CLINICAL NUTRITION OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

Transcription

1 CLINICAL NUTRITION OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS Susn Dnghue., V.M.D.., M.S., D.A.C..V.N. Nutritin ls'upprt 5'ervices. Inc. Rute 1. Bx 189 Pernbrke. T,'irgini l/5'a Clinicl nutritin prvides numerus pprtunities fr veterinrins engged In reptile nd mphibin prctice fr severl resns: ) the wide vriety f reptile nd mphibin species kept in cptivity represents the entire spectrum f nutritinl type, frm strict crnivre t strict herbivre b) incmplete knwledge regrding husbndry, cceptble fds, physilgy nd nutritinl needs ften leds t errrs tht result in nutritinl diseses c) cmmercil diets nd supplements re nt lwys nutritinlly sund, creting further ptentil fr nutritin relted disese d) limited interest in nd pltry funding fr study freptile clinicl nutritin leves veterinrins in prctice t the frefrnt, discvering new prblems nd reslving the ld, nd cllecting the dt tht will be vitl t the further dvncement f clinicl nutritin in these species All reptiles nd mphibins require wter, dietry energy, nd essentil nutrients~ sme require fiber, t. Feeding behvir, fd preferences, nd nutritinl mngement vry gretly between species. Nevertheless, reclling the nutritinl principles nd digestive physilgies fdmestic species ids ur understnding fclinicl nutritin in reptiles nd mphibins. Fr exmple, herbivrus lizrds such s green iguns (Igull igull) nd [lrl)nlsty.,'c spp. re hindgut fermenters, nt unlike hrses nd rbbits. Strict crnivres such s snkes, nd mny mnitrs nd mst frgs hve simpler gstrintestinl trcts, nlgus t cts. Omnivres re ften mre flexible feeders thn either extreme, s re dgs, pigs, nd humns. dditin, wners' gls impct their niml's nutritin. Fr exmple, cntrst the styles nd likely nutritinl gls f n intense wner hnd-feeding her nly pet, n Old Wrld chmelen, versus reptile whlesler with n ever chnging ppultin f recently imprted trtises, versus teenger with juvenile green igun. Ech hs different plns nd differing munts ftime nd mney t invest. Recmmendtins cncerning diet nd feeding mngement hve t tke int ccunt the gls fthe client in rder t be mximl1y effective. Althugh much is yet t be lerned but specific nutritinl requirements fr reptiles nd mphibins, much cn still be dne t ensure sund nutritin. Estimtes cn be mde f ptiml r dequte rnges f dietry clrie nd nutrient cntents bsed n dt in the literture, prcticl experiences, nd extrpltin frm ther species. Ptient exmintins cn include nutritinl PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

2 evlutin, with cmprisn f ctul intkes t recmmended intkes. Such effrts will help t minimize the prevlence f mlnutritin, thereby reducing ptient stress nd prmting ptiml helth nd well-being. Nutritinl Evlutin f Ptients The skills lerned in the nutritinl evlutin f ther ptients, dg fed hmemde diet, fr exmple, r pstured brdmres with infertility, r mcws with high mrtlity fed cmmercil diet, re pplicble t reptiles nd mphibins. Althugh physilgicl differences in energy nd nitrgen metblism set prt reptiles nd mphibins frm mst f ur ther ptients nd directly influence the nutritin f these species, the principles nd techniques lerned fr mre trditinl species cn be pplied t reptiles nd mphibins. Nutritinl evlutin includes, but is nt restricted t, exmintin fthe envirnment s well s the ptient(s), detiled feeding histry, nd rtin evlutin. Nutritin relted prblems ften surfce during times f metblic stress (rpid grwth, lte gesttin) but the nutritinl mismngement ften ccurred erlier. Thus cmplete nutritinl evlutin includes exmintin f diet nd mngement fr n entire yer. Everything tht ptentilly impcts n individul's requirements fr energy nd nutrients shuld be cnsidered (Figure 1). The fcus f nutritinl evlutin cn be mdified depending n the ptient nd prblem in questin. Fr exmple, evlutin f grup f dult Aldbr trtises (Gechellle gignte) with reprductive inefficiency wuld likely fcus n lng term mngement, psture nd sil nlyses, nd yer lng diet evlutin, wheres evlutin f juvenile green igun with multiple frctures wuld likely fcus n its immedite diet, especilly minerl (clcium, phsphrus) nd vitmin (D 3 ) cntents, s well s the wrmth fits envirnment. Envirnment: In ll species, nutritin plys decisive rle in bth medicine nd husbndry, but perhps with n ther grups r species is nutritin s criticlly vitl t husbndry, nd husbndry s criticl t nutritin. Animls in therwise superir envirnments fil t thrive when diets re inferir, nd lterntively my suffer diet relted disese in n indequte envirnment, even ifffered blnced, cmplete diet. Whether in cge, psture, r lrge exhibit, ech niml hs n ptiml rnge f envirnmentl temperture; mintennce utside the rnge is physilgicl stress tht ften results in pr fd intke, indequte digestin nd fd utiliztin, nd filure t thrive. The ltter my present s mlnutritin with r withut secndry diseses such s pneumni, r my present s pr grwth, r reprductive filure in dults. Likewise, ech species hs n ptiml rnge fr humidity, s well s ptiml husing size, substrte, furnishings, lighting requirements, nd desire fr scil interctin. Filure t prvide ech niml with its envirnmentl needs nd t prvide grdients t llw chices within its ptiml envirnment leds t stress, with negtive effects n the ptient, including pr fd intke PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 17

3 Nutritin cn excerbte husbndry indequcies when it fils t meet the needs f the niml. Alterntively, sund nutritin cn help n niml t withstnd stress tht it invribly meets in its life in cptivity. Fr exmple, mphibins nd reptiles in my wn cllectin hve endured numerus stressrs ver the yers, including hurricnes, lng term pwer utges nd evcutins, nd expsure t vriety f pthgens nd prsites. I'm cnvinced tht my cllectin hndles stress s well in prt becuse ftheir sund nutritinl sttus. Animls tht re rutinely well fed cn redily hndle few dys ffd deprivtin r diet imblnce during emergencies with n lsting untwrd effects. When pssible, direct exmintin f the ptient's envirnment prvides mre ccurte ssessment fits suitbility t the ptient. Direct exmintin ids the detectin fprblems such s t cld envirnment r excessive cmpetitin fr fd in cges, r pisnus plnts nd ver-grzed pstures in utside enclsures. Infrmtin surces: Reference texts re vluble resurces fr infrmtin n feeding eclgies, including fd preferences, nd nturl histry, including ptiml rnges ftemperture nd humidity, fr the huge vriety f species tht my be seen in prctice. Be wry f wrd f muth infrmtin (including tht fund n-line) nd lk fr referenced mteril whenever pssible. Try t verify unreferenced nd necdtl infrmtin. Sme species in the wild inhbit lrge territries with vrying hbitts; tw species ftrtise, the yellw-fted (Gechelne del/licull) in Suth Americ nd leprd (G. prdlis) in Afric cme t mind. While the generl ppultin f G. del1ticull, fr exmple, is cnsidered rin frest dweller, certin individuls re lcted in mre rid territries. Yu likely will be unble t determine if yellw-fted ptient prefers very humid r drier envirnment. Mngement f imprts is prblemtic, nd grdients in envirnmentl fctrs ssume even mre imprtnce when preferred hbitts re in questin. Reptile species my be crnivrus (eting vertebrte r invertebrte prey), mnivrus, r herbivrus. Almst ll mphibins re crnivrus, cnsuming vertebrtes nd/r invertebrtes. Becuse dietry ft cntent gretly ffects dietry energy density, dietry dt fr crnivres re presented n n energy bsis (such s mg clcium per clrie). Fr lw ft diets, such s thse fed t herbivres, dietry dt re presented n dry mtter bsis (such s mg clcium per 100 g dry mtter). Althugh detils n fd preferences fr every species re beynd the scpe f this presenttin, briefchrt is prvided. Reference texts prvide useful infrmtin n preferred fds fr ech species: PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

4 DIETARY CONTENT % kcl ME CARNIVORE OMNIVOREb HERBIVOREc Prtein Ft Crbhydrte < < snkes, qutic turtles, mst mnitrs, tegus, mst lizrds, crcdilins, mst mphibins, certin tdples b bx turtles, berded drgns, dy gecks, frest dwelling trtises (?), rck iguns C mst trtises, iguns, Urmstyx spp., certin tdples Diet histry: A diet histry permits ssessment f the niml's intke f energy nd nutrients, nd prvides infrmtin relevnt t the niml's cnditin (fils this ptient thin becuse it hs been underfed?") nd ttitude (fils it listless becuse it is prtein deficient?fi). A diet histry ls helps t detect prblems befre they becme clinicl nightmres. Fr mny diet relted diseses, nutritinl mismngement hs been firly lng stnding befre clinicl signs ppered. Mking diet histry prt f the medicl wrkup fr ll new mphibin nd reptile ptients strengthens preventive helth prgrm. The im here is t btin picture, bth crss-sectinl nd lngitudinl, f fd ffered nd cnsumed by the ptient, including individul fds nd supplements ffered s well s ccess t ther fds nt ffered intentinlly (such s weeds n psture nd rches trversing cges). Attentin is given t the qulity nd whlesmeness (bsence fptentil pthgens) fthe fd, clenliness f feeding utensils, nd the skills nd relibility f thse respnsible fr feeding. Evlutinfwter is lwys included, even fr rid species. Diet histries my be reltively simple fr crnivres eting whle prey peridiclly, nd grw mre cmplex with herbivres cnsuming mixed slds nd supplements dily. It is best t query thse directly respnsible fr feeding the niml nd nt t rely n secnd hnd infrmtin. Fr cmplicted feeding prgrms invlving wide vriety f fds, wners my cmplete seven- r ten-dy diries, listing ll fds ffered nd estimtes f munts cnsumed. Fr bth written r rl diet histries, cre must be tken t vid influencing respnses by wners. Histry tking pprches my be vried r custmized with wners ccrding t their individul mngement styles nd gls. Owners fjust few nimls my be ble t prvide estimtes ffd intkes fr ech niml, lng with useful infrmtin recllected n chnges in bdy cnditin, time spent utdrs, nd s n. In cntrst, thse respnsible fr lrge cllectins my supply gd recrds bsed n receipts ffds nd supplements purchsed, niml weights, breeding recrds r receipts frm sle fffspring, nd recrds fpsture mngement PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 19

5 Exmintin fflls: Estimtes ffd intke require pinstking effrts ifthey re t be ccurte t within, perhps, 10%. Owners' estimtes fthe number nd size fvertebrte prey fed t snkes nd mnitrs shuld be resnbly relible. Estimtes f invertebrtes cnsumed by lizrds nd frgs my be less ccurte. Accurcy is crucil, becuse estimtes ffd intke re cmpred with published dt n nutrient cntent ffd, then cmpred t estimtes fptiml intkes. Estimtes fprduce cnsumptin tny be even mre prblemtic. Often, infrmtin is btined in vlumes (3 c f chpped greens, fr exmple) tht must be cnverted t weight (120 g f chpped greens). Weight fr vlumes fprduce cn vry, depending n the misture in nd n the prduce nd the exubernce with which the prduce is pcked int feeders. Fr herbivres grzing r brwsing in utside enclsures, ccurcy in determining dry mtter intke (DM!) is hrd t btin. Ifprduce nd psture re bth ffered free chice, the estimted psture/brwse intke my be prprtined ccrding t length ftime spent cnsuming ech (expected DMI minus prduce). Psture- r brwse-n-ffer my be estimted nd verged ver n expsure perid fweeks r mnths (DMI, tns per cre r grms per squre meter). Hwever, trtises re selective grzers nd tend t wste feed, nt cnsuming ll vilble fd nd defecting n prduce. Nutritinl vlues vry gretly depending n the mngement prctices fthe enclsure. Pstures "imprved" by liming r fertiliztin vry frm unimprved res. Outside enclsures cn be smpled fr nlysis by cvering n X r Z pttern, cutting grss t regulr predetermined intervls, fr exmple, every 10 pces. A 6x6 in squre is cut with scissrs nd plced in bucket. The cuttings re mixed nd n liqut remved fr testing. Opinins vry n the ccurcy fpsture smpling. Fr ll types ffd, prey s well s prduce nd psture, lbrtry nlyses re recmmended when pprprite. I use DHIA frge testing lbrtry (Nrthest DHIA, Ithc, New Yrk 14850; ); ther sttes hve similr lbs. Feed smples my be submitted fr prximte nlysis (misture, nitrgen, fiber, clcium, phsphrus, clculted prtein, nd digestible nd net energies). Minerl nlyses (Mg, K, N, Fe, Zn, eu, Mn, M) cn be btined if indicted. The lbs prvide prepid milers. Since these lbs prvide services usully fr livestck prducers, cll first if sending nything unusul, such s prey. Fees verge but $12 per smple fr prximte nlysis nd $20 fr minerl ssys. Vitmins re rrely ssyed by cmmercil lbs. Exmintin f Methdlgies hve yet t be pplied t the quntittive ssessment fnutritinl sttus freptiles nd mphibins, either fr ppultins r fr individul ptients. Nevertheless, ptient exmintin is included s prt fnutritinl evlutin. Assessment f bdy cnditin cn detect chnges in bdy weight. Underweight ptients my exhibit bny prtubernces (snkes nd frgs), lse flds f skin (lizrds nd slmnders), nd lck f heft (trtises). Overweight ptients exhibit excess dipse ver trunks nd tils; sedentry reptiles, such s lrge lizrds, seem prne t besity. In my experience, cptive frgs ls seem prne t besity but dt re scrce PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

6 The utility flbrtry dt is limited. Bld cncentrtins nd cell cunts my be cnfunded by fluid shifts. Bichemistries exmine ne pint in time nd we must infer the time curse f underlying events, such s metblic turnver nd imblnces in input/utput. Anlyses fbld my be useful fr detecting certin minerl nd vitmin txicities r deficiencies (such s selenium nd vitmin A), but nlysis fseverl metblites likely t prvide relevnt infrmtin re nt run by mny clinicl lbrtries. Tw cnvenient nd useful mens f ssessing ptient's nutritinl sttus re bdy cnditin scres (BCS) nd mrphmetric equtins. BCS systems use rnge f 1-6, with 1=cchectic, 3=len-ptiml, 4=hevy-ptiml, nd 6=bese. An ptiml BCS vries with species, ge, nd sex. Systems hve been develped fr severl endthermic species; we wit vlidtin fsystems fr reptiles nd mphibins. Mrphmetric nlyses ftrtises hve begun. The gl is t develp n equtin tht prvides n ptiml rnge fbdyweight (BW, g) fr given crpce length (L, cm). In preliminry study in my cllectin, we lked fr crreltin between BW nd the L 3 (becuse weight is functin fthe cube flength, given similr shpes nd weight prprtinl t vlume). Dt n 42 trtises representing nine species re described by single equtin: BW (g) = 0.15L 3 (cm) r 2 = 0.99 Dr. Mder perfrmed similr mesures n 220 helthy Clifrni desert trtises (Gpherus gssizii), including vlidtin fweight/vlume reltinships, nd fund: BW(g) 0.59(L x W x H) r 0.89 Ifn individul hs n ctul BW lwer thn the predicted BW by, sy, 10%, then it my be in need fnutritinl interventin. Rtin nd Diet Evlutin With the exceptin fthe nutritinl cses tht present lte in the curse fthe disese with vert signs (such s dvnced metblic bne disese in juvenile green iguns, mst nutritinl disrders re dignsed by rtin (intke) nd diet (percentges) evlutin. Intkes fenergy nd nutrients re cmpred t recmmended rnges fintkes. Fds: Field studies fwild nimls usully demnstrte wide vriety ffds cnsumed; mphibins nd reptiles re n exceptin. Fd intkes vry with vilbility nd ccessibility f pprprite fds, thus the vritin is nt lwys by preference. Nevertheless, this degree f vriety is impssible t replicte fr nimls in cptivity. Still, effrts t prvide vriety (fd grdients, in sense) re encurged fr mphibin nd reptile cllectins, even thugh vriety mng prey r prduce ften reflects differences in clr, texture, nd perhps tste rther thn mrked differences in nutritinl vlue PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

7 Fr ll types f fds, prtins ffered t mphibins nd reptiles shuld be evluted fr pprpriteness nd whlesmeness. Prey nd prduce shuld be f sizes pprprite fr the ptient. New wners cmmnly err by ffering dult mice t smll snkes, hlfgrwn crickets t tiny frgs, nd lrge chunks f prduce t htchling lizrds nd trtises. These mphibins nd reptiles ften shw signs f underfeeding (weight lss, listlessness, incresed susceptibility t infectius nd prsitic diseses) r, in cses invlving live prey tht re t lrge fr the predtr, the predtr-prey rles my hve becme reversed. Ensuring whlesmeness ffd is difficult. Owners re ften unble t determine prir expsure f fds t nxius r txic gents. Prey purchsed frm pet shps my hve been expsed t pesticides; prduce frm grceries my cntin herbicides. Neighbrs (nd unwitting wners) my hve used ptentilly txic lwn cre prducts, insecticides, nd the like ner utside enclsures. Vertebrte prey: Surprisingly little wrk hs been dne n the nutrient vlue fprey. Generlly, vertebrtes re ssumed t be "cmplete nd blnced" pckges tht cntin ll fthe essentil nutrients. Clcium nd ther minerls re prvided by bne, trce minerls nd vitmins by liver nd kidney, idine by thyrid nd s n. Prtein qulity is high. Dt n energy nd nutrients fr prey re prvided (Tble 1). Thin prey cntin less ft, hence fewer clries. Obese prey cntin mre ft, which dilutes the cncentrtins fnutrients per clrie. Vertebrte prey shuld be ffered prekilled; smetimes incisrs nd clws re clipped. Feeding wild prey risks prsite nd pthgen trnsmissins, hwever cmmercil prey shuld nt be ssumed t be withut risk. Fr lrge cllectins, the cmmercil surce fprey shuld be queried s t diet, prsite cntrl mesures, nd s n. Dn't ssume tht ll cmmercil prey re in tp cnditin r whlesme. Invertebrte prey: Invertebrte prey cntin much ft nd prtein, s d the vertebrtes, but lck clcium rich skeletn (Tble 2). The chitinus (min-cellulse) exskeletn fmst invertebrtes cntins nnprtein nitrgen, which ifnt djusted fr, verestimtes ttl prtein clcultins (N x 6.25). Wild cught invertebrtes prvide welcme vriety fr mst insectivres, thugh whlesmeness shuld be ssessed prir t feeding ut. Invertebrtes re rutinely "dusted" with pwdery vitmin-minerl supplements in rder t supply clcium nd thernutrients therwise in shrt supply. Dusting is nutritinlly risky fr it my induce nutrient txicities ifverdne, deficiencies ifunderdne, nd printke ifunpltble. Specil diets fr invertebrtes re mrketed tht cntin but 8% clcium (fr cmprisn, mst niml fds cntin but 0.5 t 1% clcium, dry mtter bsis). The gl is t frce the crickets t et these unpltble diets fr but 48 hr, thus lding their gstrintestinl trct with clcium rich fd just prir t feeding ut. These diets re nt indicted fr lng term feeding t invertebrtes, fr excessive clcium cretes prblems t, leding t secndry deficiencies ftrce minerls, nd, in invertebrtes, filed reprductin PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

8 Prduce: The dmestic fruits nd vegetbles vilble frm grceries re lwer in nutritinl vlue (especilly prtein nd fiber) thn the fruits nd plnts in the wild cnsumed by reptiles (Tble 3). Higher prtein levels re fund in greens (such s rmine nd spinch), lflf nd mung ben spruts, mushrms, nd bmb shts. Qulity f prduce depends n its freshness, hndling during hrvest nd trnsprt, nd strge cnditins. Althugh lder texts disprged (crrectly) frzen prduce, tdy's technlgy is such tht frzen vegetbles usully meet nd smetimes exceed the nutritinl qulity f fresh vegetbles. Whlesmeness f cmmercil nd hme grwn prduce depends n expsure t fertilizers, herbicides, nd pesticides. Fruits re ften preferred by herbivrus reptiles, prbbly becuse ftheir bright clrs, sweet tste, nd mist texture. Hwever, fruits cntin mstly wter, fructse, nd little fiber. Additins fsmll munts ffruit quickly dilute the clries nd nutrients prvided by greens. Fr exmple: WEIGHT OM ENERGY PROTEIN C FIBER g g kcl %DM %DM %DM %DM Chpped rmine 1 c Plus strwberries 1 c Adding 1 c strwberries t 1 c rmine reduces the cncentrtins fprtein nd clcium by twthirds. Supplements: Cmmercil vitmin/minerl supplements ffer wide vriety in nutrient cntent nd quntity (Tble 4). Differences in qulity cntrl fingredients, mnufcture, nd strge re likely, t, but re difficult t dcument. Supplements mrketed fr humns generlly cntin mre fthe nutrients knwn nd ssumed t be essentil fr mphibins nd reptiles in better blnced quntities. Nte fr exmple in Tble 4, tht Centrum R cntins sund rti f vitmin A:vitmin D~, 12: 1, in cntrst t the Nektn prduct's A:D 3 rti, 650: 1. Prceedings. Cmmercil diets: Cmmercil diets re cvered in seprte rticle in these Energy ndnutrientrequirements: Reptiles nd mphibins re ectthermic (n lder term is pikilthermic), bdy temperture is dependent n externl envirnment rther thn internl metblism, nd heterthermic, exhibiting wide rnge f bdy tempertures in line with envirnmentl cnditins. The mbient envirnmentl temperture ffects cre bdy temperture, ctivity including fd prcurement nd fd energy needs PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 23

9 Metblic rte in reptiles nd mphibins reltes t metblic bdy size; the smller the niml, the greter its metblic rte per unit bdy weight. Metblic rtes in reptiles nd mphibins verge but ne-qurter thse fr mmmls. Dily energy needs re estimted frm reserch dt, extrpltin frm dmestic species, nd prcticl experience. These re bsed n clcultins f verge stndrd metblic rte (SMR), usully mesured n fsting nimls t rest in drk, temperture cntrlled envirnment: SPECIES METABOLIC RATE kclldy Mny, verged Lizrds Lizrds Snkes Turtles Amphibins (WO. 77 ) 28(WO. 83 ) 48(WO. 82 ) 32(WO. 76 ) 32(WO. 86 ) 33(WO. 75 ) energy equtins determined experimentlly fr vrius mphibin nd reptiles species. Stndrd metblic rtes were mesured n fsting nimls resting in the drk in the inctive phse f diurnl cycle. Energy requirements increse with eting, ctivity, reprductin, grwth, prtein synthesis (s in wund heling), nd certin disrders. Fr ecttherms (unlike endtherms) energy requirements d NOT increse with cld mbient tempertures. Dily energy intkes shuld be clculted by multiplying SMR by fctr which rnges frm 1.1 t but 2.5 ccrding t ctivity nd ther cnditins tht increse metblic rte (Tble 5). Eventully, dt cllectin n cllectins fcptive reptiles nd mphibins hused in pet r z cnditins will enble us t mre ccurtely predict energy needs fur ptients. Fr exmple, fine study ws published recently which dcumented energy intke in 25 snkes representing nine species nd mintined t the Lndn Z. Averge metblizble energy (ME) requirement fr mintennce ws estimted: ME/dy == 27 kj(bw. 75 ) 6.4 kcl(bw. 75 ) This energy requirement is smller thn thse derived frm stndrd equtins (see bve), which the uthr suggests is due t the lwer tempertures t the Lndn Z. Nutritin Relted Disrders The prevlence fnutritinl disrders vries with species nd feeding mngement. Fr exmple, lrge snkes cnsuming whle prey re mre likely t suffer frm generlized strvtin thn deficiency fnly ne nutrient. In cntrst, iguns nd ther herbivrus reptiles re mre likely PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

10 t present with clcium deficiency due t imblnced hmemde diets. Smll snkes nd lizrds my be clcium deficient frm cnsumptin funsupplemented invertebrtes. Smll qutic turtles fed lettuce nd met my present with clcium nd vitmin A deficiencies. Emphsis hs been plced in this rticle n recgnitin fundernutritin nd mlnutritin thrugh ssessment fthe individul nd its diet. Given nutritinl dignsis, dietry crrectin is usully bvius nd immedite medicl tretment, mstly symptmtic, shuld fllw recmmendtins in medicl texts (Dnghue, 1996). The fllwing chrt summrizes severl fthe nutritin relted diseses seen in reptiles nd mphibins: DISEASE NUTRIENT OR FUEL DIET EVALUATION DIET CORRECTION Cchexi Energy deficiency Lw intke prey; excess fruit Increse mbient temperture; mre fd; increse grss nd greens Obesity Energy excess Excess fd; lw ctivity Increse ctivity; increse lw kcl fds; decrese DMI by 10, 20, 30, nd 400/0 in successive weeks Metblic bne disese Clcium deficiency; vitmin D 3 deficiency Lw clcium fd; n sun r ultrvilet rditin Supplement with clcium slts, legume, whle prey; huse utside Hypvitminsis Vitmin A A (grwth, eyes, deficiency squmus metplsi) Muscle met, lettuce Replce with cmmercil turtle/ trut/pet fds Hypervitminsis A (erythem, skin slugh) Vitmin A excess Overdse vitmin A (prenterl) Stp supplementtin Stetitis Vitmin E deficiency Excess plyunsturted ftty cids Add vitmin E; lw ft fish. Thimin (neurlgic signs) Thimin deficiency Thiminses in fish, psture? Add thimin; vry fish species 1995 PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHlBIAN VETERINARIANS 25

11 DISEASE Gut "Pr der" Giter NUTRIENT DIET DIET OR FUEL EVALUATION CORRECTION Purine excess~ Orgn mets~ Lw purine diet; wter deficit dehydrtin fluids Prtein deficiency Obese prey; excess Len prey; fruits nd vegetbles cmmercil diets ifsund Idine deficiency Idine deficient sil; Add idized slt; r excess excess supplementtin r stp supple- (kelp, slt) menttin Energy deficiency: Underweight nd cchectic bdy cnditins develp in reptiles nd mphibins fr vriety fresns. T little fd my hve been ffered, r inpprprite fds r feeding mngement (e.g., t cld envirnment), limited energy intke, r ptients my hve diseses tht ffect ppetite (decresed) r metblism (incresed). Fds my be inpprprite becuse f: ) lw energy density (kcl/g), such s fund with diets ffruits nd mny vegetbles b) high fiber cntents, such s fund with diets including pst blm hys, which limit dry mtter intke c) vitmin/minerl supplements, which hve been fed t the expense fenergy cntining fds Amphibins nd reptiles tht lse weight lse len tissue (prtein) s well s dipse. Lss f prtein frm vitl rgns impirs functin nd thretens life. Experimentl dt frm reptiles suggest tht strved snkes nd qutic turtles lse up t but 35% bdy weight nd metblic rtes decrese by 50%. T tret energy deficiency, first replce tlllids nd electrlytes, then prvide initilly smll quntities fclries nd nutrients, nd increse munts grdully (nutritin supprt is cvered in mre detil in these Prceedings). Strved ptients tht re re-fed gin wter first, then replce sme fthe ft tht ws metblized, fllwed by replcement fprtein. S erly increses in bdy weight, while encurging, d nt indicte cmpete restrtin f vitl tissue prtein. Weeks re needed t restre tissue prtein. Clcium deficiency: In crnivres, clcium deficiency rises frm the cnsumptin f skeletl muscle nd/r viscer (such s fish filets insted f whle fish), dy ld chicks, perhps nentl prey, nd unsupplemented invertebrtes. In herbivres, clcium deficiency rises frm cnsumptin funsupplemented slds r insufficient legumes PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

12 Clcium bsrptin my be impired by diets cntining phyttes (sy ingredients), xltes (spinch), high ft (perfrmnce pet fds), r cid (certin cmmercil ct fds) nd by diets deficient in vitmin D. Dt re lcking fr ecttherms, but generlly, in endtherms, excepting diets deficient in vitmin D, diets must be brderline in clcium cntent befre these cnditins becme significnt. Signs include multiple nd spntneus bne frctures, muscle tremrs., skeletl defrmities (especilly fthe mndible), nd indequtely clcified eggs. Tretment. cnsists f rehydrtin nd clcium therpy. Intrvenus clcium is recmmended fr ptients with hypclcemi, muscle tremrs, r presis. Subcutneus r intrmusculr clcium glucnte is dministered t less criticl ptients (0.5 ml/kg b.i.d.). An effective tretment prtcl includes Ne-Clglucn (Sndz, Est Hnver, N.J., 07936, 23 mg/ml) t 1 ml/kg p.. b.i.d.., Injcm 100 (Hffmn-L Rche, Nutley, N.J., 07110, 10.,000 IU/ml) t 100 IU/kg s.c. every 7 dys, nd synthetic slmn-derived clcitnin (100 IU/ml) t 50 IV/kg i.m.., repet in 7 dys. Clcium nd vitmin D 3 requirements re unknwn fr reptiles. Extrplting frm dt in endtherms, dietry clcium my be but 0.6 t 1.0% (DM bsis), perhps 1.4% fr trtises, phsphrus 0.5 t 0.8%, nd vitmin D t 1000 IU/kg DM. Fr mny species, mximum tlernces re but 2.5% fr clcium, 1.6% fr phsphrus, nd perhps mre thn 5000 IU/kg fr vitmin D. Clcium my be prvided s limestne (38% clcium) r s clcium slts - crbnte (40% clcium), lctte (18%), glucnte (9%). Clcium nd phsphrus re supplied in bne mel (24% clcium, 12% phsphrus) nd diclcium phsphte (18-24% clcium, 18% phsphrus). Gut: Depsitin furtes n viscerl nd rticulr surfces is termed gut. It is sscited cliniclly with ther disrders, especilly thse ffecting wter blnce. Etipthlgic theries include inpprprite dietry nitrgen levels nd dehydrtin. Mst likely, ny disturbnce in renl excretin furic cid in urictelic species predispses n individul t precipittin furte crystls. Dietry mngement fgut hs been tried in endtherms with disrdered purine metblism, but supprt nd drugs re usully fund t be mre effective thn chnges in diet. Hwever, dietry mngement my be wrrnted when ptients re t risk fr gut, r when cse is dignsed erly in its curse. Fr dietry mngement, rtins re frmulted with ingredients tht re lw in purines nd tht prmte cidifictin: ) high purine fds - sprgus, mushrms, liver, brin, kidney, mincemets, nchvies, nd srdines b) lw purine fds - breds, cerels, milk, fruits, eggs, mst vegetbles, fts, cheese, nd nuts c) ptentilly cid fds - mets, cheese, breds, cerels, Brzil nuts, wlnuts, crn, lentils, crnberries, plums, prunes, nd rice d) ptentilly lkline fds - beets, beet greens, chrd., dndelin, kle, mustrd, spinch, turnip greens, mlsses, fruits (except plums, prunes, nd crnberries)., diry, lmnds, chestnuts, nd ccnuts 1995 PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 27

13 Other disrders: In dditin t the cmmn diet relted disrders re clinicl prblems dcumented in endtherms tht my pssibly ccur in reptiles nd mphibins: NUTRIENT CLINICAL SIGNS OR LESIONS DIET EVALUATION DIET CORRECTION Turine deficiency Retin, hert, reprductin Strict crnivres fed nn-met; prcessing Supplement; feed met prey Archidnte deficiency Reprductin? Strict crnivres fed nn-met Feed prey, nervus tissue Selenium deficiency Muscle, neurlgic Herbivres fed Se-deficient plnts Se supplement Selenium excess Clws, scles?~ grlic breth Excess supplement~ Se-ccumulting plnts Stp supplement; chnge diet Clcium excess Trce minerl deficiencies Excess clcium supplementtin. Stp supplements Vitmin D 3 excess Sft tissue minerliztin Excess supplements; D 3 ccumulting plnts Chnge diet; stp supplements Indequte fiber Lse stls; metblic disese? Herbivres fed lw rughge Add hy, grss Excess fiber Weight lss, pr grwth Crnivres fed plnt surce diets Add met bsed fds. Prfessinl libility: Veterinrins recmmending specific nutritinl prctices, such s dditins fsupplements, re ptentilly lible fr hrm t nimls tht my be rgued t be cused by such recmmendtins. Prblems with endtherms tht cme t mind re cpper pisning in sheep fed trce minerl slt, nd selenium intxictin in vriety f species supplemented with prenterl nd enterl prducts. Extr cre shuld be tken when recmmending dietry dditins f nutrients with nrrw mrgins f sfety, such s vitmins A nd D 3, clcium, selenium, nd idine PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

14 REFERENCES Dnghue, S, J. Lngenberg Nutritin. [11: Mder, D.R. (ed). Reptile Medicine nd Surgery. W.B. Sunders C., Phildelphi. Kirkwd, J.K., C. Gili Fd cnsumptin in reltin t bdyweight in cptive snkes. Res. Vet. Sci. 57: Mttisn, C The Cre f Reptiles nd Amphibins in Cptivity. Blndfrd Press., Lndn. (In USA, Sterling Publishing C., New Yrk). 2nd Editin. Mttisn, C Keeping nd Breeding Amphibins. Blndfrd Press. Lndn. (In USA, Sterling Publishing C., New Yrk). Obst, F.J., K. Richter, U. Jcb A~ls f Reptiles nd Amphibins fr the Terrrium. T.F.H,. Publictins, Neptune City, New Jersey. Rssi, J.V Snkes fthe United Sttes nd Cnd. Vlumes I nd II. Krieger Publishing, Mlbr, Flrid. FURTHER READING Burghrdt, G.M., A.S. Rnd Iguns fthe Wrld. Nyes Publishing, Prk Ridge, New Jersey. DueUmn, W.E., L. Trueb Bilgy f Amphibins. Jhns Hpkins University Press, Bltimre, Mrylnd. Feder, M.E., W.W. Burggren (eds.) Envirnmentl Physilgy f the Amphibins.. University Chicg Press. Hrless, M., H. Mrlck (eds.) Turtles, Perspectives nd Reserch. Krieger Publishing, Mlbr, Flrid. Swinglnd,I.R, M.W. Klemens (eds.) The Cnservtin Bilgy ftrtises. IUCN-SSC. Figure 1(J Mny fctrs impct n individul's nutritinl requirements ANIMAL Species Breed Sex Age Bdy Weight PERFORMANCE Mintennce Breeding Grwth Wrk Stress REQUIREMENTS Energy Nutrients DIET RATION Intke Fd Cmpsitin MANAGEMENT Feeding Husing Wrming Vccinti.n 1995 PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 29

15 Tble 1. Clrie nd Nutrient Cntents f Vertebrte prey FOOD WATER ENERGY PROTEIN FAT.CARB b C pc ITEM kcl/g Jg} % AF Dm e %kcl mg/kcl Medw vle (32 g) Muse, dult (27 g) Muse, pup (1.5 g) Muse, pup (4 g) Rt, dult (330 g) Chicken, dult (380 g) Chick, dy ld (40 g) Atlntic herring (100 g) n f 1.4 Atlntic smelt (100 g) these dt re presented s estimtes nly; vritin is likely within species. b CARB == crbhydrte C P phsphrus d AF == s fed (wet) bsis e DM == dry mtter bsis f n == nt vilble PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

16 Tble 20 Representtive Energy nd Nutrient Cntents f Invertebrte prey FOOD WATER ENERGY PROTEIN FAT CAR_B_~ C ~ ITEM kcl/g Jg} % At Dm e %kcl mg/kcl Gryllus dmesticus Huse cricket Achet dmestic Cricket Melnplus spp. Lcust n e n Bmbyx mri Mulberry silk mth lrv Tenebri mlitr Melwrm lrv Glleri mellne// Wxwrm lrv Musc dmestic Fly lrv n Lumbricus terrestris Erthwrm vrible g these'dt re presented s estimtes nly; vritin is likely within species. b CARB == crbhydrte c P == phsphrus d AF == s fed (wet) bsis e DM dry mtter bsis f n == nt vilble g vrible == minerl cntent vries with the minerl cntent fsil cnsumed PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 31

17 Tble 3. Clrie nd Nutrient Cntents f Fd fr Herbivrus Reptiles FOOD WEIGHT WATER PR_()b FAT cl/g g % Af f DM~ %DM Greens Lettuce, rmine Lettuce, iceberg /1""... J Spinch, rw Dndelin greens, rw Beet greens rw Alflf spruts, rw Mung ben spruts, rw Vegetbles Bmb shts, cnned, 1 c Vegetbles, mixed, frzen, 2/3 c Lim bens, bby frzen, 1/2 c Mushrms, rw 10 smll Sweet ptt, lrge Sumn1er sqush, 1/2 c PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

18 Tble 3 Cntinued. Clrie nd Nutrient Cntents f Fd fr Herbivrus Reptiles FOOD WEIGHT WATER ENERGY PRO b FAT CARBc FIBER Cd pe cl/g g % AF f DMs %DM Fruits Apple, n skin medium trh tr Blueberries 1 c Bnn medium tr tr Cntlupe 1 c Strwberries 1 c infrmtin presented here re estimtes nly~ ctul cntents my vry. bpro = prtein C CARB = crbhydrte d C= clcium e P= phsphrus f AF = s fed bsis S DM = dry mtter bsis h tr = trce munts 1995 PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 33

19 Tble 4. VitminfMinerl Supplements CENIRl1M~ ~EI:IAB.S PLUS c PRQ BALANC.E d YIONATE~ Vitmin A, IV 3, Vitmin D 3, IV Vitmin E, mg Vitmin K 1, f.j,g Vitmin C, mg 43 "') -' 25 1 Thimin, mg Ribflvin, mg Nicin, mg Pyridxine, mg Pntthente, mg Flte, f.j,g Vitmin B 12, {lg Bitin, f.j,g Chline, mg Clcium, mg Phsphrus, mg Idine, f.j,g Irn, mg < 0.01 Mgnesium, mg Cpper, mg Zinc, mg Mngnese, mg Ptssium, mg Chlride, mg < 0.01 Chrmium, f.j,g Mlybdenum, {lg Selenium, f.j,g Nickel, J,Lg Tin, j1g Silicn, mg Vndium, /.1g Brn, f.j,g b Lederle, Americn Cynmid C., Perl River, New Yrk One tblet weighs but 1.4 g. C Smith Kline Beechm Animl Helth, West Chester, Pennsylvni One tblet weighs but 3.2 g. d Smith Kline Beechm Animl Helth, West Chester, Pennsylvni e Gimbrn-Rich Helth, Atlnt GA PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

20 Tble 4 Cntinued. VitminlMinerl Supplements 3 REPTIVITE f REPIICAL~ Vitmin A, IV Vitmin D 3, IV Vitmin E, mg Vitmin K), fjg Vitmin C, mg Thimin, mg Ribflvin, mg Nicin, mg Pyridxine, mg Pntthente, mg Flte, fjg Vitmin B 12, fjg Bitin, fjg Chline, mg Clcium, mg Phsphrus, mg Idine, /1g Irn, mg Mgnesium, mg Cpper, mg Zinc, mg Mngnese, mg Ptssium, mg Chlride, mg Chrmium, fjg Mlybdenum, /1g Selenium, /1g Nickel, /1g Tin, /1g Silicn, mg Vndium, fjg Brn, fjg , i vry mrkedly in nutrient cntent. Prducts fr humns nd dmestic mmmls my be mre cmplete nd better blnced fr reptiles thn prducts mrketed specificlly fr reptiles. All dt re expressed n "per grm" bsis. f Z Med, Sn Luis Obisp, Clifrni g Tetr Terrfun, Mrris Plins, New Jersey h Nektn USA, Clerwter, Flrid i + == nutrient listed n lbel ingredient list, but nt in gurnteed nlyses PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 35

21 Tble 5. Estimtes f Stndrd Metblic Rte (MR) nd Frctinl Increses fr Feeding nd Activity t 30 C (86 F) Bdy BslMR 1.lMR 1.25MR 1.5MR 2.0MR 2.5MR Weight cl/dy cl/dy cl/dy cl/dy cl/dy cl/dy g PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS

22 Tble 5 Cntinued. Estimtes f Stndrd Metblic Rte (MR) nd Frctinl Increses fr Feeding nd Activity t 30 C (86 F) Bdy BslMR 1.1MR 1.25MR 1.5MR 2.0MR 2.5MR Weight cl/dy cl/dy cl/dy cl/dy cl/dy cl/dy Z MR = 32(BW. 77 ) where MR stndrd metblic rte in kcl/dy nd BW bdy weight in kg PROCEEDINGS ASSOCIATION OF REPTILIAN AND AMPHIBIAN VETERINARIANS 37