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1 Chapter 1 : 6 Best Farm Animals to Raise When You're Just Starting out Which button will help the heroes Return to Animal Land? Pol McShane has a way of making the reader a part of the adventure, with his vivid detail, writing style, and his ability to tell a story. Rob Farr Author. Explore more from this episode More All cetaceans, including whales, dolphins, and porpoises, are descendants of land-living mammals. How did these terrestrial ancestors morph over millions of years into the whales and dolphins we are so familiar with today? What do marine mammals have in common with other mammals? What distinguishes them from other mammals? Modern marine mammals include: Cetacea whales, dolphins, and porpoises, Sirenia sea cows and dugongs and Pinnipedia seals, sea lions, and walruses. All of these groups share limbs that are modified into flippers, and an overall streamlined body shape. Like all mammals, marine mammals are warm-blooded, give birth to live young, and mothers produce milk to nurse their young. Most cetaceans also have some very sparse hair at some time in their development, but it is very much reduced compared to most other mammals. Unlike most other mammals, modern whales do not have external hind limbs, have their forelimbs modified into flippers, have extra vertebrae in their trunk and back, have flukes on their tails for locomotion, and have their nostrils at or near the top of the head rather than the tip of the snout. Sirenians are similar to whales in that they have only sparse hair on the body. Also like modern whales, modern sirenians lack external hind limbs, have their forelimbs modified into flippers, and have flukes on their tails for locomotion. Pinnipeds are semi-aquatic and all pinnipeds retain hind limbs. In pinnipeds, both the fore and hindlimbs are modified into flippers. Most pinnipeds retain a substantial coat of hair, although not all. All cetaceans, including whales, dolphins, and porpoises, are descendants of land-living mammals. What do we know about their terrestrial ancestors? We know from both studies of DNA and the anatomy of living animals and fossils that whales are part of a mammalian group known as the Artiodactyla. Modern artiodactyls include animals like cows, pigs, sheep, giraffes, camels, and hippos. Artiodactyls have many characteristics that distinguish them from other mammals, but the most distinctive of them are in the foot and ankle. First, artiodactyls reduce the number of toes such that the foot is symmetrical between two digits a condition called paraxonic. These animals are often called cloven-hoofed for this reason. Rather, it is actually two toes fused together. Second, artiodactyls have a bone in the ankle called the astragalus which is found in other mammals as well, but in artiodactyls, it takes on a characteristic form with a pulley shape at each end. Early whales share these characteristics with other artiodactyls. The group of fossil artiodactyls that we think are most closely related to whales is called the Raoellidae, and they lived in Indo-Pakistan, China, and Mongolia during the early and middle Eocene. These animals were probably omnivorous, and some people think they foraged by walking on the bottom of bodies of water. Around what time period did this terrestrial ancestor begin its transition back into water? The earliest whales are known from India and Pakistan from around How long did it take for this land mammal to morph into the whales and dolphins we are familiar with today? What were some of the key adaptations that took place and do we know the order in which these adaptations occurred? Graphic by Karen Brazell. That means that the transition from terrestrial animals to fully aquatic animals took about 12 million years. The key adaptations are mostly those that still characterize whales today: The earliest fully aquatic whales still had tiny external hind limbs, but they were so small they could not support the body on land. How has their evolutionary story driven their behavior, for instance, in developing societies and communication skills? It is very difficult to answer the question of what drives evolution. It is also probably not the right question to ask if you know how evolution by natural selection works. Basically, many offspring are produced, and only a few survive to adulthood and reproduce. Those that are best able to cope with the living conditions in which they find themselves will be most successful in terms of having the most offspring. Thus, evolution by natural selection is constantly changing species as the conditions in which they live change. That said, some whales, particularly the toothed whales and even more particularly the dolphins have evolved very large brains and are also highly social animals. These large brains and the sociality that appears to be associated with them must offer some kind of advantage over those without it. When did whales break into the different suborders: What are the primary differences Page 1

2 between these two suborders? The earliest known member of the Mysticeti, the modern filter-feeding whales is from the latest Eocene, around 34 million years ago. The earliest known member of the Odontoceti, the modern toothed whales, is from the early Oligocene, around 30 million years ago. This suggests that the split between Mysticeti and Odontoceti occurred during the late Eocene. The closest living relatives of whales are the Family Hippopotamidae, which today includes the hippo, Hippopotamus amphibious and the pygmy hippo Choeropsis liberiensis. The fossil record of Hippopotamidae extends from the early Miocene to today. When did scientists first propose that marine mammals evolved from land-living mammals? What findings led to this conclusion? Ever since classical times, people knew that marine mammals were different from other sea creatures and they recognized some similarities with terrestrial mammals. Once scientists began to formally classify animals in the 17th century, whales, sirenians, and pinnipeds have all been recognized as mammals, but the placement of some of these groups particularly whales within mammals has been controversial until recently. Were the cetaceans the only land-living mammals to return to water environments? If there were others, did they return to water during the same period and did they morph in similar ways? There are only two groups of mammals that we know of that have become completely aquatic. These are the Cetacea whales, dolphins, and porpoises and the Sirenia sea cows and dugongs. These two groups both originated in the early Eocene, and have followed rather similar evolutionary pathways, particularly in how their limbs and modes of locomotion evolved. This is despite of the fact that cetaceans are carnivorous and sirenians are herbivorous. In addition, the Pinnipedia seals, sea lions, and walruses evolved from a group of dog-like Carnivora in the late Oligocene. Pinnipeds are all semi-aquatic, coming ashore to breed and have their young. Another group called the Desmostylia evolved in the early Oligocene and lived until the late Miocene in the North Pacific Ocean. Desmostylians are thought to have been semi-aquatic herbivores. Why did marine mammals go back to the sea? That said, the earliest changes that we see in whales and some other groups of marine mammals involve feeding and sensory perception. It looks like these early terrestrial ancestors of these groups began feeding in the water and became more adapted to aquatic conditions over time. What research is happening currently on marine mammal evolution? New discoveries are continually being made by geologists, paleontologists, and modern biologists about the evolution of marine mammals. Geologists are constantly revising the age estimates of rocks in which we find fossils. This is an exciting time to study marine mammal evolution as many of the most important discoveries in this field have been made in the last years, and there is no reason to expect that pace of discovery to slow down in the near future. Previous to working at Mason, Dr. His research focuses on the origin and evolution of cetaceans whales and dolphins, major evolutionary transitions in general, functional morphology, use of stratigraphic data in phylogenetic analysis, and theoretical aspects of diversification. He has published many papers in scientific journals, contributed chapters to edited books, and presented at numerous scientific conferences. More from Ocean Giants Page 2

3 Chapter 2 : D23â s Lineup of Events for - D23 Return to Animal Land-The Adventures of Johnny and Joey (Volume 3) [Pol McShane] on blog.quintoapp.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. It's only a few weeks into the summer vacation, but Johnny and Joey have already discovered a magic elevator. Dermochelyidae Distribution and habitat[ edit ] Sea turtles can be found in oceans except for the polar regions. The flatback sea turtle is found solely on the northern coast of Australia. During the first three to five years of life, sea turtles spend most of their time in the pelagic zone floating in seaweed mats. Green sea turtles in particular are often found in Sargassum mats, in which they find shelter and food. Living in the ocean therefore means they usually migrate over large distances. All sea turtles have large body sizes, which is helpful for moving large distances. Large body sizes also offer good protection against the large predators notably sharks found in the ocean. It takes decades for sea turtles to reach sexual maturity. Mature turtles may migrate thousands of miles to reach breeding sites. After mating at sea, adult female sea turtles return to land to lay their eggs. Different species of sea turtles exhibit various levels of philopatry. In the extreme case, females return to the beach where they hatched. This can take place every two to four years in maturity. An olive ridley turtle nesting on Escobilla Beach, Oaxaca, Mexico The mature nesting female hauls herself onto the beach, nearly always at night, and finds suitable sand in which to create a nest. After the hole is dug, the female then starts filling the nest with her clutch of soft-shelled eggs. Depending on the species, a typical clutch may contain 50â eggs. After laying, she re-fills the nest with sand, re-sculpting and smoothing the surface, and then camouflaging the nest with vegetation until it is relatively undetectable visually. She then returns to the ocean, leaving the eggs untended. Female sea turtles alternate between mating in the water and laying their eggs on land. Most sea turtle species nest individually. But ridley sea turtles come ashore en masse, known as an arribada arrival. The eggs in one nest hatch together over a short period of time. The baby turtles break free of the egg shell, dig through the sand, and crawl into the sea. Most species of sea turtles hatch at night. Turtle nests that hatch during the day are more vulnerable to predators, and may encounter more human activity on beach. Turtle gender depends on sand temperature while the egg is incubating. Larger hatchlings have a higher probability of survival than smaller individuals, which can be explained by the fact that larger offspring are faster and thus less exposed to predation. Predators can only functionally intake so much; larger individuals are not targeted as often. A study conducted on this topic shows that body size is positively correlated with speed, so larger turtles are exposed to predators for a shorter amount of time. In, Carr discovered that the young of green and loggerhead seaturtles spent a great deal of their pelagic lives in floating sargassum mats. Within these mats, they found ample shelter and food. In the absence of sargassum, sea turtle young feed in the vicinity of upwelling "fronts". In the open ocean, pre-juveniles of this particular species were found to feed on zooplankton and smaller nekton before they are recruited into inshore seagrass meadows as obligate herbivores. If you were to start with sea turtle eggs, you would end up with only one sexually mature subject. This is due to predation and obstacles preventing the young turtles from reaching the ocean. Once they reach adulthood only 20 sea turtles will survive, and this is without human interference. When human interference is factored in, only 2 out of sea turtles will survive to reproductive maturity. To maintain hypotonicity they must excrete excess salt ions. The much larger lachrymal gland found in leatherbacks may have evolved to cope with the higher intake of salts from their prey. A constant output of concentrated salty tears may be required to balance the input of salts from regular feeding, even considering leatherback tears can have a salt ion concentration almost twice that of other species of marine turtle. Salt gland functioning begins quickly after hatching, so that the young turtles can establish ion and water balance soon after entering the ocean. Survival and physiological performance hinge on immediate and efficient hydration following emergence from the nest. Diving physiology[ edit ] Sea turtles are air breathing reptiles that have lungs, so they regularly surface to breathe. Sea turtles spend a majority of their time underwater, so they must be able to hold their breath for long periods. A foraging turtle may typically spend 5â 40 minutes under water [36] while a sleeping sea turtle can remain under water for 4â 7 hours. Their large lungs permit Page 3

4 rapid exchange of oxygen and avoid trapping gases during deep dives. Fluorescence[ edit ] Gruber and Sparks [39] have observed the first fluorescence in a marine tetrapod four-limbed vertebrates. According to Gruber and Sparks fluorescence is observed in an increasing number of marine creatures cnidarians, ctenophores, annelids, arthropods, and chordates and is now also considered to be widespread in cartilaginous and ray-finned fishes. The role of biofluorescence in marine organisms is often attributed to a strategy for attracting prey or perhaps a way to communicate. It could also serve as a way of defense or camouflage for the sea turtle hiding during night amongst other fluorescent organisms like corals. Fluorescent corals and sea creatures are best observed during night dives with a blue LED light and with a camera equipped with an orange optical filter to capture only the fluorescence light. Omnivorous turtles may eat a wide variety of plant and animal life including decapods, seagrasses, seaweed, sponges, mollusks, cnidarians, echinoderms, worms and fish. The diet of green turtles changes with age. Many parts of the world have long considered sea turtles to be fine dining. Ancient Chinese texts dating to the fifth century B. Coastal peoples gather sea turtle eggs for consumption. Near Cooktown, Australia. To a much lesser extent, specific species of marine sea turtles are targeted not for their flesh, but for their shells. Tortoiseshell, a traditional decorative ornamental material used in Japan and China, comes from the carapace scutes of the hawksbill sea turtle. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped the sea and its animals. They often depicted sea turtles in their art. Beach towns, such as Tortuguero, Costa Rica, have transitioned from a tourism industry that made profits from selling sea turtle meat and shells to an ecotourism-based economy. Tortuguero is considered to be the founding location of sea turtle conservation. In the s the cultural demand for sea turtle meat, shells, and eggs was quickly killing the once abundant sea turtle populations that nested on the beach. The Caribbean Conservation Corporation began working with villagers to promote ecotourism as a permanent substitute to sea turtle hunting. Sea turtle nesting grounds became sustainable. Tourists love to come and visit the nesting grounds, although it causes a lot of stress to the turtles because all of the eggs can get damaged or harmed. In the oceans, sea turtles, especially green sea turtles, are among very few creatures manatees are another that eat sea grass. Sea grass needs to be constantly cut short to help it grow across the sea floor. Sea turtle grazing helps maintain the health of the sea grass beds. Sea grass beds provide breeding and developmental grounds for numerous marine animals. Without them, many marine species humans harvest would be lost, as would the lower levels of the food chain. The reactions could result in many more marine species eventually becoming endangered or extinct. Beaches and dunes are a fragile habitat that depend on vegetation to protect against erosion. Eggs, hatched or unhatched, and hatchlings that fail to make it into the ocean are nutrient sources for dune vegetation. Stronger vegetation and root systems help to hold the sand in the dunes and help protect the beach from erosion. This has triggered the IUCN to conduct threat assessments at the sub-population level for some species recently. These new assessments have highlighted an unexpected mismatch between where conservation relevant science has been conducted on sea turtles, and where these is the greatest need for conservation. Page 4

5 Chapter 3 : Return From the Land of Denial By Kerry Phillips: An Animal Rights Poem from blog.quintoapp New Comics. Forums. Gen. Discussion; Bug Reporting; Delete/Combine Pages. Cetotherium Cetotheriidae, Mysticeti cca 18 Ma The aquatic lifestyle of cetaceans first began in the Indian subcontinent from even-toed ungulates 50 million years ago, over a period of at least 15 million years, however a jawbone discovered in Antarctica may reduce this to 5 million years. The traditional theory of cetacean evolution, first proposed by Van Valen in, [4] was that whales were related to the mesonychids, an extinct order of carnivorous ungulates hoofed animals that resembled wolves with hooves and were a sister group of the artiodactyls even-toed ungulates. This theory arose due to similarities between the unusual triangular teeth of the mesonychids and those of early whales. However, molecular phylogeny data indicates that whales are very closely related to the artiodactyls, with hippopotamuses as their closest living relative. Because of this, cetaceans and hippopotamuses are placed in the same suborder, Whippomorpha. However, the earliest anthracotheres, the ancestors of hippos, do not appear in the fossil record until the Middle Eocene, millions of years after Pakicetus, the first known whale ancestor, appeared during the Early Eocene, implying the two groups diverged well before the Eocene. Since molecular analysis identifies artiodactyls as being very closely related to cetaceans, mesonychids are probably an offshoot from Artiodactyla, and cetaceans did not derive directly from them, but possibly sharing a common ancestor. The skeletons of Pakicetus show that whales did not derive directly from mesonychids. Instead, they are artiodactyls that began to take to the water soon after artiodactyls split from mesonychids. Archaeocetes retained aspects of their mesonychid ancestry such as the triangular teeth which modern artiodactyls, and modern whales, have lost. Whales, however, retained their carnivorous diet because prey was more available and they needed higher caloric content in order to live as marine endotherms warm-blooded. Mesonychids also became specialized carnivores, but this was likely a disadvantage because large prey was uncommon. This may be why they were out-competed by better-adapted animals like the hyaenodontids and later Carnivora. Indohyus Possible relationships between cetaceans and other ungulate groups. Indohyus is identified as an artiodactyl because it has two trochlea hinges, a trait unique to artiodactyls. Pakicetidae The pakicetids were digitigrade hoofed mammals that are thought to be the earliest known cetaceans, with Indohyus being the closest sister group. Their fossils were first discovered in North Pakistan in, located at a river not far from the shores of the former Tethys Sea. Based on this discovery, pakicetids most likely lived in an arid environment with ephemeral streams and moderately developed floodplains millions of years ago. The shape of the ear region in pakicetids is highly unusual and the skull is cetacean-like, although a blowhole is still absent at this stage. The jawbone of pakicetids also lacks the enlarged space mandibular foramen that is filled with fat or oil, which is used in receiving underwater sound in modern cetaceans. This eye placement helps submerged predators observe potential prey above the water. This method of hearing did not give directional hearing underwater. Hence pakicetids were most likely aquatic waders. Ambulocetidae Ambulocetus, which lived about 49 million years ago, was discovered in Pakistan in They were vaguely crocodile -like mammals, possessing large brevirostrine jaws. In the Eocene, ambulocetids inhabited the bays and estuaries of the Tethys Sea in northern Pakistan. The fossils of ambulocetids are always found in near-shore shallow marine deposits associated with abundant marine plant fossils and littoral mollusks. It is clear that ambulocetids tolerated a wide range of salt concentrations. Hence, ambulocetids represent a transition phase of cetacean ancestors between fresh water and marine habitat. In modern toothed whales, this fat pad in the mandibular foramen extends posteriorly to the middle ear. This allows sounds to be received in the lower jaw, and then transmitted through the fat pad to the middle ear. Similar to pakicetids, the orbits of ambulocetids are on the top of the skull, but they face more laterally than in pakicetids. The skeletal structures of the knee and ankle indicates that the motion of the hindlimbs was restricted into one plane. This suggests that, on land, propulsion of the hindlimbs was powered by the extension of dorsal muscles. This suggests that complete abandonment of the land evolved much earlier among cetaceans than previously thought. Remingtonocetidae Remingtonocetids lived in the Middle-Eocene in South Asia, about 49 to 43 million years ago. Remingtonocetids were also found in shallow marine Page 5

6 deposits, but they were obviously more aquatic than ambulocetidae. This is demonstrated by the recovery of their fossils from a variety of coastal marine environments, including near-shore and lagoonal deposits. This suggests that vision was not an important sense for them. The nasal opening, which eventually becomes the blowhole in modern cetaceans, was located near the tip of the snout. The position of the nasal opening had remained unchanged since pakicetids. According to a study done by Spoor et al. Protocetidae The protocetids form a diverse and heterogeneous group known from Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America. They lived in the Eocene, approximately 48 to 35 million years ago. The fossil remains of protocetids were uncovered from coastal and lagoonal facies in South Asia; unlike previous cetacean families, their fossils uncovered from Africa and North America also include open marine forms. Great variations in aquatic adaptations exist among them, with some probably able to support their weight on land, whereas others could not. If they gave birth in the water, the fetus would be positioned for a tail-first delivery to avoid drowning during birth. Increasingly lateral-facing eyes might be used to observe underwater prey, and are similar to the eyes of modern cetaceans. Furthermore, the nasal openings were large and were halfway up the snout. The great variety of teeth suggests diverse feeding modes in protocetids. However the air-filled sinuses that are present in modern cetaceans, which function to isolate the ear acoustically to enable better underwater hearing, were still not present. Hence, the method of sound transmission that were present in them combines aspects of pakicetids and modern odontocetes toothed whales. However, it is clear that they were adapted even further to an aquatic life-style. In Rodhocetus, for example, the sacrum a bone that, in land-mammals, is a fusion of five vertebrae that connects the pelvis with the rest of the vertebral column was divided into loose vertebrae. However, the pelvis was still connected to one of the sacral vertebrae. The ungulate ancestry of these archaeocetes is still underlined by characteristics like the presence of hooves at the ends of the toes in Rodhocetus. A study done by Gingerich et al. Terrestrial locomotion of Rodhocetus was very limited due to their hindlimb structure. It is thought that they moved in a way similar to how eared seals move on land, by rotating their hind flippers forward and underneath their body. Basilosauridae and Dorudontinae Archaeocetes like this Basilosaurus had a heterodont dentition Basilosaurids and dorudontines lived together in the late Eocene around 41 to 35 million years ago, and are the oldest known obligate aquatic cetaceans. This is supported by their fossils usually found in deposits indicative of fully marine environments, lacking any freshwater influx. Basilosaurids are commonly found in association with dorudontines, and were closely related to one another. They had small brains; this suggests they were solitary and did not have the complex social structures of some modern cetaceans. The mandibular foramen of basilosaurids covered the entire depth of the lower jaw as in modern cetaceans. Their orbits faced laterally, and the nasal opening had moved even higher up the snout, closer to the position of the blowhole in modern cetaceans. The large size of basilosaurids is due to the extreme elongation of their lumbar vertebrae. They had a tail fluke, but their body proportions suggest that they swam by caudal undulation and that the fluke was not used for propulsion. They too had a fluke and, unlike basilosaurids, they probably swam similarly to modern cetaceans, by using caudal oscillations. The two tiny but well-formed hind legs of basilosaurids were probably used as claspers when mating. The pelvic bones associated with these hind limbs were not connected to the vertebral column as they were in protocetids. Essentially, any sacral vertebrae can no longer be clearly distinguished from the other vertebrae. However, according to a study done by Fordyce and Barnes, the large size and elongated vertebral body of basilosaurids preclude them from being ancestral to extant forms. As for dorudontines, there are some species within the family that do not have elongated vertebral bodies, which might be the immediate ancestors of Odontoceti and Mysticeti. The other basilosaurids became extinct. Filter feeding is very beneficial as it allows baleen whales to efficiently gain huge energy resources, which makes the large body size in modern varieties possible. A large-scale change in ocean current and temperature could have contributed to the radiation of modern mysticetes. Multiple mutations have been identified in genes related to the production of enamel in modern baleen whales. Generally it is speculated the four modern mysticete families have separate origins among the cetotheres. Modern baleen whales, Balaenopteridae rorquals and humpback whale, Megaptera novaengliae, Balaenidae right whales, Eschrichtiidae gray whale, Eschrictius robustus, and Neobalaenidae pygmy right whale, Caperea marginata all have derived characteristics presently unknown in any cetothere and vice versa such as Page 6

7 a sagittal crest [34]. This happened around 34 million years ago in a second cetacean radiation. Echolocation also allowed toothed whales to dive deeper in search of food, with light no longer necessary for navigation, which opened up new food sources. Sound pulses are emitted, reflected off objects, and retrieved through the lower jaw. Skulls of Squalodon show evidence for the first hypothesized appearance of echolocation. Squalodon featured several commonalities with modern toothed whales: However, it is thought unlikely that squalodontids are direct ancestors of modern toothed whales. For example, Scaldicetus had a tapered rostrum. Genera from the Oligocene and Miocene had teeth in their upper jaws. These anatomical differences suggest that these ancient species may not have necessarily been deep-sea squid hunters like the modern sperm whale, but that some genera mainly ate fish. Livyatan had a short and wide rostrum measuring 10 feet 3. Species like these are collectively known as killer sperm whales. In, a large number of fossil ziphiids were discovered off the coast of South Africa, confirming the remaining ziphiid species might just be a remnant of a higher diversity that has since gone extinct. After studying numerous fossil skulls, researchers discovered the absence of functional maxillary teeth in all South African ziphiids, which is evidence that suction feeding had already developed in several beaked whale lineages during the Miocene. Extinct ziphiids also had robust skulls, suggesting that tusks were used for male-male interactions. Indohyus has a thickened ectotympanic internal lip of the ear bone. This feature compares directly to that of modern cetaceans. Another similar feature was the composition of the teeth, which contained mostly calcium phosphate which is needed for eating and drinking by aquatic animals, though, unlike modern day toothed whales, they had a heterodont more than one tooth morphology dentition as opposed to a homodont one tooth morphology present dentition. Their transition from land to water led to reshaping of the skull and food processing equipment because the eating habits were changing. Ultimately, the change in position of the eyes and limb bones is what led the pakicetids to become waders. The ambulocetids also began to develop long snouts, which is seen in current cetaceans. Page 7

8 Chapter 4 : The return to the sea: The evolution of marine mammals The Statement "early land animals had to return to the water to reproduce" is true. Their land of living before was based on the use of water as their food source and also, where Females lay their eggs. Over millions of years the animals developed a number of different reproductive strategies. Reproductive Strategies Animals that live in water release their eggs into the water, where the eggs are fertilized. The embryos develop in the eggs. Often the parents swim away, and the multitude of small creatures in the water provide food for the hatchlings. However, just as the plants had to find new ways to reproduce on land, animals, too, had to invent new structures and strategies. Exothermic cold-blooded insects and spiders lay many small eggs. Some of these eggs hatch in a few days, some can lie dormant over the winter, allowing new insects to hatch in the spring when there is plenty of food. The organisms that hatch from the eggs generally do not look like their parents: Amphibians Cold-blooded amphibians, such as frogs, toads, and salamanders, live on land and breathe air but return to the water to lay their eggs. These eggs start to develop right away. These animals begin life in the water as tadpoles or newts if they will be salamanders and metamorphosize into air-breathing adults. Reptiles Cold-blooded reptiles, such as lizards, crocodiles, snakes, and turtles, developed eggs that could survive out of water. These eggs had a leathery outer covering that protected the embryo and the yolk sac from dehydration. Most of these animals lay many eggs, bury the eggs in warm sand, and walk away. The embryos develop, hatch, dig their way out of the sand, and start looking for food. An interesting fact about reptile eggs is that the gender of the hatchlings is determined by the temperature in which the embryos develop, not by X and Y chromosomes. Birds Warm-blooded birds developed the hard-shelled egg. This provided better protection from would-be egg-eaters and allowed the developing embryo to get oxygen from the air through pores in the shell. However, the embryo in this egg required higher temperatures in which to develop. Birds became attentive parents, first keeping the eggs warm and then feeding the hatchlings. With parental care, demands on the parents increase and the chances of the young surviving also increase. Unlike reptiles and amphibians, birds lay only a few eggs, but they are more successful in raising their young to maturity than reptiles or amphibians. Because birds fly, they cannot afford to carry much extra weight. Having the young birds in a nest allowed the adults to fly efficiently even as the young birds attained their mature size and weight in the nest. Monotremes Warm-blooded mammals and monotremes developed a different strategy. They shelter the developing embryo inside their own bodies and then nourish the baby with milk. Monotremes, such as kangaroos and koala bears, allow a fertilized egg to begin development inside their bodies. The baby is not attached to the mother, so it cannot grow very big. It soon emerges, but in a very undeveloped condition. When it is fully developed it begins to come out of the pouch and start to explore the world. Placental Mammals Placental mammals have wombs. Being in a womb allows the young organism to develop in a safe environment over a pre-determined period of time. It can be born when food is plentiful. Once born, the youngster is nourished with milk. This leads to bonding between mother and child, and makes it possible for the baby to learn from its mother. Elizabeth Anne Viau and her licensors. This material may be used by individuals for instructional purposes but not sold. Please inform the author if you use it at t eviau earthlink. Page 8

9 Chapter 5 : Ocean Giants Going Aquatic: Cetacean Evolution Nature PBS Animal Land Games - Channel. Subscribe Subscribed Unsubscribe. Related channels FRAME - Channel. Subscribe Subscribed Unsubscribe. kocho - Channel. Subscribe Subscribed Unsubscribe. Unlike the Crocodile, who swallowed a clock, the Octopus smacks his suction cups together whenever he happens to come by, which serves as a warning to Hook. When Peter Pan arrives, Hook tells him that Jane is Wendy and cuts the bag with his sword, sending Jane overboard and into the water with the Octopus and Peter and Tinker Bell both dive in after her. Upon tasting the captain, The Octopus mistakes Hook for a delicious fish and grabs Hook with his legs dragging him back into the water, but the captain is able to slip from the octopus grasp sending him flying back onto the ship. Later on, when Mr. Smee is giving Hook a foot massage, the Octopus appears and scares Hook and Mr. Hook fell through the ship because Peter threw an anchor on top of him, into the sea and straight on top the Octopus. The Octopus faces Hook and he once again mistakes him for a fish, and the terrified pirate frantically swims back to his ship, swimming through the hole in it with The Octopus in hot pursuit. The Octopus destroys a large portion of the Jolly Roger and sinks the rest of it. Hook begs with Peter to save him, but the latter declares that a good captain must go down with his ship. Smee and the pirates briefly mourn their captain, but he suddenly shoots up into the air and lands in the rowboat containing his crew. The Octopus emerges and faces the pirates, this time mistaking the whole crew for fish. He licks his lips hungrily, and the terrified pirates row away from Neverland, screaming all the way, with the hungry Octopus chasing them and making tick-tocking sounds with his suction cups. But like the crocodile, eventually gave up. The Octopus returned in the episode " Save the Coral Cove! Smee but by the end of the episode it was revealed to be none other than the Octopus who began attacking Hook and Smee sending the two fleeing back to the Jolly Roger. The Octopus would later appear in the episode " Pirate Rock! They are retrieved and the hooks are resorted. However, in the mix of getting them back, the hooks are even more filthy. They are forced to walk the plank but are caught by the Octopus down below who bounces them on his tentacles for fun. Smee joins in the fun with Captain Hook deciding to forgive Sharky and Bones and join in, too. The Octopus plays a larger role in the episode " Trading Treasures ". Jake and his crew are sent by Queen Coralie to retrieve her Golden Glam-Shell from the Octopus who has been admiring his newly discovered golden treasure at Tentacle Bay. Jake and his crew offer various items but the octopus refuses. Seeing how the Octopus enjoys the shiny shell, the young pirates offer to trade it for a diamond from the Pirate Princess, much to the delight of the Octopus. While Jake and his crew set sail to Pirate Princess Island to retrieve the diamond, Captain Hook and his crew arrive at Tentacle Bay Hook was determined to claim the Golden Glam-Shell for himself but as the captain attempt to swipe the shell he finds himself in the grasp of the Octopus who slings Hook around like a rag doll tossing him back onto the shore of the bay. Hook refuses to let the Octopus stand in his way but the result was the same even with the assistance of his bumbling crew. Jake and his crew soon return to Tentacle Bay with the diamond, but as Jake and the octopus were in the middle of their trade, Hook swoops in and manages to steal both treasures. This is short lived as Hook gloats the captain and his crew are captured yet again by the octopus who begins to juggle the pirate crew. Seeing their chance to save the Glam-Shell Izzy use her pixie dust granting the octopus flight who drops Hook and his crew back into the sea to flee, finally allowing Jake and his crew to trade for the Glam-Shell. The only difference apart from their species is that the Octopus is antagonistic to everyone, not just Hook. When Hook referred to it as the beast, it shows he did not know what to call it. Page 9

10 Chapter 6 : Neverland Disney Wiki FANDOM powered by Wikia For Kirby's Return to Dream Land on the Wii, a GameFAQs message board topic titled "The animal helpers from Dream Land 2 and 3 would have been so great in this.". They should become fully playable characters. JCvgluvr 7 years ago 3 I feel the same way about them as I do about Adeline. I prefer the Super Star style approach this game seems to be going for where Kirby can just do everything with a power right upon obtaining it. In the Dream Lands you could only ever use one move at a time with a power, having to find the animals to use any new moves. There was an error posting your message: Messages cannot be in all uppercase. Umm, New Super Mario Bros. If they returned with their usual utility, Kirby would likely be limited to very few powers without them. While they could all have a superstar like branching moveset for every single power, that would be unrealistic. So while I do think they should return, in no way do I think this was the game for them to return in. Their other purpose is to solve puzzles via extra attacks or movement options, but that role seems to be taken up by Ultra powers to an extent, and stuff like permanent flight is already in the game as a core mechanic. I guess they could go half-and-half, have the animals keep the normal Superstar-style moveset or at least part of it and get a couple unique attacks as well. Plus, how would the animals work with co-op? Master of Electricity User Info: Mottman Mottman Topic Creator 7 years ago 9 I guess they could go half-and-half, have the animals keep the normal Superstar-style moveset or at least part of it and get a couple unique attacks as well. It would add more variety to both the attacks and the personalities of the characters if, say, Kine still carried Kirby and Bandanna Dee in his mouth but maybe just attached himself to the heads of Dedede and MK. You all do make good arguments, however. In addition to everything else this game offers, including the old animal helpers on top of that could get confusing and become a bit of gameplay overkill. I see your points there. But I really would like to see them make a return in some form, if not in tis game than in a future one. Perhaps in a future Kirby game, instead of transporting you to "bonus levels" where you lose your Copy ability like this one seems to, it could have bonus levels where you would meet different animal friends who would have to be used to reach the end for example, one bonus level requires the use of Rick, another of Kine, and so forth. Much better than forced no-power sections, which I find pretty boring TBH. Page 10

11 Chapter 7 : Animals that live on land but return to water to reproduce Mudskippers live in water but can come on land by them enlarging their gill chambers and filling them with water so they can use the oxygen from the water to survive, but they eventually need. Contents [ show ] Background It is a magical world that exists within a star which Peter Pan refers to as "the second star to the right, and straight on till morning! An example of this is in the first film in which Michael Darling begins to forget what his mother, Mary, was like to the point where he mixes her up with Nana, describing Mary as a creature with long ears and fur coat. This discovery convinces Wendy that she and her brothers have to go home. Another was when Jane, who forgot about her family, remembers when she held Toodles, who reminded her of her younger brother. In the first film, it seemed to have been implied that because of the fact that Mr. Darling revealing that the ship looked familiar to him appeared to imply otherwise. The second film, however, put the doubt to rest when an adult Wendy and Peter Pan are reunited, showing that Never Land was all too real. A property of their nature is the production and possession of fairy dust, the magic material which enables flying within the story for all characters. They are allied to the Lost Boys and against the pirates. The "Never fairies" and associated sparrow men live in Pixie Hollow, located in the very heart of Never Land. Birds In the novel and the play, between the flight from the mainland reality and Never Land, they are relatively simple animals which provide entertainment, instruction and some limited guidance to flyers. These Birds are described as unable to sight its shores, "even, carrying maps and consulting them at windy corners". A half-magical bird called the Never Bird, is also very prominently featured in the novel and play. Lost Boys The Lost Boys are a tribe of "children who fell out of their prams when the nurse is not looking", and who, having not been claimed by humans in seven days, were collected by the fairies and flown to the Never Land. There are no "lost girls" because, as Peter explains, girls are much too clever to fall out of their prams and be lost in this manner. There are six Lost Boys: Tootles, Nibs, Slightly, Curly, and the Twins. They live in tree houses and caves, wear animal skins, bear spears and bows and arrows, and live for adventure. They are a formidable fighting force despite their youth and they make war with the pirates, although they seem to enjoy a harmonious existence with the other inhabitants of Never Land. Their leader is Peter Pan. Pirates The crew of the Pirate ship Jolly Roger have taken up residence off-shore, and are widely feared throughout Never Land. How they came to be in Never Land is unclear. Native American tribes There is a tribe of wigwam-dwelling Native Americans who live on the island. She has a crush on Peter Pan. The Piccaninny tribe are known to make ferocious and deadly war against Captain Hook and his pirates, but their connection with the Lost Boys is more lighthearted. For "many moons" the two groups have captured each other, only to promptly release the captives, as though it were a game. It is unclear how the Piccaninny tribe came to be in Never Land, although they seem to know Never Land better than anyone. Mermaids or Mermen Mermaids and even mermen live in the lagoon. They enjoy the company of Peter Pan but seem malevolent towards outsiders. Wendy is enchanted by their beauty, but finds them offensive and irritating, as they would "splash her with their tails, not accidentally, but intentionally" when she attempted to steal a closer look. The airing of the Disney Fairies computer-animated movies reveal more animals most of which are woodland creatures. Some of these animals are domesticated by the fairies and used either as transport or work animals. Some even leave Never Land when the fairies go to change the season, to be released on earth. The tree has multiple trap doors and secret entrances for Peter Pan and the boys to enter and exit through. As the name suggests, this area is home to a large group of mermaids. Peter Pan apparently travels here often, as they are noted fans of his. Located along the sea, this area is marked by a large rock formation in the shape of a skull. Captain Hook and Mr. Smee bring Tiger Lily here while interrogating her. This is where Tiger Lily and her tribe are located. There are multiple tepees here, which serve as homes for the tribe. One end is open towards the sea. It is also said to be the location of a hidden treasure. The very mention of Crocodile Creek makes Hook very nervous. As its name would suggest, it is inhabited by cannibalistic jungle natives. It is home realm to all of the hundreds of fairies of Never Land. All new fairies are born there and discover their innate magical talents and skills there. The home of pirates Jake, Izzy, Cubby, and Skully. It is located just off the shores of Page 11

12 Never Land. A thick woods in Never Land. It is full of palm trees and monkeys. A wood full of trees with tiki faces who are capable of speaking. He states it is a place where no one ever ages or grows old Wendy says the same thing later. In order to enact his revenge on Rumplestiltskin, Hook returns from this world sometime before the Dark Curse is cast. Due to the presence of the evil Peter Pan, Never Land has become very dark and foreboding. Its name is derived from the fact that once one sets foot there, the Shadow never lets him live. However, he does let Wendy leave, since he is in search of a specific boy. Trivia Neverland was briefly alluded to in the Sofia the First episode " Forever Royal " as a potential land that Vor was looking to conquer. Chapter 8 : Why Does Napoleon Allow Moses To Return These are the simplest animals and are diploblastic, which means that they only have two layers of cells, an outer layer and an inner hollow layer that is involved in gathering food. Jellyfish The first animals to adapt to life on land were probably the. Chapter 9 : World Builders 1: Session 9: Land Animal Reproduction: E Viau CSULA Their anatomies retain vestiges of the four-legged land animals in their ancestry, the ones that began the bold return to the sea more than 50 million years ago. Page 12