husbandry areas f Swed, arnivre surveys jintly undertak by reindeer wners and nservatin managers redued nflits ver estimates and uraged transpary and peratin (Swsn and Andr 25). Partiipatin f lal mmunities in priritizatin, nservatin planning, and implemtatin haned lal prtetin f snw lepards as well as imprving the feasibility and sse f wnership f livestk prtetin initiatives in Hemis Natinal Park, India (Jaksn and Wanghuk 24). Likewise, inlusin f lal landwners in nservatin meetings in the Pantanal, Brazil, imprved pereptins f jaguar nservatin effrts and gdered wnership f presses and deisin-making (Rabinwitz 25). il et al. (1994) fund that villagers wh befited frm eturism were mre willing t tlerate the prese f snw lepards. There is a higher tlerane f this speies in areas where peple are less depdt n livestk and have aess t alternative livelihds (Mishra et al. 2; Baghi and

25 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 185 Mishra 26). In Namibia, ranhers wh raise livestk using elgially sund managemt tehniques gained aess t nihe markets and premium pries fr 'predatr fridly beef. Befits frm initiatives suh as this may inrease tlerane fr heetahs and ther predatrs n ranh land (Marker and Dikman 25; Marker et al., hapter 15, this vlume). n mmerial ranhes in Laikipia that befit frm eturism r have wealthy freign investrs, landwners are mre tlerant f depredatin n livestk than are ranhes that gain nthing frm turism. Similarly, traditinal pastralists d nt tlerate predatrs at all: lins dispersing int these areas frm mmerial ranhes are prmptly pisned (L. Frank, unpublished data). Hwever, residts f mmunal areas that hpe t prfit frm future wildlife turism prfess greater tlerane than thse wh are nt planning nservatin-based terprises (Rmanah era/. 27). Stander etal. (1997a) desribe an innvative eturism vture that mbined use f traditinal skills, revue geratin, and eturism. In the Kaudm area f Namibia, lal peple experied lsses f livestk t lepards. A pilt eturism vture tk advantage f the lal Ju/ Hansi peple's exeptinal traking and bush-raft skills. They were able t trak and find lepards fr paying turists in 92.9% f attempts. The tw villages gaged in lepard-traking turism earned N$ 10,5 (~US$2140) in a year. This revue amunted t 12 times the value f livestk lst t lepard ver the tire distrit. Hwever, in many ases laims that revue frm eturism r turist hunting alleviate nflit and imprve attitudes twards nservatin are almst tirely untested (Walple and Thuless 25). Intive shemes are ft heavily subsidized by external bdies (Mishra et al. 2; Miquelle et al. 25a) and internalizing sts t sure sustainability is ft hallging with unertain utmes. Wildlife revues appear t wrk well in intivizing prtetin f habitat wh landwners are reasnably wealthy and where wners have land ture and ntrl ver resure aess and use (Bnd et al. 24). Hwever, there is less intive where resure wnership is trally r mmunally ntrlled, land ture is less seure, r where livelihd alternatives are abst. Eturism revues an be mismanaged, misapprpriated, r subverted by elites within mmunities, whih may undermine the effetivess f initiatives (Walple and Thuless 25). Furthermre, revues earned thrugh eturism may be thusiastially aepted in the shrt term, but in the lng term may be invested in develpmt r expansin f agriulture (Murmbedzi 1999). The key here is that befits frm eturism shemes need t be learly linked t the need fr sustainable nservatin f esystems and natural resures. Znatin f land use Nt all landwners r mmunities will tlerate predatrs, and ertain livestk managemt praties and human-dminated r urban landsapes are inmpatible with the prese f predatry felids. Thus gegraphi differtiatin f land-use areas, ranging frm mplete prtetin, thrugh areas where predatrs are tlerated and ppulatin managemt and/r utilizatin urs t areas where predatrs are nt tlerated, seems a ssible way f fusing nservatin effrts and resures, while at the same time regnizing the imprtane f peple's livelihds. The gals f zning nservatin f arnivres are t nserve viable ppulatins f predatrs and t minimize, r at least mitigate, nflits with peple (Linnell et al. 25). Limiting the interfae betwe peple and large arnivres an serve t redue the areas where nflit urs. This allws priritizatin f mitigatin effrts and effiit use f nservatin resures in these areas. Enfred zning shemes an be used t prhibit ertain human ativities, thugh frms f resure use r extratin that d nt result in habitat mdifiatin suh as fishing, regulated lgging, regulated harvest f ungulates, leisure ativities, and turism may be mpatible with nservatin f felids (partiularly thse that d nt pse a threat t human life). In sme ases, the prese f harismati felids may inrease the desirability f an area as a leisure r turist destinatin. The nservatin f smaller speies may be mpatible with land uses that exlude the prese f larger predatrs. Fr instane, small felids pse n threat t livestk and existe may be pssible if n habitat mdifiatin urs. Many suthern and east Afrian prteted area netwrks have be designed t inrprate areas f strit

26 186 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids prtetin (natinal parks r reserves), and areas where wildlife an be sustainably utilized (ft thrugh trphy hunting). In additin, mmunitymanaged areas (knwn as game managemt r wildlife managemt areas) have be established in sme untries (e.g. Btswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Namibia), where wildlife is tlerated and utilized fr the befit f mmunities (Lewis and Alpert 1997; Hulme and Murphree 21). Utilizatin areas are ft set up as buffer znes betwe natinal parks and agriultural areas. Znatin in ther regins is ft less lear-ut. Fr instane, many areas f Eurpe are already inhabited by peple. In these areas, initiatives t priritize nservatin f predatrs have nt always met with suess and have in sme instanes be abandned (Linnell etal. 25). Establishmt f reserves withut adequate separatin (e.g. with fes r natural barriers suh as large rivers) f peple and wildlife has led t intse nflit n the peripheries. learly, managemt f nflit in areas where predatrs and peple are expeted t exist makes znatin f predatr nservatin a hallge. In areas where peple and wildlife share the same landsape, it wuld appear that existe is mst likely t be suessful under irumstanes where disadvantages due t nflits are utweighed by befits f tlerating wildlife. Sme nservatin pratitiners have advated separatin f peple and predatrs as the mst viable slutin, partiularly in areas where human dsities are high. Nyhus and Tilsn (24b) reprted that Way- Kambas Reserve in Sumatra suessfully prteted tigers and eliminated nflits with the surrunding human mmunities. This was largely beause the reserve exluded peple and reserve brders are largely frmed by rivers that reated bundaries seldm transgressed by either tigers r peple. Karanth and Madhusudan (1997) and Karanth and Gpal (25) supprt the vluntary relatin f peple frm the viinity f tiger reserves t redue nflits and prtet tiger ppulatins. Suh vluntary relatins t make spae fr expanding tiger ppulatins have met with suess in the Terai Ar Landsape, Nepal (Seidstiker etal., hapter 12, this vlume). In the western United States, znatin prvides the framewrk fr managemt f puma ppulatins (Laundre and lark 2; Stner et al. 26). Here, subppulatins within the meta-ppulatin t be managed are designated as 'sure' r 'sink' ppulatins. Sprt-hunting pprtunities are prvided in the sink areas, while sure areas are prteted frm utilizatin. Managemt using a landsape f sures and sinks t prvide bth adequate prtetin fr the speies and pprtunity fr utilizatin may prve t be an effetive strategy fr nserving wide-ranging predatrs. Hwever, understanding f a speies' behaviural elgy is ruial. Predatrs, partiularly large felids, are wide ranging and minimum prteted-area sizes need t take this int aunt if edge effets are nt t have negative impats n ppulatin viability (Wdrffe and Ginsburg 1998; Lveridge etal., hapter 11, this vlume). Explitatin f felid ppulatins thrugh trade and utilizatin Human ultures have always prized prduts derived frm large arnivres. Traditinal ultures and fashinable siety value felid furs t advertize persnal status and trade in furs has had signifiant impats n felid ppulatins. Felid prduts are used t 'ure' illness, t ward ff misadvture, and t bring gd luk. Fr instane, tiger bne as an ingredit f Traditinal Asian Mediines (TAM) is thught t ure rheumatism, weakness, and paralysis (Mills and Jaksn 1994). In suth-western Nigeria, serval (Leptailurus serval) flesh and tngue are believed t ure leprsy and rheumatism, while lepard skin is used t treat snake bites (Sdeinde and Sewa 1999). There are ret reprts abut a grwing illegal market fr tiger meat as an exti uisine (Damania et al. 28). Utilizatin f felids thrugh trphy r sprt hunting an prvide mtivatins fr nserving habitats and wildlife ppulatins. We disuss the explitatin f felid ppulatins thrugh trphy hunting, fur trade, and fr traditinal mediines, and the pttial threats and impats these have n nservatin f these ppulatins. Trphy hunting Hunting large felids fr sprt has urred fr thusands f years, with rerds f lin hunts ging

27 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 187 bak t the time f Pharah Amhteb III in 14 B and medieval tapestries depiting Eurpean nbles hunting lins and ther felids (Guggisberg 1962). Indian and Nepalese ryalty hunted extsively and rerds shw the astunding number f tigers they killed fr sprt. The Maharajah f Surgujah is reputed t have sht 1150 tigers in his lifetime, fllwed lsely by the Mararaj f Gwalir and his guests, wh aunted fr 9. British ivil servants and military ffiers n leave hunted frequtly, with sme individuals redited with killing hundreds f tigers. The British Ryal Family did their bit wh visiting India and Nepal, with King Gerge V killing 9 tigers in 11 days in 1911 and the Prine f Wales shting sev ver a 4-day perid in 1922 (Sankhala 1978; Muntfrd 1981). During the 1960s, demand fr tiger-hunting trphies aelerated as tiger ppulatins dwindled and as it beame appart that hunting tigers wuld beme ffiially prhibited (Sunquist and Sunquist 22). In lnial Afria, arnivres were viewed as vermin and killed wherever pssible (Fig. 6.6); this hunting was, at least partially, mtivated by 'the thrill f the hase' partiularly amng the lnial elite hunting in the mre remte areas f east and suthern Afria. Early hunting expeditins t the Sergeti typially killed large numbers (smetimes hundreds) f lins (Turner 1987), ft in the mis- tak belief that remval f arnivres wuld 'prtet' ungulate ppulatins, thereby prviding imprved pprtunities fr hunting. Alng with lss f habitat, deline in prey ppulatins and predatr eradiatin initiatives, trphy hunting may have ntributed t histrial delines in sme large felid ppulatins. Indeed, I.R. Pk (199: p. 219) wrte: 'In all parts f the wrld upied by Eurpeans where lins ur, the disappearane f lins is merely a questin f time.' Histrially, hunting f arnivres was ft haraterized by lak f any ntrls r regulatin (at least fr the elite) and in sme sses was indistinguishable, in mtivatin and effet, frm predatr eradiatin ativities that were prevalt at the time. ntemprary trphy hunting (als knwn as sprt, turist, r rereatinal hunting) tds t be mre restrained and harvests are ft stritly regulated where mpett managemt authrities are in plae. In additin, trphy hunters are ft nerned abut and prmte nservatin values (Lindsey etal. 26). Felids are ppular quarry speies where trphy hunting is legal, and large harismati speies attrat large trphy fees (usually lleted by gvernmt r managemt authrities). Trphy hunters pay premium pries t hunting guides r peratrs t hunt large felids. Fr example, puma hunts in New Mexi st US$20-0 per hunt Figure 6.6 Early settlers in east and suthern Afria eliminated many f the larger predatrs frm the land they lnized. (Phtgraph urtesy f Natinal Arhives f Zimbabwe.)

28 188 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids (Lgan et al. 24) and befre hunting was ffiially banned, hunters paid US$11,2 t hunt a snw lepard in Mnglia (Annymus 1989). In Btswana, in 26, turist hunters paid US$140,0 t hunt a male lin, with US$1,0 f that ging t the mmunity in the distrit it was killed (J. Rann, persnal mmuniatin), althugh lin hunting has sine be banned in Btswana (Fig. 6.7). Revues gerated frm trphy hunting an befit lal mmunities (if expliitly hannelled) and prvide emplymt fr speialists that prvide hunting-related servies (e.g. hunting guides and taxidermists). This an prvide justifiatin and supprt fr nservatin f ppulatins f felids and ther speies at lal and natinal sales. Revues an als be used t manage ppulatins, prtet habitats, r t mpsate livestk wners fr lsses, thereby imprving levels f tlerane and aeptane f predatrs (Lveridge era/. 27b). Furthermre, habitats are ft set aside and prteted Figure 6.7 The skin and skull f a trphy-hunted lin is displayed in a hunter's skinning shed. J.E. Hunt. fr trphy-hunting ativities. Fr instane, in additin t natinal parks and prteted areas, 1.4 millin km 2 are used and, t varying degrees, prteted fr trphy hunting in sub-saharan Afria (Lindsey et al. 27). rawshaw (24) argues that allwing trphy hunting f prblem jaguars may prvide intives fr landwners t manage habitats t urage self-sustaining ppulatins f this speies. Hwever, trphy hunting an have demgraphi nseques fr felid ppulatins. Adult males are ft targeted and high male turnver an result in high levels f infantiide, whih may in turn redue reprdutive suess within the ppulatin. If severe, this an lead t ppulatin deline (Gree et al. 1998; Whitman etal. 24). Grss (28) fund that heavy hunting f male pumas in Washingtn, D, United States, led t severe perturbatin inluding few residt adult males, influx f immigrants frm surrunding hme ranges (leading t widely varying puma dsities), inreased infantiide, and mre pumahuman nflits. Hwever, felid ppulatins are relatively resilit t mderate levels f harvest (e.g. 10% f adult male lins; Gree et al. 1998), revering quikly if immigratin frm surrunding habitat r nearby ppulatins is pssible. Smuts (1978) fund that ppulatins f Afrian lins in Kruger Natinal Park, Suth Afria, revered within 17 mnths (largely thrugh immigratin) in areas that had be experimtally deppulated by ulling f 129 lins frm three experimtal areas. Hwever, the sial disruptin aused by remvals persisted beynd the 17-mnth experimtal perid (Smuts 1978). Relatively rapid reveries urred in lin ppulatin in Hwange Natinal Park, after trphy hunting had be suspded in surrunding hunting nessins (Lveridge et al., hapter 11, this vlume). Hwever, Lindzey et al. (1992) fund that revery f an experimtally manipulated puma ppulatin did nt ur within 2 years wh 28% f harvestable age animals were remved frm the ppulatin. Trphy hunters and hunting peratrs (utfitters) d nt always behave ethially r respnsibly. There are ft strng finanial intives t verexplit hunted resures, and hunting ativities ft ur in remte areas with little r n ffiial versight. Fr example, Spng et al. (20a) fund that in a sample f trphy-hunted lepards (n = 77) sht in Selus Game Reserve, Tanzania, 28.6% were female despite

29 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 189 hunting qutas fr lepards being ffiially restrited t males. In this ase, pr supervisin f hunting ativities allwed hunters t sht females and pttially verexplit this resure. Effetive regulatin f hunting ativities t sure mpliane with hunting qutas and regulatins is ft required t sure that trphy hunting f felids and ther speies remains sustainable. Despite examples f verexplitatin (Spng et al. 20a; Yamazaki 1996; Lveridge et al. 27), trphy hunting appears t have relatively lw impats n felid ppulatins if there are large, prteted sure ppulatins and if managemt praties and quta setting are infrmed and regulated by arefully mnitring the hunted and sure ppulatins. Prtetin f habitat and the pttial fr befit streams fr lal mmunities and mies might utweigh behaviural and demgraphi impats n felid ppulatins, althugh learly these shuld nt be ignred if the verall gal is t sustain the target ppulatins ver the lng term. Explitatin f felids fr their fur Felid furs are ft beautifully patterned and humans have, fr millnia, used furs fr manufaturing lthing, adrnmts, and husehld deratin. The wearing f felid furs ft nfers status and is a symbl f the wealth and pwer f the wner. Masai mrans (yung warrirs) wh have killed a lin wear lin mane headdresses t signify their urage. The fashin f wearing fur ats made f sptted at pelts gained immse ppularity amng the wealthy f western Eurpe and the United States in the 1960s and 1970s. The resulting verexplitatin f sme wild ppulatins f sptted ats prmpted the atmt f the nvtin n Internatinal Trade in Endangered Speies f Wild Flra and Fauna (ITES) in Retly, tiger and lepard skins and lthing made frm skins have beme ppular amng the newly wealthy in hina and Tibet (EIA 24; EIA-WPSI26), driving an unpreedted nslaught f pahing in sure untries, espeially India and Nepal. Demand fr felid skins has driv widespread explitatin and smetimes extirpatin f felid ppulatins. ne famus example is the extratin f ver 80,0 elt and 15,0 jaguar skins frm the Brazilian Amazn in the early t mid-1960s fr the fashin fur trade (Smith 1976). This massive exprt f skins prmpted the Brazilian gvernmt t ban exprt f wildat skins in Myers (197) estimates that the fur trade was wrth arund US$0 millin in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The demand fr sptted at skins was s high that, in Netrpial Suth Ameria, hunting fr at skins beame a way f life fr many lal peple in remte areas (Payan and Trujill 26). Hunting prvided a lurative livelihd and extratin f frest prduts was well rganized thrugh intermediaries and middlem. During this perid, in lumbia, a Tigrillada (at hunter) was typially paid arund US$ fr a jaguar skin, whih beame wrth US$520 t a middleman ne it reahed Bgta, befre being evtually sld t a New Yrk furrier fr US$25 and made int a at wrth US$20,0 in a New Yrk Butique (Nwell and Jaksn 1996; Payan and Trujill 26). The quantities f sptted at skins extrated frm Suth Amerian range states frm the 1960s t 1980s are staggering. In 1970, 140,0 elt and margay (Lepardus weidii) skins were traded in US markets, while 84,49 nilla (L. tigrinus) skins were traded in 198 alne (MMahan 1986). Betwe 1976 and 1979, 41,588 Geffrey's at (nifelis geffryi) and 78,29 Pampas at (. ll) skins were exprted frm Bus Aires (Mares and jeda 1984). ld Wrld sptted ats were als ppular with furriers, inluding the lepard, snw lepard, luded lepard, tiger, and heetah (Nwell and Jaksn 1996). Nine thusand, ne hundred and sixty-tw lepard skins were exprted frm Uganda betwe 1924 and i960, leading t speial prtetin f the speies in that untry in i960 (Treves and Naughtn-Treves 1999). Sevte thusand, fur hundred and ninety lepard skins were exprted t the United States in 1968 and 1969 and demand fr lepard skins was estimated at arund 50,0 skins per year in the early 1970s. Furthermre, beause lepards were ft hunted n an unmanaged and ft illegal basis by tribesm r subsiste hunters (Fig. 6.8), many skins were rejeted by middleman traders as being damaged r prly ured, implying that lsses t wild ppulatins were ev higher than figures suggest (Myers 1976).

30 190 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids Figure 6.8 Demand fr lepard skins led t widespread hunting f the speies, with at least sme f the illegal trade in skins supplied thrugh a netwrk f illegal trappers and hunters. (Phtgraph urtesy f Natinal Arhives f Zimbabwe.) nern ver the magnitude f trade in sptted ats and its pttial impat n wild ppulatins (Kfrd 197; Myers 197, 1976; Theile 2) led t mratria n trade in sme speies (Nwell and Jaksn 1996). Prtetive legislatin was intrdued in many range states and ITES legislatin restriting trade in many f the sptted ats, partiularly the larger speies, was ated in The Eurpean Unin (EU) banned all imprts f Latin Amerian ats in 1986 and many f the smaller Latin Amerian ats were plaed n ITES Appdix I betwe 1989 and Althugh trade in sptted ats still exists (10 sptted at skins were seized in Argtina in 1990; Annymus 1992), trade restritins have led t a steady deline in trade (Figs. 6.9 and 6.10). Fr instane, 0,0 margay skins were exprted in 1977 (mst frm Paraguay t western Eurpe) but trade in this speies was redued t 18 skins by 1985 (MMahan 1986). Similarly, in 1969, at the peak f the trade in sptted ats, it is estimated that 61,0 lepards were killed fr their skins, with n mre than 60 killed by 1988 (Martin and de Meulaer 1988). Hwever, the fur trade shifted t ther speies as substitutes, suh as the bbat (Lynx rufus), and lepard at (Prinailurus bgalsis), with bth demand and pries inreasing dramatially in the late 1970s (Fuller etal. 1985; MMahan 1986). As a result f high demand, pries fr bbat pelts rse frm US$15 a pelt in 197 t a high f US$164 a pelt in 1978 (Fuller etal. 1985), with resultant harvests reduing ppulatins f this speies t dangerusly lw numbers (Hrnker 28). The mdern fashin fur trade relies n pelts frm the anadian and Eurasian lynx (I. anadsis and L. lynx), bbat, and the lepard at (Nwell and Jaksn 1996). anadian lynx furs have be explited sine the 17s (Eltn and Nihlsn 1942). Althugh trapping is urrtly well regulated, ppulatins may be unsustainably trapped during yli ppulatin delines (Ple 1994; Slugh and Mwat 1996). Bbat ppulatins urrtly appear stable, suggesting that fur harvests are bilgially sustainable; hwever, very high vlumes f lepard at skins exprted by hina (ver 2,0 skins in 1987) have be ause fr nern (Nwell and Jaksn 1996; Sunquist and Sunquist 22). While markets in Eurpe and the United States have delined due t strit legislatin and negative stimts abut use f furs in fashin items, ther markets have ped up, partiularly in a mre prsperus eastern Eurpe and an inreasingly wealthy hina. The illegal trade in tiger and Asiati lepard (P. pardus fused) skins appears t have be inreasing thrughut Indhina sine the 1990s (Rabinwitz 1999; EIA 24; Nwell and Xu 27). Pahing f wildlife fr the fur trade appears t be well rganized and lurative. Inreasing demand fr skins is thught t be driv by wealthy Han hinese wh value felid

31 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 191 1,0-10, J-^IM MM)I 0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0)0) Year *r < r\l ^f <0 m i v> < > (i 11 < i 11 m t» t» < < i 11 <\l <\l <\l (\l <\l Figure 6.9 Trds in internatinal trade in skins f tw speies f Netrpial sptted at (elt and margay). Redutin in demand and impsitin f trade bans by the EU and ITES in 1986 and 1989, respetively has limited the trade. These data are likely t be inmplete, as nly ffiial exprts are rerded, but, unless seized, illegal nes are nt. (Sure f data: ITES-UNEP.) Figure 6.10 Jaguar skin frm the Vezuelan ha. A. Taber. (partiularly tiger) skins fr the prestige f wning an expsive and exti item and beause they are thught t bring gd luk. There als appears t be a market in uris purhased by Western turists (EIA 24). Use f tiger and lepard skins in traditinal Tibetan 'hubas' (eremnial gwns) beame inreasingly fashinable thrugh the 1990s as a result f grwing wealth amng urban Tibetans. Skins are als used at traditinal eremnies suh as weddings, and a eremnial tt made f 108 whle tiger skins was se in 26 at the Litang Hrse Festival, in the hinese Prvine f Sihuan (EIA-WPSI 26). Hwever, nerns raised by virnmtal grups have se this use deline markedly (EIA-WPSI 26;

32 192 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids Banks and Wright 27). Symbli burning f tiger and lepard skin rbes urred in Tibet in 26 fllwing ndemnatin f use f wildlife prduts by the Dalai Lama. This may have resulted in bth greatly redued demand and pries fr these items (Huggler 26), althugh hinese ffiials, wh disurage the Dalai Lama's influe, rdered Tibetans t ntinue t wear their traditinal apparel, inluding lthing adrned with tiger and lepard skin. Trade in tiger and lepard skins remains highly lurative. A trader in India is able t sell a tiger skin fr US$15 (having paid a lal paher in the regin f US$15), while the same skin sells in hina fr US$16,0. A nsignmt f 1 tiger, 581 lepard, and 788 tter skins, seized in Tibet in 2 while being smuggled frm India t hina, was thught t be wrth an astnishing US$1.2 millin (EIA 24; EIA-WPSI26). Thugh legislatin is in plae t prtet tigers and mst ther Asian ats, wildlife agies frequtly lak the resures fr effetive fremt f the laws. Pahing palties are harsh, but the likelihd f apprehsin remains lw and that f nvitin ev lwer (Damania et al. 28). Hunting f tigers fr trade is widespread and trade is thught t be mre prevalt nw than in previus deades. This may exaerbate delines due t lgging, habitat lss, and expansin f human ppulatins (Rabinwitz 1999). The 78 tiger and 2766 lepard skins seized in India betwel994 and 26 are thught t represt a fratin f skins n the illegal market, suggesting that the extt f illegal pahing f felids fr their skins may be extsive. EIA- WPSI (26) nsider the illegal trade in tiger skins betwe India, Nepal, and hina t be a substantial threat that may have driv ret delines in Indian tiger ppulatins. Having depleted many tiger ppulatins, mmerial pahers have turned t ther Asian big ats: Asian lins, lepards, snw lepards, and luded lepards. Having pahed tiger ppulatins in ambdia, Myanmar, and Thailand, mmerial pahers have intsified and fused their effrts n Malaysia and nw tigers and ther wildlife there are under heavy pressure (Damania etal. 28). Pahing is usually undertak by skilled lal hunters using reusable steel traps, able snares, r pisned bait. The st f pahing a wild tiger is small, unlikely t exeed US$ 1-2, ev taking int aunt pprtunity sts f time and expeted palties. A large number f pahers perate under near p-aess nditins. The arass is sld t traders wh apture the bulk f the prfit by smuggling tiger parts int urban tres f East Asia. All parts f the tiger an be traded with a ttal retail value in the regin f US $10,0-70,0 (Damania etal. 28). In India, wildlife pahing and related rime is well rganized, with extsive netwrks f suppliers and buyers (Kumar and Wright 1999). The highly prfitable nature f the trade and lak f serius pliing and judiial disintives in many range states d little t urtail the trade in Asian at skins. Althugh untries like hina appear t be fring wildlife trade laws mre vigrusly (Nwell and Xu 27), fighting wildlife rime is nt a majr pririty in many Suth-east Asian range states. Agies harged with virnmtal prtetin are ft under-resured and lear pliies and plitial will are ft nn-existt. Punishmt fr trading in wildlife prduts prvides little deterrt, and fines fr pssessin f illegal skins are paltry in relatin t the value f a single skin n the illegal market. Traders an adjust their margins t ammdate hange in judiial pressure, mpetitin, r demand at the retail d f the market and thus frustrate initiatives t diminish intives t pah (Bulte and Damania 25). Furthermre, prseutin f wildlife riminals is frequtly delayed and rates f nvitin are lw. Fr instane, in India, whih has a well develped institutinal struture fr nservatin, nly 14 nvitins have be ahieved in 748 ases f nfisatin f wildat skins (EIA 24). The trade als spans a number f untries (Fig. 6.11), with sures in India, Indnesia, Las, Thailand, Myanmar, and Vietnam and markets n the hinese ' ' Far East The West India V (0. <D Z t ^^ 4 ^~~~ _ /' i t E Burma s*.si i L La PDR Figure 6.11 Illegal trade rutes fr tiger and lepard skins in Asia. (Frm Baker et al. 26.)

33 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 19 Mainland, Hng Kng, Taiwan, Suth Krea, and Japan (Li and Wang 1999; Rabinwitz 1999; Baker et al. 26; EIA-WPSI 26). ntrl f this illegal trade requires reginal and internatinal mmitmt and transnatinal peratin t takle transbundary trade. Use f felids in TAM nservatinists have be inreasingly nerned by trade in wildlife prduts used in Traditinal Asian Mediines (TAM) and remedies. Trade in tiger parts and derivatives has be banned arund the wrld fr mre than a deade and law-abiding pratitiners f Traditinal hinese Mediine (TM) nw use alternatives. Yet, the illegal trade ntinues. The Wrld Federatin f hinese Mediine Sieties (WMS) has delared that tiger parts are nt neessary fr human health are and that alternatives are pltiful, affrdable, and effetive. Pahers ntinue t kill tigers t satisfy a stubbrn demand fr tiger bnes t make health tnis. While lss f habitat may be the majr lng-term ause f delines f speies suh as the tiger, arss East and Suth Asia, pahing f tigers and ther felids is the imprtant shrt-term threat t survival f ppulatins (Mills and Jaksn 1994; Hemley and Mills 1999; Rabinwitz 1999; Wingard and Zahler 26; Damania et al. 28). Bnes f ther felids (luded lepards, lepards, snw lepards, and lins) are als used as substitutes fr tiger bne and the trade may therefre als impat ppulatins f these speies (Wingard and Zahler 26). The majr hinese investmt and gagemt in Afria may prest a new threat t lin ppulatins, as it is nearly impssible t distinguish betwe lin and tiger bnes. Trade in tiger parts, partiularly bne, reahed epi prprtins in the 1980s and 1990s, deimating wild ppulatins. Fr example, Suth Krean ustms rerds frm befre Suth Krea aeded t ITES shw that 8951 kg f tiger bne were imprted frm 1970 t 199, with arund half the bne derived frm Indnesia. There has sine be a nerted effrt t ntrl trade in tiger bne. Effrts have fused n internatinal legislatin, raising publi awaress, dialgue with TAM speialists and users, and a mmitmt amng TAM speialists t searh fr alternative mediinal prduts t replae the use f tiger bne (Hemley and Mills 1999). Dmesti and internatinal trade in tiger parts is banned in mst untries and sme untries like Suth Krea have virtually eliminated the trade thrugh vigrus prseutin. Hwever, the residual trade has prved muh harder t ntrl and eliminate. In regins where fremt and prseutin have be indiffert, tiger prduts are still btainable. In a survey f Yunnan Prvine, hina, Li and Wang (1999) fund felid parts t be widely available and similar surveys in Sumatra, Indnesia, fund little evide f delining trade in tiger prduts, despite extsive effrts t raise awaress (Shepherd and Magnus 24; Ng and Nemra 27). Hwever, a ret survey f 518 TAM utlets in hina fund that nly 2.5% arried tiger bne prduts, suggesting that use may be delining in Mainland hina (Nwell and Xu 27). Hwever, beause few data are available frm befre the 199 ban, quantifiatin f delining trade is diffiult. There are a number f aptive bred ppulatins f tigers, leading t the suggestin that prduts frm 'farmed' tigers uld be sld mmerially t replae prduts frm the wild. Hwever, the nssus amng nservatinists is that trade in farmed tigers is likely t stimulate demand and prvide the means t launder tiger parts derived frm pahing, thereby reversing ret suesses in reduing the magnitude f the trade (Hemley and Mills 1999; Gratwike era/. 27; Nwell and Xu 27). A ret survey measured attitude twards nsumptin f tigers in six hinese urban areas. f 1880 respndts, 4% had nsumed sme prdut alleged t ntain tiger prduts. The results indiated that while urban hinese peple are gerally supprtive f tiger nservatin, there is a huge residual demand fr tiger prduts whih uld pttially be filled by supplying parts frm bth wild and farmed tigers if the ban n trade in tiger parts is lifted in hina (Gratwike era/. 28b). Managemt f trade and explitatin The nvtin n Bilgial Diversity (BD) expliitly regnizes sustainable utilizatin as a mpnt f nservatin f bidiversity and esystems (nvtin n Bilgial Diversity 2). The key t

34 194 Bilgy and nservatin f Wild Felids sustainable utilizatin is that use is respnsibly managed and that ppulatins are well mnitred t sure that verexplitatin des nt ur. Hwever, sustainable utilizatin is ft hallging in situatins where there is an inequity in distributin f wealth, weak virnmtal ntrls, apatheti natinal and internatinal legislatin, and demi rruptin. Smith et al. (2) fund that pr gvernane, rruptin, institutinal failure, and sial and mi upheaval redue the likelihd f suessful nservatin f bidiversity. verexplitatin f wildlife resures ft ges hand in hand with unntrlled habitat nversin (Rabinwitz 1999; Nyhus and Tilsn 24a) and pahing f tigers is ft linked t existing human-tiger nflits, with illegal trade being a by-prdut f nflit (Kumar and Wright 1999; Jhnsn et al. 26a). Husehld mi and fd inseurity has be shwn t predispse peple t illegal use f wildlife. In Zambia, imprvemt in fd seurity redued pahing and imprved mmitmt t nservatin initiatives (Lewis and Jaksn 25). Sustainable use f felid ppulatins is learly pssible, as evided by a sustainable fur trade in Nrth Ameria (Nwell and Jaksn 1996). Key t this has be lear pliies, effetively applied legislatin, and ppulatin mnitring and researh. These nditins d nt exist in the develping wrld. Trphy hunting has the pttial t be highly sustainable giv its apaity fr high revue geratin and prtetin f habitats and ppulatins, prvided institutinal mehanisms are in plae t assure its sustainability. It is als gverned by internatinal trade agreemts, suh as ITES, and thrugh gvernmt nservatin institutins. Als, sprt hunters as a demgraphi gruping are ft ative in prmting the nservatin f the esystems they utilize. Trade in at furs and the mediinal trade are less easy t ntrl thrugh internatinal trade restritins. Hwever, systemati mmerial hunting fr sptted at skins has se a steady deline sine the impsitin f trade restritins by the United States, EU, and ITES, indiating that internatinal atin an have a psitive impat. In additin, nsumer awaress and ssibilities surrunding use f at skins greatly redued demand and aided the demise f sptted at trade in the Suthern Hemisphere. This example may prvide a template fr ntrlling verexplitatin f ther felid ppulatins, suh as trade in Asian at skins. If the dwnturn in demand se fr sptted at skins is t be experied fr the Asian ats, a mbinatin f internatinal and natinal legislatins, nsumer awaress, and eduatin and gagemt with the TAM industry is a first step in seeking t redue trade in tiger and ther felid bnes (Hemley and Mills 1999). The imprtane f bth stritly applied legislatin and publi eduatin is brne ut by the deline in use f felid parts in hina, where a nerted effrt has be made t eliminate trade and raise awaress (Nwell and Xu 27). ntrl f unsustainable trade in felids appears t depd n strng internatinal ntrls, the willingness and apaity f gvernmts t implemt and plie nservatin pliy and prvide disintives t pahing and illegal trade, and the atin f lal and internatinal nservatin lbbyists and pressure grups. nsumer awaress and eduatin and gagemt f stakehlders als appear ruial in reduing r at least urtailing demand fr felid prduts. nlusins The wrld's ever-grwing human ppulatin has dramatially degraded mst natural esystems, ausing an extintin evt unpreedted in the last 65 millin years. Large arnivres are the first speies t disappear under the nslaught f human ppulatins (Wdrffe 21), having be eradiated first frm Eurpe, th deimated by Eurpeans in Nrth Ameria and mre retly in Asia and Afria. Tday they persist nly in large prteted areas and in diminishing numbers in the least human-dminated f natural esystems. Barring a sudd and unlikely reversal in human ppulatin trd, the marh twards expanding mies, r attitudes twards the natural wrld, persiste f the larger felid speies int the next tury is a hallge we must all fae. The utlk is dire fr thse wh herish wild ats. Smaller felids that d nt nflit with man and are nt mmerially verexplited are likely t persist nly where their habitats are nt defrested, vergrazed, r nverted t agriulture.

35 Peple and wild felids: nservatin f ats and managemt f nflits 195 The threats psed by humans t large felids are sluble if peple sharing their landsapes have either mi r ethial intives t preserve them. Like the ban n ivry trading that saved Afrian elephant ppulatins t date, the suessful ban n trade in trpial sptted at skins shws that nservatinists an have a signifiant influe n internatinal measures t preserve mially imprtant speies in the develping wrld. Mrever, demand was redued wh wearing sptted at furs beame sially unaeptable, suggesting that mral pressures n siety may be equally effetive. Hwever, the ntinuing deline f tw f the mst ini felid speies, the tiger (haprn era/. 28a; Damania era/. 28) and lin (IU 26b), prvide a ls thrugh whih t view the hallges faing nservatinists wh underlying nservatin threats are nt readily subjet t legal r sial measures. Althugh nflit with peple, habitat lss, and redued availability f wild prey are a signifiant prblem fr sme tiger ppulatins, pahing t supply markets fr traditinal mediine and skins in Asia pses the greatest threat t the speies (Dinerstein et al. 27; haprn ef al. 28a). It is unlikely that the trd will reverse in the abse f effetive legal measures t ntrl trade and the srt f mral pressure that made wearing f sptted at furs unppular in the West. Intransigt superstitin and the ditates f fashin, inreasing prsperity, and ultural inertia in Asia, sure an inreasing and unpreedted demand by nsumers fr skins and bnes. Meanwhile, pervasive rruptin at all levels defeats legal santins. Demand fr tiger prduts an nly be redued thrugh eduatin abut alternatives and develpmt f a sse f persnal respnsibility fr nature and wildlife and imprved pratie in wildlife nservatin. Unless nsumers an be nvined that wildlife is mre valuable raming in frests than dismantled in apthearies and upsale hmes, tigers and many ther speies seem dmed. Hwever, it seems unlikely that suh a shift in attitude an be impsed by Western nservatinists. It will nly ampany hange in deeply held ultural values, a slw press mpared t the shrt time left fr sme wild tiger ppulatins. In ntrast, Afrian lins are delining largely due t ntinuing pverty and ultural mdernizatin in Afria. At a time wh inreasing numbers f impverished peple and their livestk are devastating semiarid esystems, pastralist peple are als abandning traditinal and effetive methds f livestk prtetin in favur f agriultural pestiides that allw them t eliminate tire ppulatins f predatrs at very lw st. Again, a majr fatr is ineffetive law fremt due t lak f resures, lak f interest, and pervasive rruptin. Hwever, while tigers are pahed beause their parts are s valuable, lins are speared, trapped, and pisned largely beause they lak any mi value t the humans that share their habitat. While bth turism and sprt hunting are highly lurative and that mney uld pttially be used t ffset the sts f livestk depredatin, very little prfit frm turism and hunting reahes the peple whse preius livestk are killed by lins. Thus lins and ther wild animals are nthing but an expsive nuisane t rural peple, with the inevitable result that they are being eradiated. Unless pastralists and ther rural Afrians an earn signifiant inme frm wildlife, there is n reasn fr them t nserve it. Internatinal fasinatin with these harismati animals gives them pttially great mi value. Hwever, this value is largely inaessible t the rural peple wh bear the brunt f living alngside large arnivres. Big ats will survive in the wild nly if they beme mre valuable alive than dead t the peple wh share their landsapes. nflit betwe peple and large arnivres has be a nsistt theme thrughut human histry. As human ppulatins burg, inreasing pressure n remaining ppulatins f arnivres will ur. ur understanding f the presses and patterns f use and nflit may determine ur ability t mitigate verexplitatin and nflits and sure survival f predatry arnivres in a wrld inreasingly dminated by the needs and aspiratins f the human speies.