HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES. Technical Publication HMG-5

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1 HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES Technical Publication HMG-5 Technical Publication HMG-5 PARTNERS IN AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE CONSERVATION

2 HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES TECHNICAL PUBLICATION HMG-5 PURPOSE AND INTENDED USE OF THIS DOCUMENT The goal of the Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Southwestern United States (Southwest HMG) is to provide private landowners, state and federal land agencies, wildlife management agencies, and other interested stakeholders (collectively termed resource managers ) with regional information on the habitat associations and requirements of amphibians and reptiles. This is done by listing possible threats to the animals and their habitats and providing guidelines to manage lands to be compatible with or beneficial to amphibian and reptile conservation goals. Many amphibian and reptile populations in the United States and its neighboring countries are vulnerable to the effects of habitat loss and degradation. A significant challenge is to ensure the persistence of amphibians and reptiles through thoughtful management of private and public lands and the resources they contain. When applied on the ground as general management principles, the Southwest HMG will promote conservation of amphibians and reptiles and their habitats by: Keeping common amphibian and reptile species common Reducing the further decline of imperiled species Maintaining existing habitats Guiding restoration of degraded habitats Landowners and other resource managers will benefit from using this document because implementation of the guidelines will provide ecological benefits beyond amphibian and reptile conservation. Even if only some of these guidelines are implemented, the cumulative effect will likely be positive. The general information and specific management guidelines presented here are based on the best available science, peer-reviewed expert opinions, and published literature from dozens of experts. The Maximizing Compatibility and Ideal management guidelines are suggestions made and reviewed by groups of professionally trained herpetologists and wildlife biologists from private, state, and federal organizations. Some of the guidelines presented here may not apply to every species in every situation due to the taxonomic and ecological diversity of amphibians and reptiles in the southwestern U.S. The authors and editors of the HMGs suggest consulting a local herpetologist before making significant land-use changes when implementing the suggested guidelines to ensure local issues and species are adequately addressed. These HMGs developed by Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC) are not legally binding or regulatory, and they do not in any way attempt to limit landowner rights. They are suggested actions for landowners and managers who are considering the needs of amphibians and reptiles in the course of their land and resource management activities. References and specific sources of regional HMGs can be found at Additional copies may be obtained through PARC. Visit the PARC website for more information about placing orders. Donations to PARC help defray the costs of development, printing, postage, and handling, and can be made by check, credit card, or money order. ISBN X-XXXXXXX-XXXX-X-X Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation. Printed in the United States of America. Suggested Citation: Jones, L.L.C., K.J. Halama, and R.E. Lovich (editors). Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Southwestern United States. Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, Technical Publication HMG-5, Birmingham, AL. XXX pp. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES i

3 AUTHORS The Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Southwestern United States is the result of contributions from the following persons: EDITORS/AUTHORS Lawrence L. C. Jones Southwest Zoologists League Tucson, Arizona Kenneth J. Halama Director, Motte Rimrock Reserve and Emerson Oaks Reserve University of California Natural Reserve System Department of Biology University of California, Riverside Robert E. Lovich San Diego, California CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS Jim Asmus Wildlife Biologist Resource Enforcement and Compliance Section MCI-West Environmental Security Camp Pendleton, California Brian Aucone Senior Vice President for Animal Care and Conservation Denver Zoo, Colorado Cameron Barrows Research Ecologist Center for Conservation Biology University of California, Riverside Steve Beaupre Professor Department of Biological Sciences University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Richard Bireley Senior Environmental Research Scientist California Department of Pesticide Regulation Sacramento, California Polly Conrad Wildlife Biologist Wildlife Diversity Division Nevada Department of Wildlife, Las Vegas Robert Cox Associate Professor Department of Natural Resources Management Texas Tech University, Lubbock Joshua R. Ennen Tennessee Aquarium Conservation Institute Chattanooga, Tennessee Mark Fisher Senior Scientist Deep Canyon Desert Research Center Natural Reserve System, University of California, Riverside Robert Fisher Supervisory Research Biologist U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center San Diego, California Matt Goode Research Specialist School of Natural Resources and Environment University of Arizona, Tucson David Grandmaison Wildlife Biologist Superior National Forest Duluth, Minnesota Bryan T. Hamilton Wildlife Biologist 100 Great Basin National Park Baker, Nevada Mike Lannoo Professor of Anatomy and Cell Biology Indiana University School of Medicine, Terre Haute Jeffrey Lovich Research Ecologist U.S. Geological Survey Southwest Biological Science Center Flagstaff, Arizona Kim Lovich Curator Herpetology and Ichthyology San Diego Zoo Global, California Clark R. Mahrdt Wildlife Biologist San Diego Natural History Museum, California Danny Martin Great Plains Reptile Monitoring Project Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory Colorado State University, Fort Collins Steve Morey Biologist U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Portland, Oregon Erin Muths Zoologist U.S. Geological Survey Fort Collins Science Center, Colorado Priya Nanjappa [assuming Appendix G] Esther Nelson Wildlife Biologist USDA Forest Service Pecos, New Mexico Joshua M. Parker Instructor Fresno City College, California Mickey Ray Parker Wildlife Biologist School of Natural Resources and Environment University of Arizona, Tucson Gad Perry Professor Natural Resources Management Texas Tech University, Lubbock David S. Pilliod Research Ecologist U.S. Geological Survey Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center Boise, Idaho Raymond Semlitsch Professor Division of Biological Sciences University of Missouri, Columbia Stephen F. Spear Associate Conservation Scientist The Orianne Society Athens, Georgia Drew Stokes Field Biologist San Diego Natural History Museum, California Brian Sullivan Professor School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences Arizona State University, Tempe Michael D. Wilcox Senior Biologist/Ecologist Amec Foster Wheeler Environment & Infrastructure. Riverside, California Jen Williams [assuming Appendix G] ii

4 HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES The Long-nosed Leopard Lizard is found in all four deserts of the Southwest Danny Martin HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES iii

5 Most of the Southwest is typified by an arid, hot climate, but not without exception. Despite these seemingly harsh conditions, reptiles and even amphibians reach their highest diversity in the Southwest. The Tiger Rattlesnake (inset) is an example of a species that finds its home in the arid Southwest. Even areas that are dry most of the year, such as the Willcox Playa in the northwestern Chihuahuan Desert, will become breeding habitat for a number of aridadapted amphibian species, including this Chihuahuan Green Toad (inset). This species becomes surface active and breeds in temporary ponds created during summer rains. iv

6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Purpose and Intended Use of this Document... Preface... Introduction... How to Use these Guidelines... Developing a Management Plan... Reptiles and Amphibians of the Southwest... Natural History of Amphibians and Reptiles... Ecoregional Context of the Southwest... Habitats Important to Amphibians... and Reptiles in the Southwest Management Guidelines for Conservation Challenges... Habitat Conversion... Dirt Roads and Trails... Major Roads and Highways... Surface and Groundwater Use... Herbicides, Insecticides, Piscicides, and other Pesticides... Livestock Grazing... Fire Management and Vegetation Restoration... Timber and Vegetation Management... Energy Development... Mining, Oil, and Gas... International Border Security... Exploitation... Subsidized Predators... Non-native and Invasive Species... Disease... Climate Change... The Basics: General Management Guidelines... across Habitat Types... Management Guidelines for Specific Habitat Types... Desert Scrublands... Desert Woodlands... Dunes... Grasslands... Shrub and Shrub Steppe... Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral... Thornscrub... Bosques and Gallery Forests... Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands... Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands... Evergreen Woodlands... Deciduous Forests... Evergreen Forests... Alpine and Subalpine... Rock Features... Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines... Canyons... Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds... Rivers and Perennial Streams... Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs... Small Water-retention Structures... Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps... Springs and Seeps... Marine and Estuary... Agricultural Lands... Urban and Suburban Areas... Golf Courses... Appendices A. Amphibian and Reptile Species of the Southwest B. Developing a Management Plan C. Non-native, Invasive Species of Concern to Amphibians and Reptiles of the Southwest... D. Disinfection Guidelines for Individuals Working in Freshwater Habitats... E. Southwest PARC Priority Species... (2012 list) F. References and Resources... G. Conservation Programs and Options... Acknowledgments... HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES v

7 sidebars SIDEBARS What is Southwest Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation... What is the Amphibian and Reptile Conservancy?... Amphibians and Reptiles Need Love, Too... Adaptive Management... Taxonomy and Nomenclature... Survey, Inventory, and Monitoring... Safety First!... Nuisance Reptiles/Relocating... Venomous Reptiles... What to do in Case of Snakebite... Habitats and Landscapes... Don t Look Up Look Down!... Herpetology... All-female Whiptails: Weeds of the Lizard World?... Construction Activities... Southwest PARC s Flat-tailed Horned Lizard Biomonitor Training... Lizard in a Battleground: The Case of the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard... Trade of Southwestern Amphibians and Reptiles... Rattlesnake Festivals... The North American Monsoon... Landscape Conservation Cooperatives... Habitats within Habitats... Creosote Bush: Pillar of the American Hot Deserts... Those Amazing Sand Dune Specialists!... Apachean Ecoregion: Hotbed of Biodiversity... Disease: Contributor to Amphibian Decline... Hibernacula... Those Amazing Cave Salamanders!... Habitat Models to Guide Management... Decisions: A Case Study with Midget Faded Rattlesnake... Head-starting and Translocation the Relict Leopard Frog... Wetland Loss in the Southwest... Conservation Advances: Kemp s Ridley Sea Turtle... Backyard Natives Habitat... vi

8 HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES PREFACE Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Southwestern United States is a production of Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation (PARC). PARC s mission is to conserve amphibians, reptiles, and their habitats as integral parts of our ecosystem and culture through proactive and coordinated public/private partnerships. The emphasis is on partnerships, as we seek to work with everyone to find solutions to common issues. PARC is not a funding or government agency. It does not create or dictate policy, and it is non-regulatory. Rather, PARC provides guidelines based on sound science. PARC s objective Each Habitat Management Guide covers several ecoregional provinces (see page 14). Striped areas represent overlap between adjacent Guidelines. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES vii

9 PREFACE Portrait of a male Eastern Collared Lizard is to increase communication and cooperation among many diverse groups who have a common interest in amphibians, reptiles, and their habitats. PARC provides ideas for individuals, agencies, companies, and organizations to help conserve and manage habitats occupied by amphibians and reptiles. The diversity of partners makes PARC the most comprehensive conservation effort ever undertaken for amphibians and reptiles. At the core of PARC is the philosophy that we all must work together. There is no us versus them. It is all us. To learn more about PARC, please visit our website at This book is part of a five-volume series covering the contiguous United States and parts of Canada. Each volume covers a regional geographic area largely based on ecoregions, but also state boundaries. The Southwest volume was written with the intent of eventually making it available to the public as modules via the PARC website. As such, some redundancy among sections was required to ensure that key points were captured for those that may not read the document in its entirety. Development of the PARC Habitat Management Guidelines (HMGs) began shortly following the organization of PARC in The initial PARC Habitat Management Technical Working Group consisted of Kurt Buhlmann, Erin Clark, Robert Fisher, Whit Gibbons, Randy Gray, John Jensen, Bruce Kingsbury, the late Laura Mazanti, Joe Mitchell, Earl Possardt, Klaus Richter, and Monica Schwalbach. This group conceptualized the need for HMGs as PARC products and agreed that at least five regional documents would be needed for the United States, including the Midwest, Southeast, Southwest, Northeast, and Northwest. The Technical Working Group, chaired by Monica Schwalbach, organized a workshop in Chicago that was held in February At that meeting, 85 individuals representing the five regions worked for three days on concepts, habitats, and early drafts of the documents for each region. Subsequently, the Midwest HMG was the first to be published in 2002, followed by the Northeast and Southeast HMGs in 2006, and Northwest HMG in Habitat Management Guidelines for the Southwest is the fifth in the series. viii

10 HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES This document is the product of extensive efforts made by many people and contains the contributions of individuals from diverse backgrounds including academic, private, government, and industrial. An unpublished version, the Arid Lands HMG was produced in It was a product of a development team that included M. Goode, L. Woods, J. Mac Aller, J. Smeltzer, R. Averill-Murray, P. Rosen, C. Schwalbe, and T. Hare. This current version is a follow-up as an official HMG for the Southwest PARC Region. Lead technical coordinators and editors for these guidelines are Lawrence L. C. Jones, a biologist from Tucson, Arizona; Kenneth J. Halama, a biologist with the University of California Natural Reserve System; and Robert E. Lovich, a herpetologist in San Diego, California. For consistency among sections common to other HMGs, part of this document was modified from previous HMGs. This HMG was completed as an edited version, with many contributors adding to the content. Authors of sections written by invited contributors are acknowledged in the sections. The Acknowledgments section lists others who have helped with text, photographs, and other aspects needed for the production of the HMG. Contributors of photographs retain copyright ownership of their images, except as noted. Mike Sredl University of California Editors of the Southwest Habitat Management Guidelines (top to bottom): Larry Jones, Ken Halama, and Rob Lovich Jim Atkinson HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES ix

11 PREFACE A workshop held during this annual meeting of Southwest PARC had a training component involving both classroom and field, where participants got hands-on experience with amphibians and reptiles WHAT IS SOUTHWEST PARTNERS IN AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE CONSERVATION? Partners in Amphibian and Reptile Conservation is not only concerned with rare species, but also dedicated to keeping common species common. The Southwest Region (Southwest PARC) is largely an arid land (not without exception), having the highest diversity of reptiles and amphibians in the United States (449 native species). Anyone can be a member of Southwest PARC at no charge simply visit our website ( org) and ask to be part of our mailing list. The annual meeting is shared among the eight states comprising the Southwest PARC region. At annual meetings, members can opt to be part of working groups to develop specific Southwest PARC products and programs or otherwise provide input. Besides annual meetings, PARC and Southwest PARC offer workshops, publications, brochures, and list-serves with important announcements (such as employment opportunities). By being a member you can help PARC and Southwest PARC find reasonable solutions to conservation challenges that face us despite our ever-expanding human population. Rather than dwelling on threats facing our native species and placing constraints on our activities, we try to explore options and opportunities to help amphibians, reptiles, and humans coexist. The Amphibian and Reptile Conservancy is the financial arm of PARC. WHAT IS THE AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE CONSERVANCY? Because PARC is an umbrella group that includes several government agencies, among other members, it cannot be directly involved with fiduciary activities. The Amphibian and Reptile Conservancy (ARC) is the not-for-profit financial arm that supports PARC. It was formerly called Friends of PARC. Operating funds for PARC can be obtained through ARC and dispersed as needed. Primarily, ARC helps support PARC activities, such as assisting biologists from other neighboring countries with travel costs to attend PARC annual meetings and offsetting publication costs, such as this HMG. However, ARC is not limited to PARC. It is growing as an entity that can better assist herpetological conservation in general. Visit ARC at Lawrence L. C. Jones x

12 HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES INTRODUCTION To address observed declines in our native amphibian and reptile fauna (collectively termed herpetofauna), Southwest PARC has developed this document containing collaboratively derived, science-based habitat management guidelines (HMGs) for the 449 native species (Appendix A) of amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest (Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah). Since amphibians and reptiles do not observe political boundaries, land managers and land owners in neighboring states and northern Mexico may also find this document applicable to their needs. A primary goal of PARC is to use the best science available to produce amphibian and reptile-focused guidelines that are practical and easily understood, and are compatible with other land management objectives. The guidelines included in this document were drafted to be consistent with HMGs for other regions and from published literature on amphibians and reptiles and their habitats in the southwestern U.S. The guidelines are also the result of the extensive experiences of biologists, conservationists, landowners, and other resource managers (those tasked with managing private or public lands, plant and animal populations, or regulatory entities) who provided input. These guidelines strive to be general enough that applications can be adapted for any location or habitat of interest. We do not describe the needs of every species of amphibian and reptile in this document. Instead, we provide guidelines for managing habitats in each region in ways that have net positive benefits for the amphibians and reptiles that inhabit these habitat types. The PARC HMGs identify important habitats used by amphibians and reptiles and provide resource managers and landowners with options for incorporating specific conservation actions in their management plans. Resource managers will benefit from these guidelines because their implementation will provide ecological benefits to other species beyond amphibians and reptiles. Habitat conservation can be viewed as preventive maintenance for ecosystem health. If resource mana- gers implement some of these guidelines, the cumulative effects will be positive for many ecosystems. In addition to guidelines, there are numerous sidebars to show examples of conservation in action or provide additional information that does not necessarily fit within the guidelines sections. Photographs and captions are extremely important in this document. We have chosen to use many photographs to help readers gain an appreciation of the diverse herpetofauna of the Southwest by discussing natural history and management actions in captions. Individual species are rarely shown more than once, and we tried to cover representative taxa (salamanders, frogs and toads, lizards, snakes, turtles, and crocodilians) across all states. This volume has many authors who are listed for all sections and sidebars (except very short contributions by editors and those of standard language of all other HMGs). Editors HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 1

13 Introduction Maximizing Compatibility guidelines are for landowners and other resource managers who wish to contribute to the conservation of amphibians and reptiles while primarily managing their lands for other uses, such as timber production, hunting, recreation, grazing, development, and agriculture. Ideal guidelines are for landowners and other resource managers whose goal is to make amphibian and reptile conservation a primary objective, as might be desired and achievable on nature preserves and wildlife refuges, as well as private lands where owners wish to optimize diversity and abundance. Kids can be imprinted with a good memory of how interesting and important reptiles and amphibians are but let s face it, adults run the world and we need to instill a sense of importance to them, too, to ensure that all species are considered in conservation management. During this Southwest PARC field workshop (lower), professional biologists are learning about identification, methods, and management strategies. HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES The HMG is organized into two primary sections. The first describes the major conservation challenges facing amphibians and reptiles and provides brief suggestions for What can land managers do to reduce or mitigate these threats. The second section covers specific habitats where amphibians and reptiles occur in the Southwest and provides guidelines for maintaining or improving them. Each of the habitat sections contains two sets of guidelines: (1) Maximizing Compatibility and (2) Ideal. Many reptiles and amphibians are poorly understood by the general public, but these animals are trying to eke out a living like everyone else. Vipers, like this Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake, are often loathed and killed by uninformed people, but they serve the useful purpose of eating rodents, that destroy our food (through damage to agriculture) or carry disease. People may run the risk of being bitten when trying to dispatch a snake. Amphibians and Reptiles Need Love, Too! Birds, mammals, and fishes are well known to everyone, but most people are less familiar with amphibians and reptiles. These groups of animals belong to two (or more) different classes of animals (like birds vs. mammals), but are usually lumped together (commonly referred to as herps ) because early scientists placed them in an other category from the more well-known vertebrates. While these animals may be common and abundant, many are cryptic (hidden, sometimes in plain sight). All have important ecological roles and should be respected, rather than maligned. For example, most snakes are sophisticated predators that help our economy by keeping rodent populations down, especially in agricultural areas. Lizards and frogs and toads, like bats, consume vast quantities of noxious insect pests. Signage is one way to inform the public of the value of these animals and the laws that may protect them. Danny Martin 2

14 HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES Taxonomy and Nomenclature. Taxonomy is the scientific classification of living organisms into groupings based on shared characters. Our classification system dates back to Carl Linnaeus and his 1758 list of species names in Systema Naturae. A simplified taxonomy categorizes all organisms into hierarchical groupings, including kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, occasionally with subspecies (race) to show geographic differences. The primary organismal focus in the HMGs is the species. Thus, for example, the Desert Spiny Lizard is a species closely related to Clark s Spiny Lizard (in the same genus), but more distantly related to horned lizards (different genus), even less related to Arizona whiptails (a different family), and much more distantly related to the Rough-skinned Newt (a different class an amphibian). Nomenclature is the process by which animals are named. For our purposes, we are interested in scientific nomenclature (e.g., genus and species, as in Sceloporus magister) and standard English names (e.g., Desert Spiny Lizard for S. magister). Herpetologists are constantly trying to refine the relationships and groupings of amphibians and reptiles, so as we learn more, the taxonomy and nomenclature may change from what was previously known. For example, the Desert Spiny Lizard has variously been considered a single species or comprised of three species of closely related lizards. This can get complicated, especially for someone not involved with taxonomic studies. This is why PARC has adopted a commonly used standard: Crother (2012; Scientific and Standard English Names of Amphibians and Reptiles of North America, SSAR Herp Circular No 39), except we opt to use the spelling of Mojave, rather than Mohave to be consistent with long-term usage and affiliation with the Mojave Desert and Native American tribes. Names in this publication, which are periodically updated, are those chosen by a committee of professional herpetologists who generally concur on the most scientifically supported taxonomy and nomenclature for amphibians and reptiles in the U.S. and Canada. For example, in this HMG, you will notice that standard English names are treated like proper nouns Recently, it was determined that instead of one, there are actually five species of California legless lizards. Taxonomic changes can lead to changes in management and legal decisions. with upper case letters, such as Desert Spiny Lizard. When referencing more than one species, they are not treated as such (i.e., spiny lizards). Treating a single species or subspecies as a proper noun helps avoid confusion. For example, we know Desert Spiny Lizard only refers to S. magister and not just any spiny lizard (genus Sceloporus) found in deserts. Many plants and invertebrates do not have standard English names like vertebrates, so their common names are not standardized or treated as proper nouns. Hence, their common names do not have initial capital letters. For example, creosote bush refers to Larrea tridentata, a common name used for a long time. Greasewood is another vernacular name for this species, but greasewood is also used for several other plants. By not recognizing individual species, resource managers and landowners might make inappropriate management decisions. For example, if a species occurs over a wide area and is a habitat generalist, then it is not likely to be of high conservation concern. If that species was taxonomically comprised of several species, and one or more are shown to have narrow ranges, then they are more likely to be of conservation concern (e.g., federally listed under the Endangered Species Act and receiving local, state, or federal protection). What is our advice? Don t struggle with every taxonomic change or keeping up with the scientific literature. Appendix A shows the current scientific and standard English names in the Southwest PARC region for the member states (i.e., Crother 2012, with some additional species named afterwards). Lawrence L. C. Jones Jackson Shedd HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 3

15 Introduction Laura Martin Inventory or monitoring are important aspects of management that are often disregarded in the planning process, but are critical for adaptive management. Adaptive management is a flexible approach to management that uses feedback on successes and failures of current management practices, and new information that becomes available over time, to modify management plans. Survey, Inventory, and Monitoring. These three terms are frequently used in management plans and other documents. They are often used inappropriately because they may be misunderstood. They are not synonymous, but differ in some important nuances. A survey is a search for (in our case) amphibians, reptiles, or their habitat. For example, one can survey a management area for Mojave Desert Tortoises using an approved protocol. In some cases, a single search is all that is necessary, but sometimes repeated site visits may be required, in order to establish presence or absence. The word absence is in quotes because failure to find an animal does not necessarily mean it is absent; it may just be very rare or rarely encountered. An inventory is typically more intensive, as when one is trying to establish a species list in a management area or habitat type. This could take one day to several years, depending on the parameters. Inventories to get a complete list of all species present on large landscapes is a major undertaking, so biologists often used published records and literature to help make presence or absence determinations. In our Mojave Desert Tortoise example, we may want to know which other reptiles share its habitat. Monitoring differs from both in that repeatable surveys are done over time, usually to detect a trend in population, or to determine if a particular management scheme is working. In our example, we may monitor the tortoises over a period of years to see if our habitat restoration project has been effective, as indicated by a stable or increasing population. If not, we may want to adopt adaptive management and change our management strategies. Lawrence L. C. Jones Implement Plan Modify Plan Monitor and Evaluate Success Very rare species should be highly prioritized in the habitat management planning process, but multiple species always need to be considered. 4

16 HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES Some reptiles are venomous. Become familiar with venomous animals and know your abilities and surroundings. Nuisance Reptiles Safety First! Much of the Southwest is characterized by remote, dry, arid, rugged, and often extremely hot environments. This is not only a good combination for a high diversity of reptiles (and many amphibians), but can also be a safety hazard for the unprepared. Always know your limits and don t exceed them. Carry seemingly excessive amounts of water, travel with companions, and let others know where you are and when you plan to return. Watch where you put your hands and feet rocky ledges and tall grass make for good rattlesnake habitat. In other words, use common sense and pay attention! Venomous reptiles (rattlesnakes, coralsnakes, Yellow-bellied Seasnake, Cottonmouth, Copperhead, and Gila Monster) are sometimes referred to as nuisance species when they show up in populated areas (of course, it is only the human interpretation of their presence being construed as a nuisance). Most resource managers believe these animals must be dealt with accordingly to remove the danger. For some, killing the animal seems prudent, but PARC recognizes all native, living animals as integral in our natural environment, so does not condone this approach. Rather, Southwest PARC has developed a brochure with the Tucson Herpetological Society titled Living with Venomous Reptiles in the Southwest, which suggests other options. It can be downloaded from: uploads/2013/04/living_w_venomous_reptiles_small. pdf. Also, Southwest PARC is developing a training curriculum and program for resource managers wishing to learn how to safely relocate venomous species. Relocating Venomous Reptiles. Although venomous snakes and one lizard, the Gila Monster, are capable of injuring humans, our understanding of these important predators has grown immensely. More and more people want to avoid harming these beautiful animals. Venomous reptiles preying on rodents may limit populations that harbor diseases such as plague and hanta virus. Venoms are used in medicine to treat diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, and control pain. Reptiles are an important part of our cultural heritage. Why should moving reptiles over long distances be harmful? All individuals are intimately familiar with their own home ranges. When they are moved, they try to return to the areas they know. Some species of snakes imprint on a single hibernaculum and do not use others. Relocated snakes move frequently, feed infrequently, and travel excessively long distances. These movements expose snakes to dangers such as predators and roads; lack of feeding causes a Venomous reptiles, such as this Gila Monster, are best left alone, unless their choice of location threatens both humans and themselves. Most animals have a home range, so moving them the shortest distance possible should achieve the goals of removing them frmo the immediate conflict and helping ensure their greatest chance of survival. decline in their body condition. They may freeze to death with the arrival of winter. Killing the animal is not a safe alternative, as deliberate interactions with venomous species are among the most frequent cause of bites. The best solution is to co-exist with the snakes. Relocation should be considered only if the snake is posing a safety risk to humans or to itself, such as a home, visitor center, or place where humans may kill the snake. If relocation is required, move the snake as short a distance as possible, preferably in the direction of travel. This will often mitigate the immediate risk of the animal to humans and of humans to the animal. It is important that there is adequate cover at the relocation site for thermoregulation and predator avoidance. Remove items around your house and yard, such as brush piles, old lumber, or pieces of sheet metal that may attract snake prey to deter their return. Ultimately, relocation should balance human and reptile safety. Educating the public plays an important role in conveying an understanding of the ecological importance of reptiles, venomous and otherwise. Contact your local wildlife management agency for specific guidance. There are also many individuals or organizations that will safely remove snakes and Gila Monsters. Consult your local telephone directory or online search engine. Bryan T. Hamilton and Lawrence L. C. Jones HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 5

17 Introduction We are in the Age of Technology and there are many high-tech tools at our disposal to survey wildlife and their habitat. This drone can photograph habitats that humans would have a difficult time accessing. Herpetologists are measuring a Sonoran Desert Tortoise to determine its growth and general health of individuals and populations. What to do in Case of Snakebite. Let s keep this simple: don t get bitten in the first place! Many venomous snake and Gila Monster bites in the U.S. are from people attempting to kill them, handle them, or move them unsafely. These are termed illegitimate bites. This often involves young human males having alcohol in their system, thus decreasing judgement and increasing bravado. Interacting with venomous animals can result in serious injury (e.g., amputated appendages or motor loss), death, or at least expensive medical bills (e.g., can be well over $100,000). There are also legitimate bites, like from stepping on a snake or placing your hand on a ledge with a rattlesnake, so awareness of your surroundings is always prudent. The vast majority of venomous snakebites fortunately do not result in death. There are many first aid measures referenced online or from friends, but suffice to say, envenomation is a medical emergency and there is no real first aid that can help significantly. Many suggested approaches can actually exacerbate the situation. In all cases of envenomation, keep the patient calm and call 911 to get him or her to a hospital or drive to the nearest hospital if that is quicker (and call 911 to ensure they are aware you are on the way and allow them to be prepared). Thus, the best first aid for snake bite is a set of car keys and a cell phone. Do not: Cut the affected area or use a snakebite kit Use a tourniquet Suck the venom out Use ice to slow the spread of venom Use chemicals (e.g., meat tenderizer) to denature the venom A bite by a venomous reptile is always an expensive medical emergency, so best to learn to avoid it in the first place. Drink alcohol or take medications Attempt to kill the snake to use it for ID purposes ( dead snakes can still bite), although a photograph from a safe distance may be helpful. Do: Call 911 Get the bitten person to a hospital as soon as possible Remove rings, bracelets, boots, or other constricting jewelry or clothing near the affected area Keep the patient calm If possible, immobilize the limb Mark the extent of swelling with a waterproof marker or other instrument as it progresses up the limb and note time of bite; mark the extent of swelling every 15 min A physician well-versed with envenomation cases will know what to do. Knowing the time of the incident and showing the spread of venom with the marks will help the physician know how much antivenom to administer and how to treat the wound and symptoms. Time is of the essence, especially in cases of serious envenomation. Bryan Hamilton Editors 6

18 HOW TO USE THESE GUIDELINES By using the information within, you will be able to: 1. Identify the habitats and management practices on which to focus based on your goals and objectives. 2. Gain an understanding of which species are likely to live in those habitats. 3. Establish your management goals for each habitat: By reviewing the recommended guidelines and selecting those that are possible to The American Southwest is the most biologically diverse PARC region, having more species of both reptiles and amphibians, based on state boundaries (the source is regional HMG publications). Lizards are, by far, best represented in the Southwest Region of PARC. These are Texas Horned Lizards. implement, given land use goals and other issues. By working with local and regional experts to implement the guidelines. Once you have implemented the guidelines that are feasible for your land, we recommend follow-up evaluations to determine if the HMG actions are effective. Depending on your resources, these could range from the most general field observations (for example, I m seeing more Gophersnakes than I used to ) to implementing science-based monitoring projects. If the recommended management actions succeed, then continue to use this approach. If they do not, then reevaluate the guidelines to determine where the problem is located. The guidelines are intentionally general in order to be applicable to a wide range of situations. First consider local issues and species, and then alter the guidelines as necessary to achieve the desired results on your lands. This adaptive management approach may be necessary as you learn more about the amphibian and reptile species on your land, their habitat-use patterns, and response to management goals. DEVELOPING A MANAGEMENT PLAN An important first step in managing habitats for amphibians and reptiles, no matter what the designated land use, is the development of a management plan. For a private landowner, a simple management plan may include a list of habitats, a list of species that may occur in those habitats, a list of land-use activities associated with each habitat type, a brief description of which land-use activities are compatible (or incompatible) with amphibian and reptile requirements, and a description and schedule of specific actions. Public land managers or large landowners may need to develop more comprehensive management plans (see Appendix B). Snakes are also most diverse in the Southwest. The Saddled Leaf-nosed Snake is one of many species found primarily along the border with Mexico. Amphibians are surprisingly well represented in the Southwest even within arid regions. California and Texas, especially, have numerous species, such as this Ensatina from the Sierra Nevada Mountains. William P. Leonard HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 7

19 Introduction REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF THE SOUTHWEST The diverse habitats in the Southwest region of PARC support the highest diversity of native amphibians and reptiles in the nation, with 436 native species at the time of this writing (Appendix A). Based on state distributions (as done for all HMGs), this includes 161 species of amphibians (85 salamanders and 76 frogs and toads) and 275 species of reptiles (127 snakes, 111 lizards, 36 turtles, and 1 crocodilian). Turtles, salamanders, and crocodilians are more diverse elsewhere in the U.S. (the Southeast region). About the same number of salamanders occurs in the Southwest and Southeast. However, high diversity is somewhat an artifact of the size of the Southwest region and the inclusion of Texas and Oklahoma within the boundaries of Southwest PARC, as ecologically they span parts of the Southwest, Southeast, and Midwest. Lizard and snake diversity in North America north of Mexico is at its highest in the Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts and in the mountain ranges within their perimeters. The diversity is due, in part, to the southwestern states being contiguous with Mexico and sharing its many desert, tropical, and subtropical species. The number of species decreases as one goes north. The diversity of amphibians is surprisingly high when you think of a landscape that is largely arid more so than other PARC regions. However, it makes sense when you put the pieces together. The borderlands have desert and subtropical species, many of which have adapted to breeding in arid lands during rains associated with the North American Monsoon. California has a large number of slender salamanders. Central Texas is underlain with limestone that supports a high diversity of cave-adapted salamanders and other karst-associated species. Also, mountains are prominent features of much of the Southwest, so species needing cooler and moister climates occur upslope of the valley floors. To this, add the species in eastern Texas and Oklahoma shared with the Southeast, northwestern California with fauna more typical of the Northwest, and parts of the Southwest region having grassy plains contiguous with the Midwest. Thus, the diversity of amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest essentially results from a convergence of ecoregions with wide variations in climate, topography, and elevation. In general, coastal areas are moister and have more stable temperatures throughout the year than inland regions. Inland from the ocean, high mountain ranges of the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains cause air coming in from the West to deflect upward which causes water vapor to condense and precipitate as rain or snow on the western slopes. Eastern slopes and valleys are in the rain shadow, so are drier. This is where deserts occur. Much of the Southwest also receives precipitation during the summer from the North American Monsoon, derived from storms originating in tropical Mexico. Habitat changes occur over short distances in the Southwest due to local extreme topography. North-facing slopes, for example, are generally cooler and moister than south-facing slopes. Canyons and drainages are generally cooler and moister than the surrounding uplands. This local variation is reflected in the plant and animal species composition which can change with slope and aspect, particularly in arid environments. As a result of habitat and environmental variability, the Southwest harbors many species that do not occur anywhere else in the world. These endemic species are adapted to local conditions and have limited ability to disperse through other kinds of environments. Editors NATURAL HISTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES An understanding of the natural history of amphibians and reptiles is essential to effective management of their habitats and populations. There are several factors to consider: 1. Many amphibians and reptiles take years to reach sexual maturity and have relatively long life spans (up to 12 years for some amphibians, up to 30 years for snakes, and even more for turtles). 2. Amphibians and reptiles are ectothermic, or what is commonly referred to as cold-blooded, whereas birds and mammals are endothermic ( warm-blooded ). This means that birds and mammals need to eat regularly and must be active, whereas amphibians and reptiles do not need to eat frequently and can be inactive for long periods. 3. Most amphibians and some reptiles may be hidden and solitary for much of the year, but can be conspicuous and observable in large numbers at certain times, such as during periods of reproduction or following warm rain events. 4. Some amphibians and reptiles are habitat specialists that do not travel far during their lifespan, while others use a variety of aquatic and terrestrial habitats. Some may move over several miles, such as snakes accessing feeding grounds from their hibernacula. 5. Some species of amphibians and reptiles, espe- 8

20 NATURAL HISTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES Don t Look Up Look Down! Bird-watching may be one of America s favorite outdoor hobbies, but another ecotourism activity is evolving herp watching! Amphibians and reptiles are often cryptic, so are not as noticeable to the untrained eye as birds or mammals. Herps represent the hidden biodiversity of an area. Knowing where, how, and when to look for herps will reveal a natural wonder missed by the casual observer. Although herp-watching is an enjoyable pastime for nature enthusiasts, why mention it in this HMG? The main reason to host viewing experiences for the public is to provide educational opportunities and demonstrate good land management in action. Examples could include establishing a viewing area at a pond that has been restored or a nature trail that emphasizes the value of intact, native vegetation. The most obvious choice for someone wanting to experience the diversity and wonder of reptiles in their natural habitat should probably start with lizard-watching. Lizards are usually diurnal (active during the day), abundant, relatively approachable, and readily viewed with binoculars. With close-focus binoculars, the colors, patterns, and intricate scale arrangements become apparent even seemingly mundane species look spectacular when viewed closely. Lizards are usually seen as they bask on rocks, logs, and other structures, or while moving on the surface (e.g., whiptail lizards). Most are active when it is between 75º and 95ºF (24-35 C) during the morning hours of spring and summer. The highest diversity is in desert areas and other arid landscapes in the Southwest. There may even be lizard-watching tours available near you. For example, Boyce Thompson Arboretum near Superior, Arizona, has been offering guided lizard walks during the spring and summer for many years. Snakes are very closely related to lizards, but are inherently more difficult to observe. It usually takes more effort to see snakes in the wild, so it is advised to become familiar with your target species. Some snakes are diurnal, but most are nocturnal or crepuscular (surface active during twilight). Typically, snakes are most active in the spring through early fall. Searching for diurnal snakes requires knowledge of which environmental conditions are best (temperature, moisture, humidity, cloud cover). However, because most snakes are nocturnal, the most reliable method is known as road riding, where one can drive slowly on seldom-traveled paved (or Lizard-watching is a growing ecotourist activity and lizards tend to be more sedentary than birds. sometimes gravel) roads and watch for snakes on the roadway. This can be very productive in some areas, but be forewarned that there may be safety and legal issues associated with road-riding (e.g., driving slowly on roads with high speed limits) so be aware of rules and regulations before heading out. Be aware that snake-watching may be confused with snake-poaching or even illegal border activities by law enforcement personnel, so if confronted, be patient, have proper permits, and explain your intent as a nature observer. Like lizards, turtles are often viewed while they are basking on logs or the shore in ponds and rivers. Turtles tend to be more skittish than lizards, however, sliding into the water at the first hint of danger, so even more caution is warranted when approaching turtles. A pair of high-powered binoculars is recommended. Many amphibians are also decidedly watchable wildlife. However, most species are easiest to view when breeding or migrating to or from breeding sites. This is especially true for pond-breeding frogs, toads, and salamanders, including those that breed in ephemeral ponds (created by rainwater, but disappearing when conditions dry out). Most of these species are nocturnal. In areas of regular summer rains or during spring melt, there are many species that are termed explosive breeders, because they show up en masse following melt-water or rain-pool formation. If you are at the right place at the right time, it is possible to see several species of amphibians in large groups and hear their breeding choruses. Lawrence L. C. Jones HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 9

21 Introduction Many amphibians and reptiles are cryptic (hidden), as in the case of this Goode s Horned Lizard, hiding in plain sight. cially frogs, have widely fluctuating population sizes over time. Population cycles are often dependent upon rainfall, so some species may not breed during drought years. 6. Amphibians and reptiles play important roles as both predators and prey in their natural habitats. 7. Amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest have developed unique adaptations to persist in harsh southwestern environments which often vary from extremely hot to very cold and from very dry to flash flood conditions. 8. Amphibians have permeable skin which makes them particularly vulnerable to changes in water chemistry, drought, and disease. Some aridadapted species, however, are relatively dehydration-resistant. Reptiles have a relatively impermeable skin covered with scales, but can also be affected by the environment, such as high temperatures. 9. The diversity of amphibians and reptiles is declining due to climate change effects and many other human-induced modifications of the environment. For example, some studies show that lizards are being extirpated from study areas where they were formerly recorded, due to climate change. 10. Many exotic species (e.g., released pets) are habitat generalists and are able to establish populations in areas where they are not native. Some, like American Bullfrogs (outside the native range), can harm native species by feeding on native species and being a reservoir for the deadly amphibian chytridiomycosis fungus. SURFACE ACTIVITY Surface activity (when animals are active on or near the ground surface) of amphibians and reptiles is largely regulated by temperature and moisture. Ectotherms obtain body heat from external sources in their environment. Desert lizards are usually active during the day, when air temperatures are in the 70s to 90s F (21-37 C), but some species, such as the Desert Iguana, can be active when the temperature is up to about 109ºF (43 C). Snakes are generally more sensitive to heat and amphibians must remain cool. So how do they survive and thrive in deserts? They do so by remaining underground during the day when it is hot and becoming active when temperatures go down at night. The other key factor governing surface activity is moisture. This is especially important for amphibians, because they have permeable skin and must stay hydrated. Many amphibians and reptiles become active when stimulated by high humidity and rainfall. In the Sonoran Desert of southern California, where the majority of precipitation falls during winter months, snakes are most active in the spring. In the adjacent Sonoran Desert of Arizona, where the majority of precipitation falls during the North American Monsoon, snakes become most active in the summer. Of course, not all amphibians and reptiles live in deserts, and most mountain species are diurnal, the only time when optimal temperatures can be reached. REPRODUCTION Most frogs and toads have external fertilization, with males delivering sperm onto eggs as females release them in water. Salamanders have internal fertilization; males deposit sperm packets on the substrate that females then pick up in their cloacae (common anal and reproductive opening). Amphibian eggs are surrounded by a viscous gelatinous layer, and are deposited directly in water or on moist substrates (soil, rotting wood, 10

22 NATURAL HISTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES Most Southwest amphibians and reptiles lay eggs, such as these hatching Slevin s Bunchgrass Lizards, but some species give birth to live young. leaf litter). Reptiles have internal fertilization. Egg-laying reptiles lay shelled eggs in moist, warm substrates (sand, soil) and are sensitive to drying conditions, predators, and soil disturbance. Several Southwest reptiles, including some lizards, rattlesnakes, gartersnakes, and boas, give birth to live young. Others, such as Yarrow s Amphibians often have a dual life cycle, with larvae living in ponds, such as these Amargosa Toad and Baja California Treefrog tadpoles. Spiny Lizard, lay eggs if living in warm-weather environments at lower slopes (or latitudes), yet upslope (or in more northern areas) give birth to live young where it is not warm enough to incubate eggs. Some whiptail species are all-female, and reproduce successfully without males (parthenogenesis). Alison Cockrum All-female Whiptails: Weeds of the Lizard World? There is a biological phenomenon known as parthenogenesis, wherein eggs can develop in a female without fertilization from a male. Some species of lizards are occasionally parthenogenetic, such as Komodo Dragons, but some species of Southwest whiptails (genus Aspidoscelis, formerly Cnemidophorus) are always parthenogenetic. The parthenogenetic whiptails are composed of all-female lines and the entire population is composed of genetic clones. All-female whiptails arose as hybrids from two or more bisexual (having males and females) and/or other parthenogenetic parental stocks. For example, the New Mexico Whiptail originated from a female Marbled Whiptail and a male Little Striped Whiptail. Some all-female species have more complex lineages involving three and possibly more species, some of which are hybrids themselves, and may already be extinct. The epicenter of these fascinating animals is in Arizona, New Mexico, west Texas, and adjacent Mexico. Some whiptails are notoriously difficult to identify. Many all-female whiptail species in our area are striped and spotted, but may be striped or reticulated. Typically, all-female whiptails inhabit areas that are not well-occupied by bisexual species, so they have established a niche different than their parental stocks. This biological concept where hybrids fare better than parental sticks is known as hybrid vigor. All-female species have been likened to weeds, invading areas that have been disturbed, or are transitional between habitat types. Thus, at least some can be biological indicators of habitat degradation. Lawrence L. C. Jones HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 11

23 Introduction Ecoregions of the Southwest. All four U.S. deserts and are mostly within the region, as well as thornscrub and other habitats. Note the large number of ecoregions that are only found in the Southwest. Dale Turner When managing lands for long-lived, late maturing species, it is important to maintain habitats for larval and juvenile life stages, as well as adults. MIGRATION AND DISPERSAL Most amphibians and reptiles do not travel long distances like sea turtles. However, even terrestrial species move to some extent. Some, such as lungless salamanders and many lizards, move little during their lifetime while others may travel several miles (e.g., many snakes and some frogs). Individuals will move among populations, among suitable habitats, or colonize new habitats. Some species require different habitats seasonally or annually depending on their sex and life stage (juvenile versus adult). Although most amphibians have relatively thin skin that makes them vulnerable to desiccation, many are still capable of traveling across relatively dry terrestrial environments, especially during rainy periods. Migration and dispersal of salamanders, frogs, and toads are initiated by rain or periods of high humidity. Because scales serve as a protective barrier to moisture loss, reptiles are more capable of traveling during dry conditions. Temperature is a more limiting factor in daily and seasonal movements for these animals. POPULATION DYNAMICS Amphibian and reptile populations are seldom stable. The number of individuals fluctuates over time, sometimes dramatically so. Favorable environmental conditions (e.g., rain, plant growth and flowering, and insect production) usually result in population growth. Population size declines when conditions are unfavorable, as in drought periods. It may be difficult to accurately ascertain, based on observations over a short period of time, how populations are trending (stable, declining, or growing). This inherent dynamic in population cycles is important to consider when assessing how populations respond to management actions. 12

24 NATURAL HISTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES Patrick Keller Reptiles and amphibians are important both as predator and prey. Here a whiptail has provided a meal for a Greater Roadrunner. PREDATORS AND PREY Amphibians and reptiles play important ecological roles as both predators and prey in terrestrial and aquatic food webs. For example, most lizards feed almost entirely on invertebrates, especially insects, so are important mid-level predators. In turn, lizards are eaten by a wide variety of organisms, including Many snake species, such as this Gophersnake, have evolved to eat rodents, and are import predators that keep pests and disease in check. snakes, birds (most notably the Greater Roadrunner and some raptors), mammals, and even other lizards. Snakes are important predators that have helped keep prey populations in check for millennia an important consideration when one considers the social and economic ramifications of crop pest management and rodent-borne diseases. Many frog and toad species deposit hundreds to tens of thousands of eggs per HABITATS AND LANDSCAPES Habitat Availability. Amphibians and reptiles need habitats that contain suitable breeding or nesting sites, offer food and water, and provide shelter from inhospitable environmental conditions and predators. To meet all of these life-history requirements, more than one habitat type may be needed, allowing animals to migrate seasonally between different areas to feed, overwinter, and/or reproduce. However, amphibians and reptiles are not as mobile as most mammal or bird species. Therefore, additional lands that provide suitable travel corridors for amphibians and reptiles may also be required. Habitat Quality. Not all habitats are of equal quality to an amphibian or reptile. High-quality habitats will usually be identifiable by the number of young produced or by higher survival rates. Populations occurring in these habitats (called source populations) produce more individuals than are lost to mortality, and thus it is particularly important to identify and appropriately manage high-quality habitats that support healthy populations. Large numbers of individuals of many species may be observed only during certain periods of the year, such as during breeding seasons. Some species may occur in low numbers even in high-quality habitat. A high diversity of native species and/or occurrence of rare species are also good indices of high-quality habitat. Landscape Level. This is the geographic extent of the management area in question and includes all of the habitats within that area. A landscape is a geographic area that falls somewhere between the range of a species and an individual animal s home range. Hence, for amphibians and reptiles a landscape can be defined as an entire watershed, the land within a political boundary, or even a single property under management. Landscapes are generally mosaics of habitat patches with suitable and unsuitable environments. Think Connectivity. Many amphibian and reptiles species may need to move among different habitats at different times of the year in order to survive and reproduce. Corridors of suitable habitat that interconnect habitat patches will enhance survival during migration and increase exchange of individuals among populations. For example, amphibians and gartersnakes often use riparian corridors as migration routes, taking advantage of the higher moisture levels and cover from predators. Providing cover objects, vegetation, and culverts in corridor areas may enhance movement between habitat patches when true corridors are unavailable. Editors HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 13

25 Introduction Death Valley National Park Death Valley, California Rocky Mountains, Colorado Danny Martin Sierra Blanca, New Mexico Larence L.C. Jones Grand Canyon, Arizona Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico Giant Coast Redwood, California Joshua F. Jones THE SOUTHWEST IS A LAND OF EXTREMES The American Southwest is a land of variation and extremes, which explains, in part, why herpetofauna diversity is so high. Top left, clockwise: 1. Death Valley holds the record for the hottest place on earth (134 F, 56.7 C), is the driest place in the U.S. (average 2.3 in of rain [59 mm]/yr, with some years having zero inches), and is at the lowest point in the U.S. (232 ft [86 m] below sea level). 2. The peaks of the Sierra and Rocky mountains reach the highest elevations in the contiguous U.S. (Mt. Whitney, California, highest at 14,505 ft [4,421 m]). 3. Life zone spread all life zones are present in the Southwest; for example, at Tularosa Basin to Sierra Blanca a hiker can go through them all from hot desert to alpine tundra in a relatively short distance. 4. The largest tree on earth is General Sherman, a giant sequoia (1,487 m 2 [52,508 ft 3 ]. The tallest tree is a Coast Redwood, also in California ( ft [ m]). 5. Carlsbad Caverns is one of the largest caves, having the largest chamber ( Big Room or Hall of Giants ) in the U.S. 6. The Grand Canyon is arguably the largest canyon in the U.S. 14

26 NATURAL HISTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES female in water. Developing tadpoles feed on algae and detritus and in turn are abundant sources of food for aquatic predators. After metamorphosis, juvenile amphibians migrate into terrestrial habitats and thus the wetland resources become available to terrestrial ecosystems. HABITAT USE Many amphibians require both aquatic and terrestrial habitats during their lives. Many Southwest amphibians lay eggs in fresh water and have an aquatic larval stage, but as adults often spend most of the year in wetland, riparian, or terrestrial environments. Because of the general paucity of perennial standing water in the Southwest, many species have become adapted to breed and feed during brief periods of rain, then retire underground for the rest of the year. Most amphibians use upland habitats for foraging, overwintering, or dispersal, although some species or life forms (e.g., several species of salamanders may not metamorphose to a terrestrial form) are perennially aquatic. Some, such as western lungless salamanders, do not have an aquatic stage and are completely terrestrial their entire lives, although they still require a moist to wet environment. Reptiles occur over a broader range of environments because they do not require moisture to the same extent as amphibians. Except for turtles, most species in the Southwest are terrestrial. The largest numbers of species occur in deserts, grasslands, and shrublands. However, some are adapted to montane habitats, riparian areas, wetlands, swamps, and even the marine environment. Montane species, such as the Western Toad, web-toed salamanders, Yarrow s Spiny Lizard, and Twin-spotted Rattlesnake thrive under seemingly harsh conditions at high elevations. Watersnakes, gartersnakes, and most turtles are examples of species tied to aquatic environments. The Yellow-bellied Seasnake is completely marine it does not even come to land to breed. It has the largest range of any species of snake on earth, is occasionally observed in offshore California waters, and is sometimes washed ashore during El Niño years. Some reptiles have even adapted to urban environments, but this is a suboptimal habitat for most species. Some introduced geckos, however, thrive in urban environments where they do not compete with native species. Habitat quality for herpetofauna can be negatively affected by degraded air and water quality, soil erosion and disturbed soil structure, loss of suitable cover, altered hydroperiods or water levels, changed microclimate (i.e., altered soil temperature and moisture regimes), agrochemicals, physical disturbance (i.e., from vehicles or trampling of the substrate by livestock or recreationists), and introduction of invasive, non-native species. These factors often occur at the same time, and it is often difficult to identify which one is causing the greatest problem. Chronic habitat degradation usually results in unsuitable conditions or habitat loss. When once-continuous habitats become subdivided into small patches due to human activities or other factors, the habitat is considered fragmented. Habitat fragmentation can result in small, vulnerable populations surviving in isolated patches of favorable habitat. Small patch sizes and a high degree of isolation reduce the likelihood of viable populations persisting. The smaller and more elongated a patch of remaining favorable habitat, the more edge versus interior habitat. This reduces the amount of high quality habitat for some species because edges have altered microclimates and higher predator abundance. However, edge habitat may actually increase the abundance of native species that flourish in habitat interfaces (ecotones). Highly fragmented landscapes may contain high proportions of roads and other at-risk areas that result in high mortality when amphibians and reptiles attempt to move between habitat patches. Species survival depends on connectivity among populations and between habitats. Movement between populations ensures long-term survival of a species in an area and maintains genetic diversity. Most species use or require different habitats on a daily, seasonal, and annual basis to meet all their life-history needs. Unimpeded movement between these different habitat areas is critical for survival. For example, gartersnakes may move between foraging areas along wetlands and then through grasslands, shrublands, and forests to overwinter in rock outcrops or talus slopes. Mole salamanders (genus Ambystoma) often live in rodent burrows during much of the year and migrate to shallow ponds during wet seasons to breed. Much of the Southwest is experiencing tremendous human population growth due to the mild climate and the fact that modern technology has made hot, arid environments tolerable. Winter visitors ( snowbirds ) migrate to the Southwest every year; some retire there. Herpetology is the branch of zoology that focuses on the study of amphibians and reptiles. These animals are often referred to as herpetofauna or simply herps in the vernacular. The derivation of the word herpetology is from the Greek herpeto meaning creeping thing, and logos meaning discourse. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 15

27 Introduction Along with population growth is urban sprawl. Some species of reptiles and amphibians cannot tolerate these altered environments, while others may persist depending on the extent of habitat fragmentation and landscape modification. However, greenbelts in suburban areas are usually occupied by a variety of amphibians and reptiles, much more so than in interior urban environments. Countless numbers of reptiles are killed by house cats and dogs, and even humans wielding shovels. House cats have the ability to quickly eradicate small snakes and lizards in suburban developments. Editors ECOREGIONAL CONTEXT OF THE SOUTHWEST The geographic scope of coverage can be defined by ecoregions (large units of land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions) or by political boundaries. Although the former may be more appropriate from an ecological standpoint, the latter may be more useful for the reader and resource managers (e.g., there are herpetologists and regulatory agencies for states, but not for ecoregions). Emphasis is placed on the states in the American Southwest that are not addressed by the other HMGs. These are Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah, in their entirety, even though parts of those states may have ecosystems more typical of adjacent regions. The Nature Conservancy recognizes 29 ecoregions in the Southwest ( which are loosely based on Bailey s ecoregion assessment of the entire U.S. In the Southwest, a commonly used map is the Biotic Communities Map of the Southwest of Brown and Lowe (1979), which is much more detailed, having 34 biotic communities (subunits of ecoregions, but it but covers a smaller portion of the Southwest (southeastern California to western Texas). It is available online by The Nature Conservancy of Arizona ( org). HABITATS IMPORTANT TO AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES IN THE SOUTHWEST Ecologically, the heart of the American Southwest can be grossly generalized as having a warm, dry, temperate climate, with vast expanses of open space. All four of the North American deserts and the only subtropical thornscrub habitats in the U.S. are within this region. However, there are also vast expanses of mountains and other non-arid habitats, including maritime climates and two oceans, the Pacific to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. The close connectivity to Mexico helps explain why the diversity is higher for native reptiles in the Southwest than elsewhere. There are 27 major habitats identified by PARC that occur in the Southwest, including those habitats that may be geographically peripheral. Some of the habitats are not natural, such as agriculture lands, urban areas, and golf courses, but these were included because they now have a significant presence on the Southwest landscape. The 27 habitats include: Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodland Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Small Water-retention Structures Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary Agricultural Lands Urban and Suburban Areas Golf Courses 16

28 ECOREGIONAL CONTEXT OF THE SOUTHWEST Danny Martin Rivers not only provide habitat for amphibians and reptiles, but when these large systems slice through arid lands, they create habitat features such as rock outcrops, wetlands, and riparian vegetation zones. Wetlands, such as this one in New Mexico, are important habitat for amphibians that breed in them, but also for animals that must drink, or just take advantage of the cooler microclimate of wet environments. Ryan Besser Rocks provide important cover habitat for many species of reptiles and amphibians. Many species are saxicolous requiring rocky habitat to survive. Shrubs also provide cover for many species of herpetofauna. This area in Arches National Park, Utah, has plenty of herp hidey-holes, in the form of rock and shrub cover. Danny Martin Danny Martin One may think of the Midwest as the epicenter of grasslands, but several grassland types occur in the Southwest, and many species of reptiles and amphibians occur in these grasslands. Desertcrub habitat may seem like a simple environment with few options for cover and escaping the extreme heat, but the extensive underground network of geological forms and animal burrows helps make deserts the richest area for terrestrial reptile diversity in the U.S. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 17

29 Esther Nelson MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES The primary land uses in the Southwest include agriculture, livestock grazing, vegetation management (timber, firewood, restoration, prescribed fire), recreation, urban/suburban development, energy development (solar, wind, and fossil fuels), and mining. Some of these land uses are more challenging to amphibian and reptile conservation than others. In developing management guidelines for the 27 Southwest habitat types, several common management issues (based on threats to amphibian and reptile populations) arose repeatedly. Because these common issues occur repeatedly in different habitats, they are discussed in some detail in this section. These issues will also be presented briefly in subsequent sections where appropriate. Primary conservation challenges across most habitats discussed in this HMG include: Habitat Conversion Dirt Roads and Trails Major Roads and Highways Surface and Groundwater Use Pesticides Livestock Grazing Fire Management and Vegetation Restoration Timber and Vegetation Management Energy Development Mining, Oil, and Gas International Border Security Exploitation Subsidized Predators Non-native and Invasive Species Disease Climate Change Land use is at a premium and resource managers must balance human and wildlife needs. In this photograph of a rural area in the California Coast Range, one can see some conservation challenges that may compete with the needs of amphibians and reptiles. There is a roadway, cattle grazing on non-native grasslands, a solar farm, a winery, and native oak woodlands. One of the conservation challenges not really addressed in this HMG is the effect of humans on their environment from littering and vandalism. This easily accessible cave in the Sandia Mountains of New Mexico demonstrates how just a few individuals can destroy an ecosystem. A gate or fence would have prevented this. 18

30 HABITAT CONVERSION HABITAT CONVERSION Habitat conversion refers to a change or loss in habitat type or a change in land quality resulting from human effects or natural events. Habitat loss represents the single greatest threat to amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest. The most extreme example are areas that encompass major population centers. In these locations, thousands of acres of native habitat have been lost to development as urban areas expand and creep into previously undeveloped areas. Because of human population growth, habitat in urban and surrounding areas is usually converted from native vegetation to non-native vegetation. Conversion also results from general land clearing, grazing, timber production, road construction, agriculture, and activities that encourage the spread of invasive, non-native species. Intentional burning of vegetation by Native Americans and natural lightning fires converted many landscapes to grasslands which enhanced forage for livestock and suitability for other agricultural use. Such early management and conversion likely had limited impact on biodiversity because of the vast and unconverted habitat types that remained during those times of low human population densities. With more recent and widespread land conversion for ranching and agriculture, and a large and growing human population with suburban and urban development for towns and cities, amphibians and reptiles and have been pushed into smaller and more fragmented landscapes. Recovering converted habitats in the Southwest may involve long-term and costly methods, but it is usually worth the effort. Although estimates show that full habitat recovery may take several decades to hundreds of years, small-scale projects may be accomplished in a few years, including restoration of small parcels, such as wetlands. What can land managers do? Identify the amphibian and reptile species found on your land. This is a priority for proper management so that you are managing specifically for native, resident species. Maintain habitat patches that are close to other habitat patches. Maintaining patches in close proximity where possible will increase the chance of longterm population persistence. It allows individuals to move across the landscape and increase gene flow among populations. Link remaining habitats with other landowners wherever possible. Avoid degrading intact natural habitats. Minimize use of herbicides and pesticides, and reduce fertilizer runoff near protected areas. Leave buffer areas around important habitat features such as streams, rivers, springs, and rock outcrops. Buffer areas serve to reduce the effect that nearby human activities may have on the resident species. Restore degraded habitat. Wherever possible, restore habitats by seeding or planting native vegetation in areas that have been disturbed or degraded. Kenneth J. Halama and Robert E. Lovich DIRT ROADS AND TRAILS Dirt roads and trails have been a component of the Southwest landscape since the first settlers began colonizing the West during the 19 th Century. Today, humans use dirt roads and trails for a variety of activities, including recreation, service routes, mining, and timber harvesting. Many of these roads eventually become deactivated or gated which benefits wildlife, but even dirt roads with limited traffic can result in amphibian and reptile mortality and act as barriers to movement to some species and life stages. Vehicles and mountain bikes can cause water-filled tire ruts common along rural roads and result in death or injury to breeding adults, larvae, and eggs. Lizards, snakes, and turtles often use road surfaces as basking sites during cool weather and risk injury or death from passing vehicles. In many locations, dirt and gravel roads are sprayed with oil or salts to reduce dust, but these chemicals can poison individuals and pollute standing or running water. Dirt roads and trails facilitate human access resulting in increased collection of amphibians and reptiles for the pet trade, legal or otherwise. Unnecessary access can also increase risk from wildfire and the likelihood of spread of non-native species and disease. After timber harvest or other forest and woodland management activities, decommissioning of dirt roads can help restore landscapes and reduce fragmentation. Ben Roberts HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 19

31 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Mark L. Watson Nylon mesh is often used in erosion control or for excluding birds, but for snakes and lizards, it may act as a sort of gill net on their scales, resulting in entanglement and death. This open trench that is being dug to lay a cable may act as a pitfall trap for amphibians and reptiles, incluiding this Massasauga. Monitoring for wildlife issues at construction sites can help reduce unnecessary mortalities. Mark L. Watson Some reptiles spend the evening or winter just under the surface of loose soil, as in dirt roads. This Zebra-tailed Lizard met its fate to an off-highway vehicle. Construction Activities Standard procedures for construction and erosion control may involve activities and structures that are harmful to amphibians and reptiles. Two of the most commonly encountered problems are from the use of woven mesh and open trenches. Mesh is frequently used in erosion control, as in wattles (fences or erosion control devices of vegetation), and for screening out birds from areas needing protection, such as gardens. Mesh acts like a gill net on terrestrial snakes and lizards by ensnaring them. Reptiles cannot work their way out because their scales get caught in the mesh. They die inhumanely from exposure or starvation. Open trenches are often used in laying underground cables, pipelines, and other structures, or with cattle guards and spring boxes. These structures function as pitfall traps herps fall in but can t get out. In a recent study in New Mexico, a single trench (3 miles [4.8 km] long, 16 inches [40.6 cm] wide, and 5 feet [1.52 m] deep) trapped more than 275 amphibians and reptiles. The Fix: For mesh, the Colorado Department of Transportation has set a good example by not allowing use of mesh for erosion control; instead they require straw coconut blankets. Do not leave trenches open, and check for animals (and release them) before filling them in. Alternatively, consider building trenches and pits with escape features (e.g., sloped side or ramps). A similar problem is with cattle guards. These structures can sometimes be removed and retrofitted with animal escape ramps. A gravel road underpass is created for desert wildlife, including Mojave Desert Tortoises. Like many Southwest rivers, the Mojave River flows intermittently and water is crucial for arid-land species. Roads should cross outside the wet parts and all-terrain vehicles should be excluded, to prevent damage to the ecosystem and the animals that dwell there. Kurt Buhlmann Kurt Buhlmann 20

32 MAJOR ROADS AND HIGHWAYS Unless properly designed, dirt roads can negatively affect stream habitats for years. Sediment from dirt or gravel roads can run into streams, ponds, and wetlands during rain and snowmelt events. Improperly installed water conveyance structures such as culverts can increase sediment delivery to streams thereby affecting amphibian eggs and larvae, as well as aquatic insect prey. Large, open-bottomed culverts can provide a safe passage-way for amphibians and reptiles under dirt roads, but small-pipe culverts with downstream drops can act as barriers to movement. What can land managers do? Minimize construction of new roads. New road construction fragments habitats and can cause additional sedimentation of streams. When roads must be constructed, locate them away from wetlands and streams and maintain natural water-flow regimes. Conduct road construction when herpetofauna are least active. Most amphibians and reptiles are active above-ground during late spring to early fall, or during rain events. Avoid construction activities during these periods. Deactivate roads no longer used. Plant native vegetation to enhance recovery. This method promotes restoration via ecological succession or planting of native species and reduces impacts on habitat by discouraging off-highway vehicles. Install amphibian and reptile underpasses and fencing designed specifically for these species. Incorporate crossing structures into new road plans and designs. Identify locations of known migration or chronic hotspots of road mortality to facilitate correct placement of mitigation structures along existing roads. Add these structures to existing roads. Road signs may help offset some road-related mortality by raising awareness. Danny Martin Kenneth J. Halama and Robert E. Lovich MAJOR ROADS AND HIGHWAYS The direct and indirect effects of roads and highways are some of the most pervasive forces for ecosystem change in the U.S. Most result in habitat alteration, loss, and fragmentation. Habitat fragmentation causes reductions in suitable habitat, isolation of those habitats, and increased extinction risk by reducing gene flow and reducing the likelihood of recolonization. The rapid expansion of the nation s road system to approximately 3.9 million miles and the concomitant increase in traffic volume along existing roadways have exacerbated these effects by creating nearly impenetrable barriers to wildlife movement. Overall, approximately 20% of the U.S. land base has been impacted by roadways. Road-kill is a serious issue for many reptiles and amphibians. This Gila Monster has a good chance of being run over or becoming a poacher s booty. A significant increase in urbanization with all of its many roads has rapidly expanded into natural habitats in the Southwest. Solar and wind energy developments in the region will add to the creation and/or modification of additional transportation networks. In the face of a growing need for effective transportation infrastructure HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 21

33 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Kurt Buhlman In Utah, Gila Monsters only occur in a small area. This sign will help drivers to reduce roadkill. and with an understanding of the impacts to wildlife populations, municipalities and transportation agencies are beginning to work towards effective planning and mitigation to reduce these impacts. Much of the focus has been on large animals that pose significant threats to motorist safety. Roads are linked to population-level declines of amphibians and reptiles. Amphibian road kill hot-spots are often located near sources of permanent and/or ephemeral breeding sites (i.e., wetlands, stock tanks, retention ponds, drainage ditches, riparian corridors). Lizards and snakes often use roads as basking sites for thermoregulatory purposes, resulting in an elevated risk of direct road mortality. Unfortunately, some motorists will swerve to intentionally run over snakes and other reptiles. Slowmoving species such as turtles, tortoises, and many snakes are particularly susceptible to high levels of vehicle mortality, especially on roads with high speed limits. Additional impacts of roads include the spread of exotic species, introduction of toxic pollutants, altered hydrology patterns, and increased collection risk to economically valuable or protected species. What can land managers do? Avoid/reduce road redundancy in designated natural areas where wildlife and ecosystem conservation is the priority. Roadway design and construction should avoid bisecting known movement pathways (e.g., dispersal routes between amphibian breeding sites and to adjacent upland habitats) or critical habitat (e.g., desert tortoise management areas). Engage and educate transportation planners at all levels. Effective roadway mitigation requires collaboration between transportation departments, municipalities, wildlife management agencies, conservation groups, and landowners. Although much of the historical roadway mitigation efforts have focused on large mammals, there is a growing trend towards evaluating road-related impacts and implementing solutions for the benefit of multiple species including herpetofauna. Identify amphibian and reptile road kill hot-spots using proven techniques for reliable data collection. Walking surveys generally allow for increased detection of roadway mortality but are best implemented at small spatial scales. Driving surveys are effective for defining hot-spots at larger spatial scales but with a trade-off in detection rate. Implement road mitigation strategies that benefit multiple species. Although large crossing structures, such as box culverts or forested overpasses, help facilitate safe movement for large mammals, smaller structures may benefit amphibians and reptiles. Until reliable recommendations for crossing structure specifications are available, multiple structures of various sizes should be created. A qualified herpetologist could provide valuable assistance. Include barrier fencing to funnel animals towards crossing structures in order to maximize structure effectiveness and minimize road kill. Crossing structures alone will not result in a substantial benefit to focal species. Animals often need to be directed towards the crossing structures. Specifications for desert tortoise fencing, for example, call for 1 X 2 inch (25 mm X 51 mm) galvanized welded wire, 36 inches (91 cm) high fencing buried 12 inches (30.5 cm) below the ground surface and supported by t-posts spaced 10 feet (3.0 m) apart. These fences reduce tortoise access to roadways and funnel them to crossing structures. Monitor crossing structures to document effectiveness in reducing direct road mortality and increasing or maintaining permeability. Monitoring, such as with remote wildlife cameras, will allow transportation agencies to identify the most effective types of crossing structures and will guide future recommendations for mitigating the impacts of roads and highways in the Southwest. Minimize use of contaminants such as salts, petrochemicals, and herbicides on and along roads. Minimize use of road salts adjacent to wetlands and streams. Install educational signage. Erect road signs that caution motorists to reduce speed because of migrating amphibians and reptiles, or temporarily close roads during mass migration periods. Alert motorists to predictable migrations and urge caution when traveling near areas prone to high incidence of road mortality. Remove the signs when the critical season has ended so motorists do not get used to seeing the signs and ignore them. David Grandmaison 22

34 SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER USE Bryan Hamilton Joe Mitchell Diverting water away from natural drainages changes the dynamics of surface water use and availability. Some herpetofauna will use this structure, but it may become a population sink, by luring individuals to inappropriate habitat. This water control system is being used at Bitterlake National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico, to ensure availability of surface water for plants and animals. SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER USE The Southwest is one of the driest regions on earth. Although some areas within the region are exceptions, many receive less than 5 inches (12.7 cm) of annual precipitation. In such an arid environment, water availability is the biggest limiting factor to plants, wildlife, and humans. Although most water in the Southwest is used to irrigate agriculture, an increasing human Where there is water, there is life. However, some of the life may not be native, such as this riparian vegetation zone composed largely of the nonnative, invasive tree, tamarisk (salt cedar). population places additional demands on the already limited water supply. For example, the Colorado River supplies over 30 million people with water, but increasing temperatures due to climate change will continue to reduce the river s capacity to support humans. Groundwater withdrawal can cause streams, springs, and wetlands to become dry. Diverting surface water into pipes and ditches negatively affects aquatic and riparian amphibians and reptiles and their habitats. Water developments have caused the extirpation of some species, although some species, such as the Relict Leopard Frog, have been recently restored to parts of their native range. Some riparian species such as Mexican and Narrow-headed gartersnakes continue to decline. Balancing water development with aggressive conservation is critical for protection of amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest. What can land managers do? Limit groundwater pumping where possible. Groundwater recharge is necessary to maintain wetlands, streams, springs, and riparian areas. Reductions to water tables and subsurface hydrology can dry out these important surface habitats. Maintain natural surface water flow rates and pathways. Streams that are allowed to meander provide better habitat than those that are channelized. Storm-water runoff from impervious surfaces, such as roads and parking lots and water diversions into pipes and ditches can irreversibly alter riparian habitats. Work closely with state wildlife agencies and reintroduce beaver to appropriate stream systems. Beavers are native to many regions of the Southwest, but were extirpated historically in areas such as the Great Basin. Limit reintroductions to historic ranges where suitable habitat occurs. Bryan Hamilton HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 23

35 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Protect small wetlands. Small ephemeral pools and streams are not always afforded protection from certain land-use activities by federal or state governments. Although many of these areas are used by amphibians for breeding because they do not support fish, they are also crucial habitat features that facilitate movement and maintain connectivity among populations by providing sites for rehydration, cover, and foraging. Enact water-saving practices. Water used by humans is generally not available for amphibians and reptiles. With a few simple actions, you can reduce water consumption and help protect these animals and their habitats. Visit com/100-ways-to-conserve/ for examples. Bryan T. Hamilton HERBICIDES, INSECTICIDES, PISCICIDES, AND OTHER PESTICIDES The term pesticide includes a wide variety of products that are intended to control or mitigate a perceived pest. Insecticides, herbicides, and piscicides represent some commonly known pesticide classes. Pesticides are designed to be useful tools when used according to both the label instructions and the law. In particular, herbicides can efficiently remove invasive plants and weeds to restore habitats. Herbicides are typically labeled for terrestrial or aquatic uses, but not both. Herbicides labeled for terrestrial use should not be used in aquatic areas even if the active ingredient is identical to that of a known aquatic herbicide and is formulated with the same or less active ingredient. This is because the inert ingredients in an herbicide may be toxic to non-target organisms. Piscicides have been used effectively to remove fish from amphibian habitats. Many insecticides are labeled for use in forestry settings and park and recreational areas. However, many insecticides are extremely toxic to aquatic animals including fish, amphibian larvae, and aquatic invertebrates. Some insecticides are also persistent in the environment. Following terrestrial uses, these persistent insecticides may run off into aquatic areas after a rain event months after the application. Although there are potential impacts to animal populations through the use of pesticides, there are benefits that may warrant their use. The propensity of nonnative, invasive plants to destroy natural habitats may, under carefully executed protocols, make some herbicides our allies in habitat restoration. For newer pesticides, a significant body of non-target toxicity data has been coupled with use rates and application methods to calculate risks. However, only rarely do the toxicity data include studies conducted with amphibians or reptiles. While the surrogate organisms (fishes and birds for amphibians and reptiles, respectively) used in toxicity tests may be representative of the toxicity of the active ingredient to amphibians and reptiles, this is not a certainty. To be clear, the definitive toxicity of a pesticide to amphibians or reptiles is not known in a majority of cases. In addition, some species of amphibians or reptiles may be more sensitive than others to a particular pesticide. Finally, although habitats can sometimes benefit from pesticide applications (e.g., to eradicate invasive plants and fishes), water quality can be degraded by contaminants in runoff from agricultural areas, industrial sites, highways and roads, and urban areas. Applications of insecticides or herbicides can have unintended consequences to amphibians and reptiles. Few pesticide labels have specific hazard mitigation measures for amphibians or reptiles. Direct contact with insecticides or ingestion via the consumption of pesticide-treated prey can result in toxicity to reptiles. Some insecticides can persist in the environment for months, resulting in unintended exposures to amphibians and reptiles long after the insecticide was applied. Some pesticides volatilize at the application site and can move to adjoining sites or sites further away, resulting in exposure of amphibians or reptiles. Broadcast applications of insecticides can directly reduce the prey base for insectivorous amphibians and reptiles, while the use of herbicides may reduce the food source for the insect prey of reptiles. What can land managers do? Create a Pest Management Plan. Before any pesticide applications take place, create a pest management plan. Identify the pests that need to be managed and the methods of control that will be used. Include specific pesticides that will be used to control the particular pest. The following elements should be part of a plan. Include Integrated Pest Management. Use your local university extension to access this information. Specialists can provide information on how to effectively control pests without the use of pesticides and how to integrate appropriate pesticide use into a management plan. Limit use of pesticides whenever possible. Use non-chemical means of control if possible, or treat the smallest area necessary to achieve control of the target pest. Read the Environmental Hazards section of the proposed pesticide label. The warnings in this section are derived from laboratory toxicity tests submitted to and reviewed by the U.S. Environmental 24

36 HERBICIDES, INSECTICIDES, PISCICIDES, AND OTHER PESTICIDES Because of the large amount of public land in the Southwest and the large number of head, livestock grazing is one of the most highlighted conservation challenges in the region. Protection Agency. If studies indicate the pesticide is toxic to mammals, birds, fish, or other aquatic organisms, the Environmental Hazards section on the label will include statements indicating which class of organisms the pesticide is toxic to. It will not typically list amphibians or reptiles. Assume a pesticide that is toxic to birds is toxic to reptiles and a pesticide that is toxic to fish or aquatic organisms is also toxic to amphibians, particularly during the larval stages. By selecting pesticides that lack these specific label warnings, you are selecting pesticides that, in most cases, will be less toxic to amphibians and reptiles. Avoid persistence. Look for information on the label about persistence. Avoid pesticides that persist in the environment. In particular, some insecticides may persist for weeks, months or longer. These insecticides have the potential to move offsite to aquatic or sensitive areas where they may have adverse impacts on non-target reptiles and amphibians, or the prey base of these animals. Monitor and control progress. Monitor use sites for control efficacy and adverse effects on non-target species. Reassess plan. Based on the results of monitoring, reassess and revise plan according. Some areas have little forage and even less water, as in this desertscrub habitat, so livestock grazing would be less intrusive and more productive elsewhere, as in grasslands. Danny Martin Visit ipmmenu.htm for more information about safe pesticide use and Integrated Pest Management. Richard Bireley Timing, duration, and intensity of grazing are important considerations for maintaining adequate forage for livestock, as well as retaining the natural integrity of the ecosystem. Bryan Hamilton HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 25

37 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Kurt Buhlman This small spring was protected from cattle grazing in the Mojave Desert, where water and emergent vegetation is scarce, thereby protecting habitat for treefrogs. LIVESTOCK GRAZING Lands used for livestock grazing include important amphibian and reptile habitats. Most livestock are not well-adapted to arid parts of the Southwest. Habitat modifications are necessary to facilitate grazing; these habitat alterations often have significant effects on native species and ecosystems. Well-managed grazing can help offset these effects. A common misconception across the arid Southwest is that livestock replace historic grazers, but large, water-loving animals like cattle have not been a part of desertscrub and other southwestern ecosystems over the past 10,000 years. Livestock are used by some landowners as management tools to control invasive plants or reduce fuel loads in fire-prone communities. Extensive grazing in some grasslands has resulted in large-scale conversion to desertscrub, or habitats dominated by invasive shrubs, non-native grasses, and mesquite. Invasive grasses greatly increase the risk of fire in vegetation communities historically devoid of such events. Cattle may control these invasive plant species in some communities and may be useful in returning open scrub communities to something closer to their original state. Changes in the soil associated with elimination of bunch grasses coupled with introduction of invasive plant species may preclude regeneration even if livestock were removed. Riparian corridors, especially in arid landscapes, are particularly vulnerable to habitat alteration. Given their daily water requirements, and need to consume large quantities of plant material, livestock are naturally drawn to riparian areas. Grazing practices that do not leave adequate vegetation in riparian zones can result in erosion, stream pollution, and reduction in plant and animal diversity along these corridors. Permanent stock tanks established in arid landscapes often serve as breeding sites for problematic invasive species (e.g., American Bullfrogs). Stock tanks are highly simplified habitats with little emergent or submergent vegetation and do not replace seeps and cienega habitats that have been lost. In regions where natural springs, seeps, and small streams have been altered, some amphibians and reptiles that historically associated with these aquatic habitats now use these tanks almost exclusively (e.g., some tiger salamanders and leopard frogs in the arid Southwest). However, desert amphibians may avoid permanent stock tanks in favor of temporary rain pools for breeding. These pools usually harbor fewer predatory insects than stock tanks. When water is diverted to tanks for livestock, it decreases the time an adjacent natural pool can hold water, and tadpoles may not reach metamorphosis before pools dry. For example, reproductive success of Chihuahuan Green Toads in New Mexico was reduced when breeding in rain-formed pools adjacent to stock tanks to which water was diverted. Generalizations about the outcome of cattle removal or adoption of grazing practices favorable to the original herpetofauna are difficult to make, even when restricted to desertscrub and grassland biotic communities. We know even less about the outcomes with woodland, chaparral, and forest ecosystems. Given that livestock grazing is a widespread practice throughout the arid Southwest, the suggestions presented here are offered to mitigate the impacts of livestock on native amphibians and reptiles. What can land managers do? Manage the timing, duration, and intensity of grazing to minimize negative environmental effects. Reducing the length of time livestock are allowed to graze on native plants may allow both to persist, thereby preventing long-term impacts of overgrazing on both terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Allow some areas to be minimally grazed. Amphibian and reptile habitat in grasslands, shrublands, and forests may be improved by following prescriptive grazing practices. In grazed riparian areas, maintaining a stubble height on herbaceous vegetation of 4-8 inches (10-20 cm) may preserve forage quality and reduce livestock impacts (e.g., reduce browsing of willows, trampling and destabilizing stream banks). Control livestock access to wetlands and streams. Fencing streams and wetlands and creating restricted access points can reduce bank erosion and eliminate livestock impacts in sensitive riparian habitats. Seasonally restricting livestock access to wetlands or limiting duration and intensity of use may be sufficient to reduce negative effects of livestock on amphibians and their habitat during breeding periods. 26

38 FIRE MANAGEMENT AND VEGETATION RESTORATION Establish alternative water sources. Establishing water troughs with escape ramps for amphibians, reptiles, and other animals can divert livestock away from riparian areas. Care should be taken to ensure that troughs are placed in locations that do not lead to unacceptable impacts to important upland habitats (e.g., near unique surface features, such as rock outcrops). If livestock have to cross a stream, a bridge, water-gap, or a streambed crossing should be constructed. Design spring-fed cattle watering systems carefully and minimize disturbance during construction. When developing springs to serve as a source for livestock water, design the system to maintain water in the spring through the use of float valves on troughs and shut-off valves when water is not needed. Minimize ground disturbance during construction and place fencing around spring heads where feasible. Try to avoid altering the original spring head by placing tanks and troughs downstream. Because of historically altered forest conditions, fire suppression, and drought, more intense, high-severity wildfires are becoming larger and more commonplace. Danny Martin Brian Sullivan FIRE MANAGEMENT AND VEGETATION RESTORATION Fire is a natural disturbance process for most Southwest vegetation communities. With the exception of deserts, most of the vegetation types in the Southwest are fire adapted. Fire may maintain ecosystem function and historic vegetation structure in some places. Southwest fires usually occur in the late spring when annual fuel loads (i.e., living and dead annual vegetation) peak. Mesic vegetation, as in wetlands and highelevation forests, are more likely to burn only during periods of drought. Deserts of the Southwest are not fire adapted, but even these areas are now experiencing fire because of vegetation changes associated with non-native grasses. Historic Southwest fire regimes, which include fire intensity, extent, and frequency, vary by vegetation type. Fires in ponderosa pine forests occurred every 2 to 12 years and maintained an open canopy structure and a variable, patchy tree distribution. Conifers averaged burning every years and subalpine forests burned at longer intervals of 75 years and greater. Historically, the open, patchy tree distribution from fires and other disturbances reduced the risk of large wildfires. Downed woody material was sparse, and fires in the late 1800s were fueled mostly by grasses, forbs, and needle cast that accumulated at the end of the annual drought period. These low-intensity surface fires reduced ground fuel, thinned out smaller trees, and invigorated the understory, which maintained the open forest structure. Species that favor open-canopy In order to bring an unhealthy ecosystem back into a state where it can maintain a natural wildfire regime, it may be necessary to thin trees and brush from wooded habitats and conduct prescribed burns to reduce fuel loads. forest conditions, such as many snakes, lizards, and some toads and salamanders may suffer under conditions created by fire suppression, while others may benefit. After nearly a century of overgrazing, which reduced or removed grasses (i.e., the fine fuels for a fire), and successful fire suppression, some Southwest habitats now support an abnormally high fuel load. When these habitats burn now, they often burn hotter and over larger area than they did historically. Over time, the intensity, duration, acreage, and heat of fires in forested ecosystems have increased at an alarming rate. The increase of these large fires can sometimes be beneficial, but may also be detrimental, if not severe. If a fire burns in a mosaic pattern, it can leave unburned areas as refugia (burrows, unburned logs, debris piles). Lightly burned areas result in new grasses and shrubs that are beneficial to many amphibians and reptiles. Severe fires that burn downed logs and stumps decrease hiding cover. Crown fires reduce shade and humidity in a forest and increase the relative temperature overall Esther Nelson HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 27

39 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES within that particular area. High-severity fires can burn into organic soils so that little soil structure remains afterwards. Thus, wildlife habitats may take decades to recover; in extreme cases, habitat types may be converted to unnatural or non-native vegetation communities. High-severity fires may also negatively affect species that prefer more closed canopy conditions, such as many salamanders. Many desert plants lack fire-adapted characteristics and historically have not experienced recurring fires. In the Mojave, Sonoran, Great Basin, and Chihuahuan deserts, and the semi-desert habitats, such as the Colorado Plateau, the incidence of fire have increased due to invasive plants which have increased fuel loads in many areas. Many non-native grasses, particularly red brome, cheatgrass, fountain grass, and buffelgrass, have become established in the desert Southwest. When a fire does occur, the grasses carry the fire for greater distances and allow the fires to burn hotter than normal. This may convert desertscrub habitat to grassland habitat dominated by invasive non-native species. There are direct and indirect effects from fires on amphibians and reptiles. Individuals of both groups perish in a hot fire that moves faster than animals are able to seek shelter underground or move ahead of the fire. If they don t perish, they may experience habitats that are temporarily unsuitable because of loss of cover, changes in microclimates, or shifts in prey availability. Post-fire colonization by invasive plants may also alter habitat conditions, sometimes for many years. Fire affects streams, ponds, and other wetlands as well. Some fires burn through riparian areas or burn wetland vegetation, particularly during the dry season or droughts. Loss of riparian vegetation can result in higher water temperatures, increased mortality rates and decreased reproductive success of amphibians. Upland burns can deposit sediment and ash into streams and wetlands that smother eggs or other life stages and dramatically alter habitat quality. Ash and soil nutrients released into the water change water chemistry, sometimes creating dangerous conditions for aquatic species. High-intensity rain events after wildfire has resulted in hyper-concentrated flows and major channel restructuring (known as scouring ), some of which can extirpate all aquatic species from the affected area. In some situations, fire benefits amphibian habitat for several years by increased productivity and habitat suitability. What can land managers do? Manage for ecosystem resiliency. Resource managers should strategically plan to manage ecosystems into a state where they become resilient to change and disturbances. Ideally, prescribed fire or other management approaches should simulate a natural fire event. Fires could be allowed to burn, in some cases, in areas where human intervention is less necessary. Control the spread of invasive species. Nonnative grasses and other invasive plant species alter natural fire patterns and consequently change native plant communities and habitats. Consider prescribed Esther Nelson When ecosystems do not burn too hot during wildfire or prescribed burns (i.e., high intensity/high severity), they can recover into resilient, healthy ecosystems. 28

40 TIMBER HARVEST AND VEGETATION MANAGEMENT Much of the Southwest is not commercially harvested for timber, but it is important to manage for healthy ecosystems by thinning stands through manual and mechical treatments. Esther Nelson burning, and perhaps herbicides to remove densities of noxious weeds or invasive plants, then seed with native perennial grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Be aware of how fire affects the species you plan on burning. For example, cheat grass and buffelgrass may increase coverage with fire and more rapidly replace native vegetation. Consult wildfire ecologists and agency experts to implement a fire management plan suited to your land. Determine the historic fire regime in your area. What time of year did fires typically occur, and how frequent and intensive were they? Work with your fire specialists to achieve a mosaic pattern where some areas burn more completely than others. Maintain some areas that provide hiding cover such as stumps, logs, and piles of leaves or debris. Negative effects are usually associated with unnatural, high-severity fire, while long-term benefits are associated with natural fire regimes and well-planned prescribed fires. Implement a local- and landscape-level approach to fire management. Fires within vegetation communities should form a matrix of non-burned, lightly burned, and heavily burned areas. By considering the landscape context, local projects can be planned that will help maintain landscape-level vegetation and habitats. Esther Nelson and David S. Pilliod TIMBER HARVEST AND VEGETATION MANAGEMENT Forests provide habitat for a variety of amphibian and reptile species. Forests also provide economic and social value in the form of various wood products, employment, and revenue. Wood products are essential to the livelihood of many communities in the Southwest. Because there is a large demand for wood products, many federal, state, and tribal government agencies manage timber harvest for the public, while numerous timber companies manage their private lands. In the Southwest, however, many forests are not harvested commercially; rather, they are managed for ecosystem values, including wildlife habitat. There are several methods and objectives for harvesting timber. As with other activities that cause changes to habitat, there are direct and indirect effects on amphibians and reptiles. Loss of forest cover from timber harvest tends to create drier conditions with more variable temperatures. However, effects of these changes on amphibians vary greatly in relation to local conditions and are species specific. For example, salamanders may decline with a loss of large woody debris. However, other species such as reptiles that prefer warmer temperatures have shown positive initial response to harvesting under some circumstances. Removing 100% of the canopy cover (clear-cut log- HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 29

41 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES ging) reduces the amount of vertical structure, which usually consists of various layers of vegetation. Reduction in canopy cover changes understory habitat by causing changes in temperatures, wind, and humidity. Habitat becomes unsuitable because insects, cover, and moisture are reduced or lost. When their habitat changes or is significantly reduced, many species move out of this now-unsuitable habitat to nearby suitable habitat (if available) to obtain what they need for survival. Species that require open areas may actually increase in number in clear-cuts, but will decrease as the trees return. In general, in cooler areas, amphibians do not fare well in clear-cuts, but reptiles may benefit. In areas that are warmer, it is a little more complicated and dependent on site conditions. One of the preferred silvicultural practices that has the most benefit to wildlife is uneven-aged management. This type of selective harvest retains three or more age classes of trees as in a variety of diameters. This provides variety in vertical structure, as well as a variety of different species of shrubs and forbs in the understory. Because there are a variety of habitat types in these areas, uneven-aged management enhances greater species diversity. Blocks of uneven-aged managed forest may facilitate animal movements and landscape connectivity. Over the last two decades, awareness of forest health problems has increased. The extent and frequency of uncharacteristically severe wildland fires and insect and disease outbreaks have increased, and are of particular concern. Ecological conditions and trends combined with recent and projected climate trends pose serious threats to the long-term health, productivity, and diversity of forest ecosystems. Forest restoration is a process that is being initiated by various land managers and landowners. Projects that reduce the threat of catastrophic fire or restore riparian areas and impaired watersheds will help restore the overall health of a forest ecosystem and bring it back to a desired condition. What can land managers do? Minimize new road construction, and design and maintain logging roads to reduce erosion. Erosion from unpaved roads causes sedimentation of streams. Minimize building new roads if possible, and avoid placing them in riparian areas. Use best management practices recommended by government agencies and non-government organizations. Reduce ground compaction and ground disturbance by using newer timber-harvesting technologies, such as harvesters or cable systems. These practices may allow faster forest regeneration. Minimizing disturbance to the soil structure and ground vegetation benefits amphibians and reptiles. Use selective-harvesting techniques. Thinning with retention of natural habitat patches aims to mimic natural disturbance patterns. Retention of patches that include small ponds, seeps, and streams serve as good anchor points for population recovery sites for aquatic species. Restore natural habitat around small, temporary ponds used by amphibians. Many amphibians breed in small, temporary ponds and water-filled road ruts following timber harvest. Some species are attracted to the reduced canopy cover. Although regulations may not require buffers on these small habitats, reducing ground disturbance and maintaining vegetation and shrubs along the periphery will provide cover for migrating metamorphs and juveniles. Avoid disturbance of rocky structures and other specialized microhabitats used by amphibians and reptiles. Rock outcrops and other rock features are important structural habitats for many species. Removing vegetation near these features can change microhabitats used by amphibians and reptiles. For example, the vegetated edge of talus slides is cooler and more mesic than the open, unvegetated interior. Maintain abundance of downed woody debris. Maintain or leave larger diameter logs on the ground because it is an important habitat component for most amphibians and reptiles in forests. Avoid removing stumps. A mix of large and small downed woody debris is usually optimal. Minimize timber harvesting and restoration activities during amphibian and reptile breeding seasons. Most amphibians make seasonal, breeding migrations on the surface. Try to avoid harvesting timber or restoration activities that would have negative effects on amphibians and reptiles during breeding seasons. Seek help from herpetologists to determine the activity seasons of the species in your area. Where possible, conduct harvesting outside of these periods. Esther Nelson ENERGY DEVELOPMENT Many areas of the Southwest have been developed for energy projects, including wind, solar, oil, gas, coal, nuclear, and geothermal. Some of these activities are described elsewhere in this HMG. Any of these activities that alter habitat will have some effect on amphibians and reptiles; the more disturbance in an 30

42 ENERGY DEVELOPMENT area, the greater the effect. Disturbance includes direct and indirect impacts of the project, which may include effects from land-clearing, access roads, increased traffic, non-native species invasion, and pollution. On the surface, renewable energy projects seem like an important alternative to traditional, non-renewable energy sources. With new clean energy initiatives instituted by federal and state governments on the table, many sites are being evaluated for construction of large-scale renewable energy projects over potentially millions of acres. These projects include numerous solar and wind energy facilities. Associated with energy projects are the pipelines and transmission line corridors that deliver energy to towns and cities. Unfortunately, the potential effects of these traditional and renewable energy projects on wildlife species, These wind turbines share habitat with the Coachella Fringe-toed Lizard, but proper planning and careful placement can help offset negative effects. Danny Martin Danny Martin Flat-tailed Horned Lizard populations are diminishing rangewide. The biomonitoring training program helps developers and management agencies to determine if potential habitat is occupied. Southwest PARC s Flat-tailed Horned Lizard Biomonitor Training: The Flat-tailed Horned Lizard (FTHL) is a Southwestern species potentially at risk of extinction. The species was proposed in 1993 to be listed as federally protected under the Endangered Species Act, largely due to loss of habitat from conversion of native habitats to agricultural and urban development. While the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service initially considered listing this species as Threatened, federal and state management agencies instead organized an Interagency Coordinating Committee (ICC) and Management Oversight Group, and implemented a Range-wide Management Strategy. The ICC provides conservation-based management for this species, and in doing so, may prevent the need for federal listing. As part of the interagency agreement, land-development projects that are proposed in the Management Areas for the FTHL are required to assess potential impacts to the species. Thus, developers are required to have certified biomonitors (people trained in lizard detection techniques) conduct rapid-assessment surveys for horned lizards at proposed development areas within the Management Areas. Certification requirements necessitate a formal training program, which has been facilitated by partners in the FTHL ICC since the 1990s. In 2011, the FTHL ICC requested that Southwest PARC take over the lead responsibilities for their Biomonitor Training program. Instructors from Southwest PARC work with facilitators from state and federal agency partners of the ICC. Training covers FTHL biology, ecology, behavior, detection of lizards in the field, and reviews of regulatory issues associated with the species and certification. Danny Martin, Brian Aucone, and Robert E. Lovich Horned lizards are difficult to see in their native habitats, so students are trained to get a search image for lizards and their sign. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 31

43 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES With the aid of radio-telemetry, researchers in New Mexico are learning about the natural history of the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard in its specialized native habitat. These animals occur in and near these sand blowouts amid stands of shrub-like shinnery oaks. This thermal energy plant utilizes parabolic mirrors, rather than panels, to capture and store solar energy. This site occupies 1,920 acres (780 ha) and can power 70,000 homes while avoiding around 475,000 tons of carbon dioxide every year. While this is habitat lost for amphibians and reptiles, it does offset habitat lost from other projects elsewhere, including those that do not utilize renewable energy. A gravid (egg-bearing) female lizard has a radio-tracking device (transmiter) attached to the scales on her back. The researchers will determine exactly where this female will lay her eggs, and the microclimate requirements of her nest site. Lizard in a Battleground: The Case of the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard. A little tan reptile, the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard, has a small range amid sand dunes of southeastern New Mexico and adjacent Texas. It lives in specialized habitats in and near areas of blow-outs (wind-swept depressions of open sand) between stands of shrub-like shinnery oak. It also happens to live atop the rich oil fields of the Permian Basin. This specialized habitat cannot be replaced. The Dunes Sagebrush Lizard was proposed for federal listing as endangered in 2010, but was removed from consideration when a conservation agreement was drafted. However, that agreement was challenged because of the potential for conflict of interest. Most vocal parties seem to be on the far sides of the fence. PARC helps seek solutions to these conservation challenges and find common ground among diverse partners. Through education, outreach, partnerships, networking, training, and mutual respect, PARC works to help close the gap separating opposite viewpoints and misconceptions about the role of amphibians and reptiles in nature. Lawrence L. C. Jones Solar energy is a burgeoning issue in the Southwest. When native landscapes are bladed to accommodate solar farms, there is a greater environmental impact than if they are placed in areas that have already been lost, such as abandoned farms overrun with invasive plant species, old mining sites, or on top of existing structures. including amphibians and reptiles, have not yet been fully documented. Despite a lack of detailed empirical information, there are known potential effects created by the construction of facilities, as well as by their operation, maintenance, and decommissioning over the long-term. Direct mortality can occur when amphibians and reptiles are run over on roads providing access to the site, or they may be crushed by heavy equipment in underground burrows while hibernating or estivating (inactive period during summer), as has been suggested by off-highway vehicle use studies in the Mojave Desert. The effects of fugitive dust on herpetofauna may be of little direct consequence in the already dusty environment of the desert, but decreased photosynthesis caused by dust may negatively affect important plants that provide food and shelter, ultimately affecting habitat quality. Offsite impacts as discussed above may have negative consequences on herpetofauna far from 32

44 ENERGY DEVELOPMENT Jeffrey Lovich There is little research on the effects of renewable energy on reptiles or amphibians. Here a Mojave Desert Tortoise is being radio-tracked to determine how the species is affected by a modified ecosystem. the actual facility, even in other countries. Microclimate alteration has been documented for wind energy developments that extend for 14.3 mi (23 km) downwind from the site. The effects of solar energy heat generation on wildlife are mostly unknown. Local temperature changes could have significant consequences on herpetofauna with environmental sex determination, especially those with narrow thresholds of temperature sensitivity. What can land managers do? Identify areas of high value to amphibian and reptile species. Mitigation of negative impacts to amphibians and reptiles starts with proper site selection. Avoiding high-quality habitats or large population densities of sensitive herpetofauna is a proactive way to prevent natural resource conflicts. Select project sites on fallow or abandoned agricultural land, developed areas, mine sites, rooftops, and other disturbed areas. Some areas that have been previously altered and are not likely to be ecologically recovered could be targeted as sites for renewable energy projects to minimize the footprint of disturbed lands. Similarly, linear sites (cables, power lines) along existing roadways reduce overall habitat fragmentation. Design roads to include structures that minimize killing animals. The negative effects of roads on herpetofauna are well-documented. Relatively large slow-moving amphibians and reptiles like toads, rattlesnakes, and desert tortoises are especially vulnerable to road mortality. Consider adding passive speed enforcement devices like speed bumps or ramps to reduce mortality. Wind energy facilities are often constructed in uneven terrain where culverts are required to allow movement of water away from the construction site to prevent erosion of infrastructure. Installation of large concrete box culverts may reduce herpetofaunal mortality for species that use culverts as underground passages under roads. Focus construction activities during the time of year when amphibian and reptile populations are least sensitive to disturbance. During the mating season, amphibian and reptile movement usually increases as individuals seek out mates and in the case of amphibians, migrate to wetlands for breeding. Amphibians and reptiles emerge from hiding immediately after rainfall and become more surface active. Construction activities should be timed to avoid these periods. Avoid tortoise burrows during construction activities. During winter hibernation, typically from October to March for most herpetofauna in the Southwest, many species of snakes, lizards, and tortoises may be underground. Many use the shelter provided by tortoise burrows and underground rodent passages. Heavy equipment operation during this time can crush animals in their burrows. Relocate amphibians and reptiles away from construction sites if there are no other options. Construction of solar energy facilities requires clearing the entire vegetative surface thereby removing wildlife habitat. In such cases, translocation of sensitive species prior to development and construction may be the only option to mitigate the effects of development. Check with state wildlife agencies about regulations and permits required to handle and/or move wildlife prior to planning a translocation effort. Work with herpetologists to determine the most appropriate methodologies and release areas. Proper siting of facilities in the first place would minimize the need for this step as translocation efforts of amphibians and reptiles have a high rate of failure. Maintain habitat linkages and corridors. Fragmented habitats can isolate populations of animals from breeding sites, overwintering sites, or foraging sites and limit genetic exchange. Identification and maintenance of natural habitat and landscape cor- HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 33

45 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Domestic oil drilling is commonplace in many parts of the Southwest and the reliance on foreign oil has made them a more attractive option. Fortunately, the U.S. requires environmental analyses to be done, so that effects can be mitigated. ridors reduces mortality of amphibians and reptiles as they disperse between fragments.. Avoid discharging water used to wash mirrors or panels at solar farms on the ground or into arroyos and stream beds. Extra water on the ground may enhance establishment of non-native vegetation. Jeffrey E. Lovich and Joshua R. Ennen MINING, OIL, AND GAS Mining, oil, and natural gas exploration and development are important and widespread industries in the Southwest. Management of non-renewable resources impacts amphibians and reptiles and their habitats through direct and indirect pathways. Direct effects are from large-scale land clearing, road building, developing infrastructure, increased traffic, and chemical pollution. All of these activities alter natural habitats and presumably shift amphibian and reptile communities to less diverse assemblages of species. Large-scale mining in the Southwest is predominately accomplished via open-pit design. Ore is removed in open-pit mining and leaves a large borrow pit. These pits can be massive, up to half a mile deep and several miles wide. In order to keep the pits dry and workable, groundwater is pumped out continually. Ore is often chemically processed on site. Borrow pits and mines are usually (but not always) reclaimed and seeded with native vegetation when ore supplies are exhausted. Despite these intense impacts, there are several things land managers can do to lessen the effects on vertebrate animals. Large-scale mining operations effectively convert natural habitats to impacted ones. During mine project planning, efforts should be made to mitigate environmental effects to water quality and changes in geomorphology. Postmining restoration and monitoring are critical. What can land managers do? Reduce barriers to movement impeded by roads and rights-of-way associated with mines and oil and gas development. Construction and maintenance of access roads and facilities, chemically based vegetation control measures in rights-of-way, and chemical spills all pose risks to amphibians and reptiles. Pipeline rights-of-way where pipes are placed directly on the ground or are sunk below grade elevation may prevent animal movement and isolate populations. Underpasses could be constructed at migration corridors to minimize these effects. Ensure functional migration routes for amphibians and reptiles moving from hibernacula to their breeding and foraging areas. Avoid destroying hibernacula during drilling and mine construction. Identify these keystone resources before land clearing and avoid them where possible. Construct artificial hibernacula and move the occupants from destroyed sites. Techniques are available in the published literature to help ensure success. Buffer water courses and lakes from mining areas and associated activities and infrastructure. Both perennial and ephemeral water courses are polluted by chemical- and sediment-laden discharges. Amphibians, in particular, are extremely prone to effects of contamination. In large, open-pit mines obtain a biological assessment of the distances between sources of contaminants and drainages to identify areas for protection. Maintain water quality, and reduce erosion and sediment runoff. Use settling ponds and other wastewater treatment facilities to prevent sediment runoff and discharge of other contaminants. Make sure dams cannot be breached. Control erosion at water crossings using culverts and bridges. Avoid depositing materials such as gravel, soil, waste rock, 34

46 INTERNATIONAL BORDER SECURITY The Mexican Rosy Boa is a color morph of the Rosy Boa. It has a very limited range within the U.S., as most of the range is in Mexico, so crossborder movement is an important consideration. Also, there are many roads near the international border, so both legal and illegal collection, as well as road mortality, are potential management concerns. Dale Turner Dale Turner This section of a pedestrian fence has ample room for herpetofauna to cross under the fence, but not humans. This section of a pedestrian fence has lizard gates for small animals to pass through. A vehicle barrier is permeable to small and large animals alike. or debris in streams or lakes, and use non-toxic drilling fluids. Avoid spilling fuel and other contaminants. Discourage the use of toxic wastewater ponds by amphibians and reptiles by making these areas inaccessible for breeding. Contaminants associated with some of these sites are harmful to amphibians and reptiles. To reduce the potential of attracting species to these areas for breeding or foraging, erect fine mesh fencing or aluminum flashing around the site to provide an impenetrable barrier. Use materials that can be buried into the ground and still stand at least 3.5 ft (1.1 m) above the surface. Minimize impacts of groundwater pumping. Groundwater withdrawal can dry area springs and streams and destroy riparian vegetation and wetlands, all of which are important habitats for amphibians and reptiles. Determine where impacts may occur with help from geologists. Use selectively placed wells to minimize impacts to affected wetlands. Bryan T. Hamilton INTERNATIONAL BORDER SECURITY Conservation issues associated with the international border between the United States and Mexico offer unique challenges not found elsewhere in the country. The Southwest has 1,954 mi (3,145 km) of border between California/Baja California at the Pacific Ocean and Texas/Tamaulipas at the Gulf of Mexico. Border- HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 35

47 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES An important consideration for resource managers is safety, so this sign warns the public of potential illegal activities. land security has an infrastructure geared more toward reducing human permeability (e.g., drug traffickers, illegal job seekers, and terrorists) than allowing animals to freely cross between countries. This infrastructure ranges from pedestrian barriers (i.e., walls, which may be impermeable to amphibians and reptiles) to vehicle barriers (i.e., fences, which are permeable to amphibians and reptiles). There are high-speed chase roads and illuminated watch towers. Public and private lands occur on both sides of the border. Southern California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas have many species found nowhere else in the U.S. Because there is such a high diversity of amphibians and reptiles, there is also an interest from enthusiasts seeking out these animals to observe, photograph, study, or collect (legally or illegally). Threats to these species along the borderlands include road kill, reduced gene flow, soil compaction, habitat loss from clearing, fires, intentional killing, and poaching. There are no easy answers, but there are options for reducing impacts to native species. What can land managers do? Educate law enforcement and other borderworker personnel about conservation of amphibians and reptiles. Conservation of native species is not a priority for most law enforcement personnel, except for state and federal game management agencies. They have a difficult and often dangerous job, so must be focused on their primary duties. However, education of these agents and staff about amphibians and reptiles might create an awareness that minimizes mistreatment, including snakes found on roadways. Identify cross-border movement patterns of amphibians and reptiles. Structures that can be used to exclude humans need not exclude animals as small as lizards or snakes. Restricting natural movement routes reduces genetic variability, population viability, and diversity. It may be possible to retrofit fences in areas used extensively by amphibians and reptiles by creating small openings or raising the bottom edge a few inches. Determine where high movement areas are located. Avoid driving over amphibians and reptiles on roads. Frogs, snakes, and tortoises cross roads frequently, especially at night. A well-known source of mortality is from vehicles. Always use caution and proper safety equipment if moving venomous snakes off the road. Learn to recognize field naturalists vs. poachers. Not everyone looking for amphibians and reptiles along the border is conducting an illegal activity. People tend to think of someone looking for birds as bird watchers, but someone looking for reptiles as poachers. Learn to recognize their actions and field equipment. Ask to see collecting or hunting permits. Erect bilingual education signs about wildlife. Signs in English and Spanish placed along the borderlands alerting visitors to be respectful to the land and animals that inhabit the area might reduce amphibian and reptile mortality, especially snakes. Place them along high-use human migration routes. Emphasize that killing snakes may be illegal. Lawrence L. C. Jones EXPLOITATION Federal, state, and municipal laws are in place to help protect native amphibians and reptiles from exploitation. State regulations, federal laws such as the Lacey Act and Endangered Species Act, and international treaties such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), prohibit or limit the import, export, transport, selling, receiving, acquiring, collecting, or purchasing of wildlife. Although regulations exist for the number of amphibians and reptiles one can possess, exploitation of our native herpetofauna still occurs. Exploitation involves trade of animals for consumption, use in traditional medicines, collection of animals for the pet trade, lab and medical research, and the fishing bait industry. Many turtle populations have been devastated by collectors for transport to China for food. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service s Law Enforcement Management Information System, between 1998 and 2002, the U.S. exported 26 million wild-caught reptiles. Such high numbers of animals aid the potential for extinction or extirpation (local extinction) of species. Other species, such as those used for the fishing bait industry, for example, are collected in ways that can cause severe habitat disturbances. Additionally, these species, particularly American Bullfrogs, African Clawed Frogs, and tiger salamander adults and larvae, can carry diseases that are transferred when the animals escape or are released after 36

48 EXPLOITATION Rattlesnake Festivals. Human attitudes of rattlesnakes have a checkered history in the U.S., and fear has been the primary storyline in their fate. Rattlesnake roundups, where rattlesnakes are captured and brought to a carnival-like atmosphere and then publicly killed, have been commonplace since the mid-20 th century. The largest one is still currently held in the Southwest. Originally purported to help rid the local area of dangerous rattlesnakes, these festivals have taken on a life of their own, drawn huge crowds, and brought significant economic gain to local communities where they occur. Snakes are often obtained by pouring gasoline in burrows and dens to force them out. They are held in poor conditions, and then paraded before the public before their heads are cut off. They are skinned and cleaned for their meat and made into various trinkets. There is also crowning of a queen and daredevil-like attractions such as roundup staff sitting in bathtubs with rattlesnakes and standing in a pit of rattlesnakes. Many studies have been done on the validity of these functions and the inhumane treatment of rattlesnakes at these events. Although there may be an economic viability to these events, a number of communities have recognized the importance of rattlesnakes on the local landscape. Many roundups have now moved from killing rattlesnakes to educational festivals in which participants learn about and see rattlesnakes in a close but safe environment. Snakes brought to these events are either normally held as pets or humanely collected in the wild and then returned after the festival to where they were captured. These festivals can help people understand the unique and use into other areas; this can have severe negative impacts on native species. Natural habitats should be left unaltered and undisturbed. Contact authorities when any illegal activity is suspected. All local and federal regulations should be observed when one is handling and collecting native amphibians and reptiles. PARC has produced a useful synthesis of state-by-state regulations for amphibian and reptile collection that can be downloaded at: What can land managers do? Seek information about the amphibians and reptiles in your area. Learn to identify venomous and non-venomous snakes and to appreciate and respect these misunderstood species. Learn to observe these Southwest PARC tips its hat to Texas for making the progressive move of turning a rattlesnake round-up into a conservation and education event. important roles rattlesnakes play in the environment and lessen the fear inherent in humans. More roundups should move towards an educational festival approach. One educational rattlesnake festival in our region (the Texas Rattlesnake Festival [ texasrattlesnakefestival.net/]) educates the public about venomous and non-venomous reptiles, and exposes the negative issues associated with traditional round-ups. This popular event is a win-win situation for the snakes and the public. Brian Aucone animals in nature and not molest them. If one needs to be temporarily collected for education purposes, then return it to the exact location where it was captured. There are several sources at the end of this HMG that provide useful information. Be aware of the state and federal laws for collecting and keeping amphibians and reptiles in your area. Contact your state wildlife agency and refer to PARC resources mentioned above to find out which species have restrictions. Be aware of any activities on your land that suggest collection of amphibians and reptiles. Many managers in nature preserves, national forests, and parks do not realize that large numbers of amphibians and reptiles are illegally removed from their areas each year by collectors. All states and many federal agencies have wildlife law enforcement personnel who can enforce wildlife collection laws. Landowners should HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 37

49 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Trade of Southwestern Amphibians and Reptiles Amphibians and reptiles are removed from the wild and bred in captivity for a variety of commercial purposes. They are also used for meat, skins, medicines, and pets, as well as religious or cultural purposes. Accurate data assessing trade, both legal and illegal, of amphibians and reptiles from the Southwest and its impact to wild populations are difficult to obtain. State and federal wildlife management agencies have developed regulations and laws pertaining to the collection, possession, sale, transportation, and trade of amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest. States such as Arizona, California, and Utah prohibit commercial collection of most amphibian and reptile species, and all southwestern states have their own lists of protected species (see Appendix A). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, as well as the states, prohibit the collection, possession, trade, or transportation of federally protected (threatened or endangered) species. Despite these policies, some collectors will poach amphibians and reptiles from the wild and even from contact the appropriate law enforcement agency or wildlife officer for help when you observe individuals taking these animals. Kim Lovich SUBSIDIZED PREDATORS Subsidized predators are predatory animals whose populations have increased due to resources provided directly or indirectly by humans. Examples in the Southwest include Coyote, Northern Raccoon, Striped Skunk, wild boar (feral swine), ravens, gulls, and domestic and feral pets. Artificially over-abundant populations of subsidized predators on the landscape result in increased levels of turtle nest predation and low survival of juvenile turtles and tortoises. Chronic high levels of predation on these life stages will cause population declines in these long-lived reptiles. Domestic Cats, in particular, are notorious predators of lizards and small snakes, as well as birds and small mammals. Hundreds of thousands of small animals are killed each year by this one introduced species. Entire populations of reptiles have been extirpated by cats. Humans can also be viewed as subsidized predators, because snakes in suburban areas are often wantonly killed out of misidentification or fear (versus posing a legitimate threat). The decline in some species of horned lizards can be tracked to over-collection by people and subsidized predators. Collection for protected areas such as state and national parks. These activities can negatively impact wild populations and cause population decline. Where permitted, trade is allowed when it is not detrimental to wild populations. In these cases, permits and permit reports are required and, in some instances, there are specific guidelines for collecting, housing, and disease testing (prior to transporting) herps. Check state, federal, and international regulations before obtaining amphibians and reptiles from commercial dealers. Make sure you are buying only species that have been bred and were born in captivity and not those collected from the wild. PARC condones sustainable use of herpetofaunal resources. It works with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and CITES to provide scientific and technical advice about trade issues pertaining to amphibians and reptiles. The herpetofaunal conservation community should work cooperatively to improve enforcement, management, and education programs related to trade and exploitation. Polly Conrad pets is equivalent to killing them because both remove individuals from their populations. What can land managers do? Control subsidized predator populations by humane means. First identify the subsidized predators in your area. Consult your local animal damage control, animal services, or state wildlife agencies for advice on eradication or control. Reduce or eliminate structures around and near dwellings that may be used by subsidized predators for shelter. Eliminate cover and den or nest sites used by subsidized wildlife on your property. Animal control agencies may provide services in your area to help with this. Develop and support urban wildlife control programs created by state wildlife management agencies. State wildlife management agencies in the Southwest do not necessarily have urban wildlife programs (although some do). Effective education programs would provide information on control or removal, guidance, and enforcement as needed for subsidized wildlife issues in urban landscapes. Institute garbage storage and collection programs that limit accessibility by wildlife. Make or modify garbage cans and dumpsters to exclude wildlife. Rural homeowners can use garbage cans with locking lids or keep them in closed garages. Subsidized predators get their resources from 38

50 NON-NATIVE AND INVASIVE SPECIES Brian Hubbs Because of their high reproduction, resistance to Bd, and other factors, American Bullfrogs are highly successful invasives that can completely extirpate native amphibians and other wildlife. This sign helps visitors distinguish between the native leopard frogs and American Bullfrogs. The lake it refers to was drained, bullfrogs removed, and then two species of leopard frogs made a huge comeback. can also be an unsafe practice when animals, such as Coyotes and Cougars, are drawn to urban and suburban areas to find food resources. Editors NON-NATIVE AND INVASIVE SPECIES Non-native species are those that do not occur naturally in a particular area. Their presence may result from purposeful legal releases, illegal introductions, accidental introductions, or escapees. Non-native species can become established in areas occupied by native species. If non-native species prey on or compete with native species or cause economic problems, then they are considered invasive species. Christina Aikins American Bullfrogs can have extremely high reproductive success where they are not native and will eat just about anything they can fit in their mouths, such as this federally threatened Mexican Gartersnake. humans. Restrain pets. Keep cats and other pets indoors. Support programs that remove subsidized predators such as feral cats. Visit the Bird Conservancy website for additional information ( org/abcprograms/policy/cats/index.html). Do not feed subsidized and other wildlife. Feeding most wildlife is not ecologically responsible, unless part of an authorized recovery program. It Non-native, invasive species (both plants and animals) are among the greatest threats to some amphibians and reptiles, causing a decrease in biodiversity and having the potential to significantly alter native ecosystems. Non-native species may prey directly on native species, compete with them for food or cover, facilitate the spread of other non-native species, introduce disease, or hybridize with native populations. Domestic Cats are not native to North America and are especially harmful. Consult state wildlife agencies or online resources for lists of non-native species that may pose a threat in your area. Some environments are especially sensitive to introductions of non-native and invasive species. Aquatic systems are particularly at risk. For example, American Bullfrogs, which are native to the eastern United States (including east Texas and Oklahoma within the Southwest PARC area), are invasive species farther west because native species have not evolved adaptations to co-exist with these predators. They eat small fish, amphibians (including cannibalizing themselves), HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 39

51 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES snakes, turtles, and even birds and mammals. They are responsible for local extinctions of populations of common and threatened and endangered species. They are effective vectors of the devastating amphibian chytrid fungus but may not exhibit symptoms themselves. It may be difficult to repopulate extirpated species, such as native leopard frogs and western pond turtles, where bullfrogs are present. They have often reached their new non-native habitats through the intentional spread by humans. In fact, it is still possible to purchase American Bullfrogs for use in ornamental ponds and they are still used as bait in some lakes. American Bullfrogs are listed as one of the top 100 worst invasive species globally by the Global Invasive Species Database ( org/database/species/search.asp?st=100ss). Native amphibians and reptiles in aquatic habitats are also at risk from invasive warm water fishes, trouts, crayfish, and Red-eared Sliders, among others. Invasive plants, especially grasses, have dramatically altered vegetation structure in large parts of the Southwest. In many areas non-native species of grasses have already irreversibly altered areas where native grasses can no longer compete. Non-native grasses support higher intensity fires than historically known. Physical structure of the plants (e.g., dense bunchgrasses that choke out open space) can render invaded habitats inhospitable to native amphibians and reptiles. Dune complexes, native grasslands, desertscrub, riparian areas, and other habitats that typically have barren patches among sparse vegetation have been and are being invaded. Disturbed areas, such as vacant lots, old industrial areas, and decommissioned farms are also prime areas for colonization by non-native invasive species. There are numerous ways one can eliminate or control non-native species. First, know what species in your area are not native and then follow the suggestions below. What can land managers do? Be aware of policies and regulations regarding non-native species that include prevention, early detection, control, and eradication measures. Non-native species eradication is an expensive, often losing battle in the U.S. The best solution is prevention or immediate control of non-native species before they spread and become established. Avoid stocking non-native aquatic species in streams, lakes, and stock ponds in your area. Whenever possible, use native species from nearby areas. Remove or eradicate non-native species wherever possible. Tamarisk (salt cedar) is found along streams and rivers in the Southwest; it displaces native species and reduces water levels. Replace non-native plants with native vegetation. Selective grazing and controlled burns can be used to control invasive grasses. Consult local fire officials before attempting any burns. Consider eradicating nonnative fishes, American Bullfrogs (where non-native), crayfish, and other non-native animals through safe, accepted means. Use native plants for forage, wildlife food plots, and restorations. Non-native plants such as cheatgrass and buffelgrass have caused serious problems in the Southwest. Do not transport firewood and other outdoor wood products into forests. Insect pests that can devastate forest trees can alter amphibian and reptile habitats. Many invasive insects have been brought into the U.S. from other countries in wood structures that have caused damage to native tree In order to test for chytridiomycosis, resource managers can swab frog skin and send the swab in to a lab for analysis. species with great economic loss. Learn the consequences of transporting non-native insect pests and disease organisms into habitats used by amphibians and reptiles. Editors DISEASE Disease is a burgeoning conservation issue with reptiles, amphibians, and other taxa, such as bats. Although many diseases are known for amphibians and reptiles, they are still little understood. There are many diseases of amphibians and reptiles that naturally occur, but threats from pathogens that our native species did not evolve with are a particular threat. With the ease of worldwide travel, diseases from one part of Joe Mitchell 40

52 CLIMATE CHANGE the world can now become quickly established in other areas. This is a catalyst for rapid pandemics, such as the amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd). The Bd fungus has caused massive die-offs of frogs and salamanders worldwide. It is considered a major factor in causing one of the largest, most rapid extinction events recorded in modern times. In the Southwest, nearly all species of aquatic frogs (leopard frogs, Tarahumara Frogs, yellow-legged frogs, red-legged frogs), Western Toads, and other species are among the amphibians that are disappearing from much of their historic range. Even pristine areas have been shown to have diseased amphibian populations. Another fungal species in the genus was recently discovered (B. salamandrivorans); it affects salamanders in Europe, but fear is that it will spread here. Other diseases, including ranaviruses in frogs and upper respiratory tract disease in desert tortoises may also be influenced by human actions, such as the introduction of non-native amphibians and release of diseased pet tortoises into wild populations, respectively. The tiger salamander-complex virus is a type of iridovirus that attacks salamanders and can be spread from animals in the pet and bait trade to wild populations (three species of tiger salamanders are currently recognized, including two federally listed species or subspecies). Like the amphibian chytrid fungus, the virus can cause mass mortality in local populations. Another emerging disease is from the fungus, Ophidiomyces (formerly Chrysosporium) ophiodiicola, which has been shown to infect snakes from Minnesota to Florida (and Asia and Australia); it has not shown up in the West yet. Time will tell if this or other emerging diseases will take their toll as heavily as Bd and the White-nose Syndrome fungus (Pseudogymnoascus [formerly Geomyces] destructans), which since 2007 has caused the deaths of millions of bats in eastern North America. What can land managers do? Never release store-bought, captive-raised, or confiscated amphibians and reptiles into the wild, except under specific direction by state wildlife agencies. Captive-raised animals may carry various diseases potentially harmful to native amphibians, reptiles, and other wildlife species, not to mention that it is unlawful in most states. Never release nonnative live fishing bait. Know your state s regulations pertaining to the use and release of live bait. Clean equipment with a solution recommended by state and federal agencies tasked with managing wildlife populations. Resources are available online that will describe the best approaches for sterilizing or disinfecting equipment between aquatic sites, such as use of 10% bleach solution and quaternary ammonium ( quat-128 ) disinfectant solution. See Appendix D for more information. Control the spread of invasive, non-native species. American Bullfrogs can transmit diseases to native amphibians. Populations outside of their native range should be controlled or eradicated (where non-native) to reduce the likelihood of introduction and spread. Report die-offs of amphibians and sick wild reptiles on your property to your state or federal wildlife agency. Once they identify the disease, you will be able to learn preventive or control measures to take. Knowing its identity is the first step to help you to learn how to avoid spreading the disease to other parts of your property and neighboring areas. Contact information for state wildlife agencies is listed in Appendix F. Editors CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change is becoming the most publicized and researched issue that affects humans and wildlife. Although the majority of the scientific community agrees that the earth s climate is changing and is correlated with burning fossil fuels, some of the general public remains skeptical due to the politics surrounding the issue. Land managers are often passive about climate change challenges. The common perception is that there are too many uncertainties and what can we do about it anyway? Unfortunately, this viewpoint often keeps private landowners and public agencies from identifying and engaging in effective ways to adapt to the changes in the environment. The consensus among climate change experts is that the average annual temperature is gradually increasing. Temperature changes have already affected amphibian and reptile species, including the loss of less-adaptable species. For example, montane, riparian, and vernal pool species adapted to cool, moist habitats, are less likely to persist under warmer conditions than their more arid-adapted counterparts. These animals depend on thermal components of microhabitats in their environment to properly regulate their body temperature for digestion, reproduction and other functions. Climate change can directly alter microhabitats making them warmer and drier in the Southwest and elsewhere. Changes in precipitation are less understood, but most climate scientists agree that Southwest winter rainfall is decreasing and, perhaps more importantly, snowpack and ground water recharge is also decreasing in much of the arid Southwest. Most of the Southwest HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 41

53 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Brian Powell Frequent drought is an outcome of climate change in the Southwest. As such, during the ordinary low-water time of late spring and early summer, surface water levels are even lower or non-existent compared to historic data. This photograph clearly demonstrates one of the effects of increased evapotranspiration during this time: stranded in this tinaja (rock pool) in the Sonoran Desert are 6 trapped reptiles and amphibians, including a Lowland Leopard Frog, a Sonoran Desert Toad, a Sonoran Mud Turtle, a Gila Monster, and two Sonoran Whipsnakes (note: all of these animals were alive even the Gila Monster and all were rescued). has a monsoonal weather pattern that brings a second wave of precipitation during summer months. Each of these precipitation events (winter/spring and summer) affects amphibian and reptile populations. Reduced winter precipitation reduces plant growth, wildflower abundance, and water availability in general, which translates into poor insect and other prey abundance. Insects are the primary prey of many amphibians and reptiles, so poor insect abundance leads to poor reproduction and ultimately to population declines. Aquatic species are directly threatened by reductions in precipitation. Breeding habitats may dry up as a result of increased evapotranspiration and reduced rainfall or snowfall. Many ephemeral pond-associated frogs and toads will not be able to breed when their ponds dry up. However, many amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest are associated with summer monsoonal moisture, and predicted patterns of climate change during that season are unclear. Monsoon rains are usually spotty and locally heavy, so the effects on aquatic (and upland monsoon-adapted species) are not well understood. As land managers we have access to the best available information, which can allow us to make significant contributions to conservation actions even for climate change. What can land managers do? Educate yourself and others about climate change impacts. Perhaps the most important management tool is knowledge; however, it is difficult to manage an issue that is not fully understood. Know the basic elements of climate change and how they might affect the organisms of concern and habitats in your area. There are many educational resources available, including informational websites, literature, and workshops. Manage your land to reduce impacts that may result from climate change. Although we cannot significantly control the weather or climate, we can help reduce the effects of compounded stressors (activities that exacerbate effects of climate change) on organisms through management. Identify impacts that may occur on your land. Draw up contingency plans 42

54 CLIMATE CHANGE Afternoon clouds build up during the monsoon, usually over mountains first. The North American Monsoon Cumulonimbus clouds can dump heavy amounts of rain over small areas in a short period of time. The North American Monsoon (usually just called the monsoon, locally) occurs in summer months in most of Arizona, New Mexico, west Texas, and parts of Colorado and Utah, and will stray into California and Nevada. It is usually a more substantial rainy season than the one during the winter and spring. The monsoon is marked by several climatic factors, including a change in the direction of prevailing winds. As heat builds up over the mountains and plateaus of northern Mexico and the adjacent United States, moisture is drawn up from the Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico. High pressure builds up over the Four Corners region and brings the moisture northward. Precipitation usually occurs from early July into September. The term monsoon is frequently misused, often being thought of as synonymous with summer rainstorms ( we had heavy monsoons last week ), rather than being a single annual season (you cannot have more than one monsoon per year, just as you can only have one summer). Monsoon rains are usually in the form of afternoon thunderstorms that may be intense, dumping large amounts of rain over a relatively small area in a short amount of time. This may cause dangerous flash flooding. Climatologists are struggling to come up with models to predict when there will be a good monsoon (lots of rain) or a poor monsoon (drought a non-soon in local vernacular). Although climate change models show a consistent decrease in winter precipitation over time, the monsoon patterns remain uncertain. El Niño years often bring heavy monsoonal rains, but there is also tremendous annual variation, so there can be fewer storms than average. Tropical storms and hurricanes in the eastern Pacific may add to the monsoonal activity and may pump additional moisture into the atmosphere that can lead to heavier-thannormal rains and flash-flooding. The monsoon has a profound influence on amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest. While some species rely on winter and spring rains to ensure reproduction, many species can increase reproductive output during the monsoon. Surface activities of many species are tied directly to the monsoon. Most obvious are the plethora of summer-breeding frogs, such as several species of spadefoot toads, both species of green toads, Barking Frog, and Lowland Burrowing Treefrog. During the first substantial monsoon rains of the year, one can witness a simultaneous chorus of several species of frogs and toads (called explosive breeders because they simultaneously appear en masse to breed in ephemeral ponds and pools). Peak surface activity of many snakes in the Mojave and Great Basin deserts occurs in the spring, whereas in the eastern Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts, snakes tend to have a second, more substantial seasonal peak activity during the monsoon. Lawrence L. C. Jones Radar imagery of monsoonal thunderstorms, showing the variable location of cells and intensity. Heavy storms in the mountains (and lowlands) can bring flash floods and deliver massive amounts of water in washes and stormwater pools. Pictured is a normally dry section of the Santa Cruz River. Surface water in pools and perennial streams is good news, but most of the water is quickly lost and does not replace groundwater (unlike snowmelt). HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 43

55 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR CONSERVATION CHALLENGES Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (LCC s) The United States (and contiguous parts of Mexico and Canada) is divided into numerous functional ecoregions known as Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (LCCs), established through the Department of Interior s Secretarial Order 3289, Addressing the Impacts of Climate Change on America s Water, Land, and Other Natural and Cultural Resources. The LCC is a network of public and private partnerships that provide shared science to ensure the sustainability of America s land, water, wildlife, and cultural resources. There are 22 LCC s nationally and ten include Southwest PARC states, but the lion s share for our region is within the (1) Desert LCC, (2) Great Basin LCC, (3) Southern Rockies LCC, (4) California LCC, (5) Great Plains LCC, and (6) Gulf Coast and Plains LCC. Only the Desert and California LCC s are not shared with other states and PARC Regions. Southwest PARC maintains a member partnership to ensure consideration of conservation of reptiles and amphibians within the LCC program. See for more information Landscape Conservation Cooperatives. The LLCs are designed to help address broad-scale conservation issues in geographically defined areas. for drought. For example, you can reduce impacts of grazing from livestock on native plant species and aquatic ecosystems. Reduce fuel loads in areas subject to catastrophic wildfire. Inhibit the spread of exotics. Manage landscapes in ways that allow reptiles and amphibians to move among habitat patches. Manage for resilient ecosystems. Ecosystems that can persist in a stable condition without the need for human intervention may be able to buffer some effects of climate change. Monitor habitats and populations of amphibians and reptiles. It is difficult to know what to do about drying pools, for example, if one does not check them regularly. Monitoring is an essential component of adaptive management. It can make the difference between successful and unsuccessful persistence of sensitive species. See PARC s Inventory and Monitoring Handbook for details on how to monitor specific species. Manage water in ways that ensures survival of all organisms on your property. Surface water is essential for survival of most amphibians and reptiles, as well as livestock. Conservation of underground and surface water should be a high priority in the arid habitats of the Southwest. A variety of projects can benefit native species despite the potential influence of climate change. For example, uncontaminated (free of pollution, disease, or predators) water can be channeled to frog breeding sites that are at risk of drying. Stock tanks can be retrofitted to benefit native species, and non-native species can often be eradicated. Maintain large patches of unfragmented natural habitat where possible. Large patches of natural habitats may act as buffers against climate change and facilitate movements to other patches. If possible, restrict human activities to relatively small areas and manage the remaining land in ways to benefit both the landowner s primary need, as well as amphibian and reptile populations. Seek opportunities to learn from adjacent landowners and established organizations. Resource managers should determine what they can and cannot do based on resources available on and adjacent to their lands. Such a broad perspective will help identify where to set management priorities. Work with others to find ways to bridge the gap between basic knowledge of climate change impacts and onthe-ground management. Think globally, act locally. Landowners and managers can play roles in protecting amphibians and reptiles and their habitats from climate change effects through individual contributions. These range from building structures that conserve water and reduce waste in irrigation systems to providing amphibian wetland breeding sites. Become aware of continental and global climate changes that will affect local environments. The reader should search the internet for useful websites: there are too many to list. Lawrence L. C. Jones 44

56 CLIMATE CHANGE Esther Nelson THE BASICS: GENERAL MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES ACROSS HABITAT TYPES The guidelines in this section are pertinent to amphibian and reptile conservation in all or most habitat types. This section is a summary of selected management guidelines from individual habitat sections and provides an overview or place to start. Create an inventory and monitoring strategy for management plans and on-the-ground projects. It is important to know which species are present in a project area. Inventory is simply using the best method to detect presence of a species (determining absence is more problematic). Monitoring is tracking known populations through time. Adaptive management is the mechanism to improve management as you go, based on what you have learned from monitoring. Provide conservation-related educational materials to boaters, fishermen, hunters, loggers, hikers, campers, farmers, and other people who are outdoors regularly. Discourage field personnel and the public from collecting or killing amphibians and reptiles. An informed public fosters a caring attitude and may help minimize human-related problems on your land. People are often interested in these animals, but are unaware of conservation issues related to these species and how they fit into land management for other interests. Develop partnerships. Work with others to design a mix of land-management practices across adjacent land ownerships. This approach could increase habitat diversity and lead to shared contributions (i.e., timing, intensity, frequency of management) to habitat management. Partnerships benefit all land owners who have common goals. Identify and manage key habitats and sensitive habitat features. Examples include seasonal wetlands, estuaries, streams, seeps, blocks of pristine habitat, and rock outcroppings. Many species require specific habitats for all or part of their life cycle or during migration. These habitats and features are often critical to the survival of individuals and long-term persistence of populations in some areas. Maintaining these features and habitat around them improves quality for all wildlife, including livestock and game animals. Consult a professional herpetologist to help identify special habitat features and determine which management practices and conservation buffer sizes will best benefit your local species. Integrate management of amphibians and reptiles in concert with other species in management plans. Multi-species management plans should always include amphibians and reptiles, as well as those species that may have a higher profile, such as birds of prey (raptors) and large mammals (livestock), or species that may be listed as threatened or endangered. Locate regularly used roads, trails, landings, and facilities away from sensitive habitats and migration corridors used by amphibians or reptiles. Vehicle-related mortality, illegal collecting and killing (e.g., rattlesnakes), and noise-related disruptions of natural behaviors are unfortunate side effects of recreational access. Manage not only the habitats you have today, but also the predicted habitats you will beyond the planning period. Anticipate the mosaic of habitats you are likely to have in future decades as you consider which areas to reserve for amphibian and reptile conservation. Many habitats will change in some ways HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 45

57 THE BASICS: GENERAL MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES ACROSS HABITAT TYPES due to the effects brought about by climate change. Manage for desired future effects. Minimize soil disturbance when using heavy equipment near amphibian and reptile habitats. Avoid operating heavy equipment in sensitive areas. Heavy equipment tends to cause soil compaction, increase erosion, and form tire ruts. Degraded habitats impair how you can use your land to meet your management goals. Develop education programs about local amphibians and reptiles. Conduct presentations, such as evening campfire programs or docent-led natural history programs, about the biology of amphibians and reptiles in the local area. Informational signs and brochures at trailheads are an effective way to increase awareness and appreciation of these fascinating but often misunderstood animals. Ensure the availability of essential complementary habitat types. For species of amphibians and reptiles that require two or more habitats to survive and reproduce successfully (e.g., pond-breeding amphibians or snakes with disjunct hibernacula), plan to have different habitats within the matrix of manageable lands. Reducing the quality or eliminating these complementary habitats may lead to declines and even local extirpation. Maintain large blocks of intact natural habitat whenever possible. As pristine habitat diminishes with human population expansion, intact blocks of ecologically functional habitat are a treasure to be retained and maintained into the future. Do not fragment contiguous habitat. Ensure that land-use practices do not disrupt or sever seasonal migration and dispersal pathways of amphibians and reptiles. Where possible, restore historic disturbance regimes. Restoration of natural processes and their natural seasonality of occurrence will benefit amphibians and reptiles. Restoring natural flood regimes to river and stream systems would favor aquatic system ecology and natural dynamics. Natural (seasonally correct) fire regimes help maintain terrestrial ecosystems and make them resilient to insect outbreaks and highseverity wildfires. Maintain or restore native vegetative structure and composition. Remove or contain the spread of invasive plant species. Most amphibian and reptile species are likely better adapted to the environmental conditions provided by native vegetation. Structural features such as rock outcrops, drainages, and ponds are also needed on a landscape, if they are characteristic of the area. Provide educational materials at public recreational areas to improve public understanding of the biology and natural history of native amphibians and reptiles. Much of the public is not aware of the amphibians and reptiles in areas they use for recreation. Increased awareness may contribute to enhanced conservation and stewardship. Minnow traps are a simple device to inventory for many aquatic or semiaquatic species, such as this Narrow-headed Gartersnake. Sampling for native and invasive amphibians is paramount to conservation measures in areas where land altering activities may affect water, as with this stock tank being surveyed for two endangered amphibians and invasive American Bullfrogs. U.S. Forest Service 46

58 CLIMATE CHANGE Lawerence LC. Jones MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR SPECIFIC INTRODUCTION HABITAT TYPES The guidelines in this section are pertinent to amphibian and reptile conservation in specific habitat types. This section contains two sets of guidelines: (1) Maximizing Compatibility and (2) Ideal. Maximizing Compatibility guidelines are for landowners and resource managers who wish to contribute to the conservation and stewardship of these animals while primarily managing their land for other uses, such as timber production, grazing, agriculture, recreation, and residential or industrial development. Ideal guidelines are for landowners and land or resource managers who want to make amphibian and reptile conservation a primary objective, such as on nature preserves, wildlife refuges, and private or agency lands where optimizing the diversity and abundance of herpetofauna is desired. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 47

59 MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES HABITATS WITHIN HABITATS Habitat. In a biological context, the word habitat is the place where an organism or a community of organisms lives, including all living and nonliving factors or conditions of the surrounding environment. However, common usage has often suggested habitat type is synonymous with vegetation community or groups of similar vegetation communities (e.g., desertscrub). Thus, the word habitat is much more complex than simply an assemblage of plants. For ease of use, this HMG refers to habitat types as a simple concept, particularly vegetation communities and physical attributes of the environment. However, habitats are dynamic and intricate. A species habitat includes vegetative community, topography, physical structures, climate, predators and prey, competing species, soil characteristics, subterranean structure, and day length. All of these habitat components and more influence the natural history of a particular species. The sharp delineation between the evergreen forest and grassland is the ecotone. Ecotones are often the sites of greatest herpetofauna diversity because of habitat diversity. Ecotone. The habitat types in the HMGs are typically regarded as pure ecological entities, usually vegetation communities. However, on the ground, areas are often transitional between two (sometimes more) habitat types, such as desert transitioning into grasslands or evergreen woodlands mixing with deciduous woodlands. Transitional zones or interfaces (especially across plant communities) are known as ecotones. When considering complex habitats such as ecotones, read all the related habitat sections to get a more holistic approach to habitat management options. Nested Habitat Features. Nested within habitat types may be other structural features such as riparian areas, dunes, rocks, logs, ponds, wetlands, and caves. Such features are sometimes referred to as nested habitats because they are nested within the context of a larger habitat (i.e., a forest or desert) type. As an example, there may be a log within a pool within a stream within a deciduous woodland. Nested within this lower Sonoran Desert ecosystem in southern California are boulders, a perennial stream, and even a native palm oasis. Animals are attracted to these nested habitat features. Areas such as these are often biologically rich, with a need to become habitat management and conservation priorities. In parts of Arizona and California, the Mojave and Sonoran deserts come into contact with each other and form a broad ecotone, as indicated by a cluster of Joshua Trees (a Mojave Desert plant) and Saguaros (a Sonoran Desert plant). 48

60 Habitats within Habitats DESERT SCRUBLANDS Jeffrey E. Lovich Desert scrublands comprise the lower to mid-elevation portions of four different ecosystems, the Chihuahuan, Great Basin, Mojave, and Sonoran deserts. Despite significant differences in the flora and fauna of these bioregions, they all share the common trait of being arid shrub or shrub-steppe ecosystems, receiving, on average, less than 10 in (254 mm) of rain per year. The austere nature of these landscapes belies their significant biodiversity, the amazing behavioral and physiological adaptations of the biota, and the fragility of the ecosystems to human disturbances. For example, the Mojave Desert alone has at least 250 species of ephemeral plants, mostly winter annuals, and up to 90% are endemic. Desert scrublands cover large parts of southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico; most valleys of Nevada; part of southwestern Utah; western Texas; and portions of southern Oregon and Idaho. Associated plant communities are shaped by variation in the timing and quantity of precipitation across this wide and topographically diverse area. To the west, rainfall is received predominately in the winter as a result of Pacific frontal storm systems. Farther to the east, rainfall becomes biphasic with inputs from both winter storms and the summer monsoon. Creosote bush is often the dominant shrub species in the three southern or hot deserts in North America, but replaced by sagebrushes, shadscale, and other shrub species in the cold desert environment of the Great Basin Desert. Visually dominant species in upland habitats include Joshua trees in the Mojave Desert, saguaros and arborescent plants in Wildflowers are important components in desertscrub habitats because they provide food for some species of reptiles (such as tortoises and iguanas), but more importantly, provide the food for the insects and rodents on which most other species feed. This long stretch of fencing prevents Mojave Desert Tortoises and other species from accessing a busy two-lane highway. Kurt Buhlmann HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 49

61 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES A virtual monoculture of creosote bushes in the valleys of the Mojave, Sonoran, and Chihuhuan deserts is a common sight. Simple and hostile as this environment seems, it has a high diversity of reptiles, and some amphibians. Creosote Bush: Pillar of the American Hot Deserts Creosote bush (Larrea tridentata) is an unassuming shrub found in all hot deserts in the United States and Mexico Chihuahuan, Sonoran, and Mojave. It is frequently the dominant plant where it occurs, usually on the lower desert valley floor or hillsides, and often forms regularly spaced monocultures. The creosote bush is wellknown for (1) being responsible for the pleasant fragrance accompanying the desert after a rain (hence the common name creosote, which does not do it justice); and (2) it is among the oldest living organisms on earth, with one of the clonal colonies (self-replicating and genetically identical), King Clone of the Mojave Desert, estimated at nearly 12,000 years old (see htm). Many reptiles (and birds, mammals, and invertebrates) use creosote bushes as an integral part of their life histories. It is surprising how many reptiles may be found in association with creosote bushes. Since it may form monocultures, often on loose soils, it may be the only source of shade, shelter, and prey habitat in large areas. Large creosote bushes often grow on hummocks or dunes, usually with rodent burrows underneath. Rodents are food for snakes and their burrows are used by lizards and snakes for shelter. Leaf litter at the base of creosote bushes provides habitat for insects eaten by lizards. Desert Iguanas, Common Chuckwallas, and desert tortoises may feed on the leaves and flowers. The shade is used by most species that live in the desert; it is not uncommon to find lizards in the shade or a Sidewinder or Mojave Rattlesnake coiled at the base. One species of lizard, the Long-tailed Brush Lizard, is often associated with the creosote bush intimately, living in one to a few bushes throughout its lifetime. It even looks like a creosote branch when pressed up against a twig. When you look at creosote bush habitats, don t think of desolation or wasteland. Think about how this seemingly simple ecosystem is the foundation for a thriving community of many species of reptiles that evolved with it for thousands of years. Lawrence L. C. Jones The Long-tailed Brush Lizard does occur in other species of desert plants, but it seems best suited in creosote bushes, where it mimics the branches and lives out its life. Creosote bushes are common hummock builders and sand stabilizers in dunes of the hot deserts. King Clone is a creosote bush that has spread outward in clones of a common stock. This plant, found in the Mojave Desert, is estimated to be 12,000 years old! Grant Kokeid, Wikipedia 50

62 DESERT SCRUBLANDS Ryan Besser These Mexican Spadefoots are emerging from deep underground with the onset of summer rains. Some other species emerge during the spring. The Mojave Rattlesnake is found in all three hot deserts and semi-desert grasslands. These snakes have a very potent neurotoxic venom and persons should be aware for safety concerns when working in habitats where they occur. However, PARC maintains that all species are important components of the environment, and so urges readers to use caution, but not kill venomous reptiles. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Danny Martin Lizards are among the more conspicuous denizens of deserts. The Southwest is the epicenter for lizards, including horned lizards, such as this Flat-tailed Horned Lizard, which is found in the lowest, hottest parts of the Sonoran Desert. the Sonoran Desert, and lechuguilla in the Chihuahuan Desert. Desert ecosystems dominated by long-lived plant species like creosote bush and saguaro are easily damaged by human activities including off-highway vehicle use, overgrazing, utility-scale renewable energy development, mining, urbanization, agricultural development, the effects of roads (habitat fragmentation and wildlife mortality), utility corridors, and military training activities. Secondary impacts of human activities include introduction of invasive plant species and associated increased fire frequency in ecosystems poorly adapted to either frequent or intense fires. Salamanders: Western Tiger Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Red-spotted Toad, Sonoran Green Toad, Relict Leopard Frog; Lizards: Desert Night Lizard, Tiger Whiptail, Desert Iguana, Desert Horned Lizard, Common Side-blotched Lizard, Zebra-tailed Lizard; Snakes: Sonoran Whipsnake, Western Patch-nosed Snake, Long-nosed Snake, Trans-Pecos Ratsnake, Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake, Mojave Rattlesnake; Turtles: Mojave Desert Tortoise, Sonoran Desert Tortoise. MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Limit to the extent possible the intensity of ground and plant-disturbing activities to protect this fragile ecosystem. North America s desert scrublands, particularly habitats comprised of longlived shrub species, are easily disturbed and can take hundreds or thousands of years to recover. Minimize the effects of habitat fragmentation where possible. Features such as roads, utility corridors, fences, utility-scale renewable energy development, and urbanization break up contiguous habitat into smaller fragments. Desert scrublands were historically characterized by vast expanses of interconnected habitat. Keeping the footprint to a minimum will help to HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 51

63 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES The Desert Iguana of the Sonoran and Mojave deserts is often regarded as the most heat-tolerant lizard often seen basking on asphalt roads, even when it is well in excess of 100 F (38 C) air temperature. maintain interconnectedness of habitats is necessary to maintain both genetic exchange and biodiversity. Roads have been documented to have effects on desert tortoise population density far from the actual roadway. Minimize the effects and spread of invasive species. Invasive species are changing the character of all the desert scrublands. Invasive grasses like red brome, cheat grass, buffelgrass, Sahara mustard, and others have come to dominate large areas of desert scrubland. These species not only compete with native grasses and forbs for limited moisture and nutrients, but they also promote phase shifts from scrublands to grasslands due to the grass-fire cycle. Keeping new invasive species from becoming established in the first place is an important strategy. Prevent and suppress fire in desert scrublands from type conversion to exotic grasslands. Desert scrublands are poorly adapted to fire. Even burrowing species like desert tortoises can be killed by desert fire. Manage off-highway vehicle use on your land and minimize its effects. All off-road travel and road design though desert scrublands require careful consideration. Off-road activity in desert scrubland habitat damages sensitive plants and soils and degrades habitat needed for natural and domestic species. Staying on designated routes and out of undisturbed Fences can act like drift fences, guiding animals to the wildlife crossing structures. As part of a mitigation measure to prevent mortalities to Mojave Desert Tortoises, this fence leads to an under-road crossing at a solar energy site. This prevents tortoises from accessing the construction site and being injured or killed by heavy machinery. habitat will help to protect amphibians and reptiles. Large, slow-moving species like desert tortoises, rattlesnakes, and Gila Monsters are particularly vulnerable to road kill. Ideal-When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Keep livestock away from amphibian and reptile aggregations. If livestock grazing is permitted in the area, then seek ways to keep them away from breeding ponds and hibernacula. Restore areas dominated by invasive grass with native grasses, forbs, and shrubs. Use seed mixtures that contain native plants, preferably those obtained locally. Restoration efforts should be timed during favorable climatic conditions after careful site evaluation. Prevent and aggressively suppress fire in desert scrublands. Desert scrublands are not fire-adapted ecosystems. Try to eliminate invasive plants. Manage and control off-highway vehicle use on your lands. Off-road activity in desert scrubland habitat damages sensitive plants and soils and degrades habitat. Stay on designated routes and out of undisturbed habitats. Kurt Buhlmann 52

64 DESERT SCRUBLANDS Lechuguilla, Chihuahuan Desert Sagebrushes Great Basin Desert Saguaro, Sonoran Desert Joshua Tree, Mojave Desert THE FOUR U.S. DESERTS. The U.S. deserts are almost completely within the Southwest. There are three hot deserts and one cold desert. The hot deserts all have expanses of creosote bushes. However, each desert has a plant species (or species group) that is often associated with it or considered characteristic, as shown above. However, many areas of these deserts may lack their characteristic species, but their presence does indicate the appropriate desert. The Great Basin Desert is the exception because sagebrushes are more widespread but sagebrushes are exemplified in this desert. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 53

65 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES DESERT WOODLANDS Polly Conrad Desert woodland is an oxymoron true woodlands do not occur in true deserts. Deserts are scrublands or shrublands because there isn t enough precipitation or groundwater to sustain typical trees. Woodlands are low-density forests forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. The habitat type covered in this chapter includes woodlands and woodland-like habitat within the mesic areas of the Southwest deserts, primarily the Mojave and Sonoran (e.g., Arizona upland subdivision) deserts. Desert woodlands generally receive annual rainfall of less than 20 inches (51 cm), more than surrounding lowland deserts, but still represent an arid ecosystem. The annual potential loss of moisture from evapotranspiration (water that passes through plants) well exceeds the moisture received from precipitation. Desert woodland soils tend to be sandy or rocky and low in organic material; saline or alkaline soils are common. Animals inhabiting desert woodlands are adapted to low moisture conditions and are sometimes nocturnal to avoid moisture loss, such as most species of snakes. Desert woodland species are sometimes the same species in adjacent lowlands, but many are those that require more significant structural features from trees and large shrubs than are present in true deserts. The dominant plant species of desert woodlands may include Joshua trees, junipers, mountain mahogany, mesquites, ironwood, and palo verdes. Threats to desert woodlands include urban and suburban development and associated infrastructure with the resulting air, water, and soil pollutants from resi- Some of the more mesic areas of deserts especially the Mojave and Sonoran have stands of tree-like shrubs and succulents, so are somewhat similar to true woodlands. Desert Night Lizards are found almost exclusively under fallen Joshua Trees or other species of succulents. This lizard is a live-bearing, kin-based social species with family aggregations being found under Joshua Tree branches. Bryan Hamilton 54

66 DESERT WOODLANDS The bright yellow flowers of yellow palo verde and pink flowers of ironwood bring in huge numbers of insects potential prey for many species of lizards and toads into Sonoran Desert woodlands. Flowers from perennials, including cacti, are much more reliable than annuals, which depend on winter and spring rains. In drought years annuals may not bloom, and herpetofauna may not breed. The Yellow-Backed Spiny Lizard is usually found in parts of the desert where there is adequate structure, such as woodland-like plant communities. This male is doing a push-up, a display that indicates territoriality or other behavioral communication. Jim Atkinson Arizona Coralsnakes are also more commonly encountered above the creosote desert flats, in the Arizona upland Sonoran Desert. dential, agricultural, energy, or industry. Lack of connectivity among protected habitats (national wildlife refuges, national parks, military installations, etc.) and across international borders remains a serious problem. Poorly managed grazing by livestock and off-road vehicle use contribute numerous threats to desert woodlands, including soil disturbance, compaction, erosion, loss of cryptogamic crust, introduction or spread of invasive or non-native vegetation, and further degradation and fragmentation of habitats, especially riparian habitats. Inappropriate harvesting techniques of desert woodland resources can cause loss of suitable cover, which alters air, water, and soil microclimates important for amphibian and reptile species. Juniper woodlands have invaded areas formerly dominated by shrub and herbaceous species since European settlement, largely due to livestock grazing, fire exclusion, and climate change. Native understory species once held juniper regeneration in check; however, the establishment of non-native annual or The desert is a harsh place for turtles, which are mostly aquatic, but tortoises have evolved to be completely terrestrial. While the Mojave Desert Tortoise is generally found in open desert flats, the Sonoran Desert Tortoise (pictured) is found in rocky hillsides in the Arizona upland of the Sonoran Desert, which is lush with large cacti and tree-like shrubs. perennial grasses, such as cheatgrass or buffelgrass, facilitates frequent fires that perpetuate the conversion of shrublands to invasive annual grasslands. Tiger Whiptails, for example, are affected by invasive plants such as cheatgrass that can result in dense ground cover, making running and hunting difficult. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Frogs and Toads: Great Basin Spadefoot, Couch s Spadefoot; Lizards: Desert Night Lizard, Yellowbacked Spiny Lizard, Ornate Tree Lizard, Greater Earless Lizard, Sonoran Spotted Whiptail, Gila Monster; Snakes: Western Threadsnake, Western Patch-nosed Snake, Sonoran Lyresnake, Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake, Sonoran Coralsnake; Turtles: Sonoran Desert Tortoise HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 55

67 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Manage for a variety of desert woodland stand densities, ages, and vegetation layers. Maintain a balance between wildflowers, grasses, shrubs, and trees. Maintain thermal regimes for mature tree and shrub shade areas and stable soil, water, and air temperatures. Maintain organic input, as leaf and log litter serve as important microhabitats. Manage livestock grazing in and around sensitive natural habitats. Fence streams and wetlands and create restricted access points that reduce bank erosion and eliminate impacts in sensitive riparian habitats. Allow some areas to be minimally grazed or not at all in some places to help preserve natural habitat. Use selective and variable-retention harvesting techniques where possible. Thinning woodlands with retention of habitat patches aims to mimic natural disturbance patterns. Remaining patches help ensure that some vestiges of populations remain on site and that population recovery is not solely dependent upon recolonization. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Restore riparian areas and natural wetlands. Work closely with local, state, and federal land management agencies, university extension specialists, and the Natural Resources Conservation Service. They have tested techniques for habitat restoration. Restoration may include managing for the spread of invasive species. Protect wetlands and other sensitive areas from livestock grazing. See above, but use methods to enhance target species habitat, such as pond-breeding amphibians and western pond turtles. Use selective and variable retention harvesting techniques. Retention patches that include small ephemeral and perennial ponds and streams, seeps, or other riparian areas serve as good anchor points for population recovery sites for mesic-adapted species. In the uplands, large-diameter trees and snags should be retained, as these have high habitat value for many species. If appropriate, conduct woodland management activities and ground disturbances in cold winter months when amphibians and reptiles are less active at the surface. Maintain woodlands around rock outcrops and other physical features. These sites are important to snakes and lizards for foraging and shelter. Controlling or excluding livestock grazing, limiting or excluding off-road vehicles, managing firewood cutting, and managing camping intensity in these areas will reduce human-reptile conflicts and maintain habitat. 56

68 DUNES DUNES Dunes and related sand forms are comprised of aeolian (windblown) sand and occur primarily along the coast where the sand supply is abundant and onshore winds are strong, or inland in deserts where lack of consistent precipitation prevents vegetation from accumulating and thus stabilizing windblown sand. Typical surface morphology of windblown sand consists of active dunes and undulations, hummocks or accretion dunes, sand ramps or climbing dunes, and sand fields or sand sheets. Active dunes usually exhibit slip faces (avalanche faces) that form at the angle of repose on their leeward side. Accretion dunes form around and leeward of obstacles such as shrubs. Conservation of sand dunes requires an understanding of the complex spatial and temporal dynamics of windblown sand systems. Dune systems are comprised of three general processes that can be widely separated by distance and time: a sand source, a sand transport system, and a deposition sink. Sand originates through the process of geologic weathering at its source in mountains and hills. The sand transport system consists of water and windblown transport of sediment. Water transport occurs during heavy rains when sediment is moved from the source downstream to where it is deposited in an area having relatively high wind energy. In addition to transport by rivers and streams, water transport in coastal dunes can include Danny Martin Mark Fisher and Cameron Barrows The Bleached subspecies of the Common Lesser Earless Lizard is not recognized by all herpetologists, often being considered just a color morph, but regardless of taxonomy, they blend in well with the dunes at White Sands National Monument. This is a Common Lesser Earless Lizard from outside White Sands HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 57

69 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES littoral (shore) drift where sediment is moved downcurrent from the river mouth. Water transport sorts and then moves the sand to the deposition sink. Finegrained particles require less energy to be moved and are carried aloft away from the deposition sink, while course-grained particles require too much energy to be moved by wind. Once there, sand persists in the deposition sink because of decreased wind velocity and/or because of conflicting seasonal wind directions. The volume of sand available to the dune system depends on the frequency and magnitude of rains and by the velocity and persistence of wind. Obstructing either the water or the windblown component of the transport system will halt the arrival of new sand and hence degrade the habitat in the deposition area. Blocking wind in the deposition sink will prohibit the remixing of existing sand particles and retard the sorting process by allowing fine-grained particles to remain, leading to stabilization and compaction. As a general rule, wind velocity leeward of an obstruction reaches its original velocity a distance of ten times the height of the obstruction. Urban development is the primary cause of the destruction and fragmentation of water-transported sand habitats along the coast and in some desert dune systems. For example, the sand system in the Coachella Valley, California, is reduced to 10% of its historic area. Off-road vehicle activities severely degrade desert dune habitats. Invasion by exotic weeds such as Sahara mustard has stabilized large areas of desert dunes episodically since the mid-1960s. Sand dunes provide a harsh environment for most species, but a number of reptiles are highly specialized for life in and around dunes, especially those partially stabilized by vegetation. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Lizards: Specialists fringe-toed lizards (all species), Dunes Sagebrush Lizard. Common species (not restricted to dunes) Flat-tailed Horned Lizard, Zebra-tailed Lizard, Desert Iguana, Arizona Striped Whiptail, Tiger Whiptail, Long-tailed Brush Lizard, California Legless Lizard, Keeled Earless Lizard; Snakes: Sidewinder, Western Shovel-nosed Snake, Variable Sandsnake. This Sidewinder is doing what it does best sidewinding the most effective type of locomotion on loose surfaces. This is a pink individual from pink sand dunes in Utah. Those Amazing Sand Dune Specialists! Sand dunes, especially those in desert areas, are among the harshest environments on earth, yet several species of reptiles not only survive in dune areas, but thrive in them. Although some reptiles may cross open sand, plants must be present to partially stabilize the dunes and provide food and shelter. Reptiles that use dunes extensively include Desert Iguana, Tiger Whiptail, Little Striped Whiptail, Dunes Sagebrush Lizard, and earless lizards (all species), but some species are particularly adept, having morphological characters to allow them to capitalize on loose soils. The Sidewinder, a small rattlesnake, is well-known because it has adapted its mode of locomotion to enable it to move rapidly across loose sand in a side-winding motion (hence the name). Horns (modified scales) help to keep sunlight out and protect the eyes from sand when the snake burrows; these close down over the eye (snakes lack eyelids). Probably the most specialized species, however, are the fringe-toed lizards. All species are similar and have numerous modifications for life in dunes the only places where these animals occur. They are sand-colored, have a duck-bill for diving in sand, an overhanging upper lip to keep sand out, and nostrils and ears that can close to keep sand out. Also, their name comes from the enlarged fringe scales (especially on the large hind toes) that allow them to run across loose dunes with great speed a sort of sand-shoe approach. Lawrence L. C. Jones A close-up of the head of a Sidewinder clearly shows the horns, modified scales that help protect the eyes from sun and sand. The most specialized sand dune dwellers are the fringe-toed lizards, such as this Mojave Fringetoed Lizard. All of the fringe-toed lizards are very similar and have many adaptations for life in dunes. They are specialized for this habitat and their ranges are very limited, so all are of conservation concern. 58

70 DUNES Along with earless lizards and fringe-toed lizards, with which they are related, Zebra-tailed Lizards are so well adapted to sand dunes, they are collectively termed sand lizards. This individual is basking on a lava rock, making it much more visible against the background than if it were on sand or gravel. Jackson Shedd MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Use ecosystem-wide preservation measures to maintain natural dune systems. Learn how dunes are created and maintained by natural forces. View them in the ecosystem context. Dune systems represent one of the rarest ecosystems in the southwestern U.S. Only a fraction of its original area remains intact. Protect areas from which dune systems receive input of new sand. Dunes are dynamic habitats, requiring input of new sand and remixing of old sand. Obstructing either the water or windblown transport systems will prevent input of new sand. Obstructing wind in deposition areas will stabilize dunes. Fragmentation should be avoided and movement corridors maintained or enhanced. Given the small proportion of this habitat type that remains intact, it has become highly fragmented and corridors have been lost. Management should strive to maintain and/ or restore these when possible. Prevent or limit the spread of invasive and exotic weed species that have been demonstrated to be detrimental to native flora and fauna. Invasive weeds may adversely affect survival and reproductive output of native flora and fauna. If chronic, and the invasion cannot be controlled by naturally occurring droughts, control mechanisms should be implemented. These mechanisms should be carefully gauged to avoid degradation that proves to be as bad, or worse, than the initial invasion. Limit off-road vehicle use. All off-road vehicle activity through this habitat type requires careful consideration. This activity destroys sensitive flora and fauna and degrades habitat. If off-road vehicle use is necessary, designated routes and open areas must be appropriately isolated from undisturbed habitat. Limit access by livestock using prescribed grazing management. Livestock grazing can destroy sensitive flora and dependent fauna. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Protect sand source and transport systems. Dune endemics require functioning transport systems to move new sand from the source to the deposition area. Use discretion in the design and protection of source and transport corridors to provide protection HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 59

71 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES The most commonly encountered snake in sand dunes of the lower Colorado River deserts is the diminutive Western Shovel-nosed Snake. for the herpetofaunal community present. Restrict all off-road vehicle traffic. Off-road vehicle activity results in mortality to herpetofauna, either directly by crushing sand-submerged individuals or indirectly by destroying the plants that are needed for food and cover, or avoidance of predators and thermal extremes. There are stories in sand. Walking stabilized sand dunes will reveal many tracks to denote the presencer of lizards, insects, small mammals, and in this case, snakes. The California legless lizards are a group of several closely related species that may be found in coastal or inland (but not desert) dune systems, where they live in and under the sand near vegetation and debris. Marine beach populations are declining because they are threatened by development and the non-native Mediterranean ice plant, an invasive, ornamental species. 60

72 GRASSLANDS Chris True GRASSLANDS Gad Perry and Robert Cox Grassland is a general term for a group of climatically, structurally, and compositionally diverse habitats that feature grasses as the dominant vegetation. Within the Southwest PARC region, commonly recognized major grassland types include the central prairies (often subdivided into the tallgrass, Gulf Coast, mid-grass, and shortgrass prairies), the Southwestern desert grasslands (semi-desert grasslands), and the California annual. Tallgrass prairie occupies the most easterly position in the Southwest PARC region, corresponding to the eastern half of Oklahoma and northeastern portion of Texas, as well as the Gulf Coast (also known as gulf prairies ). These grasslands are dominated by largestatured sod-forming grasses, although bunchgrasses are often present as an understory. Mid-grass prairies occupy a transition zone between the tallgrass and shortgrass prairies in the middle of the continent, corresponding to a broad central swath of Oklahoma and Texas. This grassland has a mix of sod-forming grasses and bunchgrasses. Shortgrass prairies are semi-arid grasslands at the western edge of the central prairie region, occupying the extreme western panhandles of both Oklahoma and Texas, as well as approximately the western third of New Mexico. This grassland is generally dominated by bunchgrass species, although sod-forming grasses may be locally abundant. Southwestern desert grasslands are arid (sometimes semi-arid) bunchgrass grasslands that occupy roughly the lower third of New Mexico and the southeastern corner of Arizona. Finally, California annual grasslands occupy much of coastal and inland southern California, as well as broad expanses of the Central Valley. They are usually described as bunchgrass grasslands that have been thoroughly invaded by annual grasses, but some areas may have lacked perennial grasses originally and been dominated by annual forbs until invasive annual grasses were introduced. Regardless of type, grasslands face similar threats. Because they often occupy sites with good soils and moderate precipitation, and because they are often (incorrectly) perceived as unattractive or lacking conservation value, grasslands and their associated, imbedded, temporary ponds are seen as desirable locations for agriculture and human settlement. Besides conversion to agriculture and urban development, common threats include fire suppression and poorly managed grazing. These threats often lead to invasion by non-native annual grasses, and/or expansion of woody species including mesquite, juniper, and others. These woody plants may change sub-soil water tables, soil moisture levels, and above-ground microclimates, thereby significantly altering grassland composition and structure. Other grasslands, especially California grasslands, have been changed due to widespread conversion from bunchgrass to invasive annual grasses which interact with grazing (mis) management and fire suppression to completely (and sometimes permanently) alter vegetative structure and composition. Although grasslands appear to be simple ecosystems, they harbor a diverse assemblage of amphibians and reptiles. Not surprisingly, changing physical characteristics of a habitat affects the local herpetofauna. Native HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 61

73 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES SW PARC Grasslands Gad Perry Legend Tallgrass Prairie Coastal Prairie Midgrass Prairie Shortgrass Prairie Desert Grassland California Annual Grasslands Diagrammatic representation of the major grassland types of the Southwest. Note that there are some endemic and near-endemic types. species may find the new forms of vegetative cover difficult to survive in, and non-natives may find them easier to invade. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Salamanders: Eastern Tiger Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Texas Toad, Great Plains Toad, Plains Spadefoot, Mexican Spadefoot; Lizards: Six-lined Racerunner, Desert Grassland Whiptail, Elegant Earless Lizard, Prairie Skink, Great Plains Skink; Snakes: Desert Kingsnake, Plains Hog-nosed Snake, Great Plains Ratsnake, Plains Gartersnake, Prairie Rattlesnake, Massasauga; Turtles: Ornate Box Turtle MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Avoid alteration of remaining natural habitats where possible. These include natural wetlands and springs, riparian areas, and snake den/hibernacula sites. Identify and preserve healthy stands of native vegetation that can serve as refugia for animals and seed-sources for future vegetative recovery. Use prescribed grazing management techniques to minimize overgrazing. Manage grazing to promote maximum habitat diversity. Overgrazing is a common problem that results in denuded habitats and impoverished faunas. However, lack of grazing can be detrimental in some circumstances because it leads to encroachment of woody vegetation. Find the balance. Maintain or re-introduce historic fire patterns. Carefully planned prescribed fire programs have proven beneficial to many grassland-dwelling species in the Southwest and are increasingly popular with landowners. Conduct prescribed burns at times of the year that minimize impacts to amphibian and reptile species. Prevent invasion by undesirable species. Encroachment by woody vegetation and annual or other non-native grasses should be halted or reversed. Whenever possible, use native plants for multiple uses such as grazing. Protect temporary ponds (i.e., vernal pools, playa lakes, and stormwater ponds). These areas are crucial breeding habitats for many amphibians. They should be protected by controlling access by livestock and minimizing exposure to pesticides. Maintain a 62

74 GRASSLANDS Like deserts, grasslands are seemingly simple environments, but they support a wide variety of reptiles and amphibians. Danny Martin vegetation buffer zone around the pond to provide important upland habitat and protect water quality. If temporary ponds have been converted to permanent water bodies, ensure the absence of fish and the presence of emergent vegetation. Ideal When benefitting amphibians and reptiles is the primary objective: Prevent conversion of grasslands to agriculture or urban areas. Allocate some of your land to natural areas or nature centers. Set-aside lands could be set up as a trust to benefit your future generation. One could also obtain conservation easements with such organizations as The Nature Conservancy or local land trusts. Enroll in the NRCS Conservation Reserve Program if appropriate for the private landowner. This program is administered by the Natural Resources Conservation Service in the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Their agents are trained to help with a variety of habitat issues, restoration, and management. Review your land-use activities to see if they could be altered to benefit native species. For example, when hay production is the goal, conduct harvesting when amphibians and reptiles are least active. Livestock rotation among pastures can be similarly managed. Minimize or prevent habitat fragmentation. Encourage sound land-use planning and incorporate corridors between remnant patches located in different protected areas. Protect areas that offer especially important habitats for amphibians and reptiles. Protection of these areas should be a top priority. Use them to educate adjacent and regional landowners about simple steps they can take to improve their activities. Maintain or re-introduce historic fire patterns. Carefully design a prescribed fire program that creates a mosaic of patches of different ages. Conduct prescribed burns at times of the year that minimize impact to species of interest. Manage wildlife and livestock grazing appropriate for conservation goals. Manage cattle and other ungulate grazing, if allowed, to promote maximum native vegetation diversity. Although overgrazing often results in denuded habitats and impoverished faunas, lack of grazing can also be detrimental. Overgrazing by protected ungulates or feral equines can also be a concern, requiring control. Prevent invasion by undesirable plants. Managers tend to wait until an invasion has been identified and HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 63

75 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Gad Perry In a grassland, areas with cover such as wood, rocks, shrubs, and burrows are microhabitats for many species of herpetofauna. One of the threats to grasslands is the encroachment of trees or shrubs, which may be associated with overgrazing and fire suppression livestock eat the grass but not the trees. Gad Perry Gad Perry Native grasslands are fire-adapted ecosystems that require periodic fires to maintain ecosystem health. However, many grasslands have been invaded by nonnative species that flourish after fires. Some lands have been converted to non-native grasslands, such as cheatgrass or buffelgrass in the deserts. Deserts are converted because the invasive, non-native grasses are fire-adapted, readily burn, then sprout new plants. Desertscrub is not fire-adapted, so native plants are killed by fire, allowing the invasive grasses to replace the native vegetation. 64

76 GRASSLANDS Jackson Shedd The California grasslands are home to the Western Spadefoot, which breeds in vernal pools or intermittent streams. damage has been documented. Prevention and early eradication are more effective and less expensive in the long-run. Prevent or control invasion by non-native herpetofauna. The American Bullfrog, an aggressive The Slevin s Bunchgrass Lizard is highly specialized to live in bunchgrasses within its small range but many bunchgrass communities do not harbor this species. It has been shown to be negatively affected by livestock grazing. predator, has been introduced west of its native range in eastern Texas and Oklahoma into many aquatic habitats throughout the West. The Pond Slider (e.g., Red-eared subspecies), originating in the pet trade, has also spread widely to the west of Texas and The five species of hog-nosed snakes are associated with various grasslands. They are adapted to forage on toads that breed in grassland rain pools. Gad Perry HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 65

77 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Oklahoma and can out-compete native species. Both should be controlled whenever possible, where they are not native, and their further spread discouraged. Preserve soil cryptobiotic crusts. This type of soil structure is important for many species, because it provides cover and supports prey. To protect them, control or prevent off-road vehicle use which destroys crusts and damages plants. Concentrate traffic in specific areas to spare others and enforce the use of roads elsewhere. Protect temporary ponds. These areas are crucial breeding habitats for many amphibians. If temporary (seasonally filled, ephemeral) ponds have been converted to permanent water bodies, ensure the absence of fish and the presence of emergent vegetation. Place roads away from these ponds, as amphibians often migrate considerable distances to reach them. Restore damaged habitats. Return damaged habitats to a natural state by restoring both component species and important functions. Many ecologically important species have been persecuted in the Southwest. Whenever possible, use the tools of restoration/ reintroduction ecology to bring back predators, prairie dogs, and other ecosystem engineers. Most grasslands in California have given way to development and agriculture, and non-native species have replaced native species, which is why protected grassland areas are so important, as in the Carrizo Plains. The Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard is classified as endangered by the federal and state governments because the vast majority of its habitat has disappeared. This individual was found near the delapidated barn in the picture above This Ornate Box Turtle from the Bitter Lake National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico, is at the transition of semi-desert (or desert) grasslands associated with the edges of the Chihuahuan Desert, and the Great Plains. Only researchers and land managers should handle wild turtles and tortoises if necessary, so as to not transmit disease or deplete their water stores. Kurt Buhlmann 66

78 SHRUB AND SHRUB-STEPPE Danny Martin SHRUB AND SHRUB-STEPPE Bryan T. Hamilton and Lawrence L. C. Jones Shrub and shrub-steppe habitats dominate much of the Southwest and occur widely in valleys, plateaus, and gaps between woodlands, primarily in the Great Basin Desert and Colorado Plateau, but also elsewhere. Shrub habitats are comprised of small, woody shrubs, grasses, and forbs. Shrub-steppe refers to a higher composition of grasses than shrub habitat (i.e., a shrubby grassland). Since shrub habitats have a lower proportion of herbaceous vegetation, they are less productive than shrub-steppe habitat. Although creosote bush habitats often dominate flat and low-lying areas in North America s hot deserts, sagebrush and greasewood are the dominant shrubs in the cold deserts. Cold deserts are arid, with low annual precipitation primarily falling during the winter. Summers are hot and winters cold. Growing season precipitation is limited and the frost-free season is short. Other cold desert shrubs include a diverse array of species including shadescale, rabbitbrush, saltbrush, horsebrush, snowberry, winterfat, mountain spray, and elderberry. Outside the Great Basin and Colorado Plateau, shrub and shrub-steppe habitats are found throughout the Southwest. Southeastern Arizona through south Texas is often dominated by shrubs or small trees, including mesquites, blackbrush, and brasil, with a component of grasses and other shrubs. Shrublands and shrubsteppe habitats occur where deserts transition to piñon-juniper woodlands and in breaks in those woodlands. The California Central Valley, now converted to agriculture, was largely a grass to shrub-steppe landscape historically. Pacific coastal and chaparral habitats are also shrublands, but covered in another section because these are specific habitat types that differ from others. Non-native grasses such as cheatgrass have accelerated the natural fire cycle leading to massive conversion of shrublands to annual grasslands. Other nonnative plants such as Russian thistle, tumble mustard, halogeton, and knapweed also reduce the value of these habitats for amphibians and reptiles. Herpetofaunal species richness in cold climates is depauperate relative to warmer climates. However, reptiles can be abundant and conspicuous members of the fauna. In areas with a cold climate, suitable hibernacula are critical for these animals. Communal hibernacula can support several species of snakes and occur in rocky areas and rodent burrows. Rocky areas are also used for basking, foraging, and mating. Shrubs and bunchgrasses are often used for shelter, thermoregulation, and foraging, while rodent burrows provide thermal refugia, incubation sites, and ambush sites. When looking for reptiles in shrublands, you may notice that lizards tend to dart between shrubs and ultimately take cover under a shrub. Amphibians may use shrub and shrub-steppe habitats, but require an aquatic interface, such as a stream, spring, or storm water pond; however, amphibians may also use shrubs for some of their life-history needs. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 67

79 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Shrub habitat near Albuquerque, New Mexico, is elevationally above the deserts, even though this area receives less rainfall than some desert areas. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Frogs and Toads: Great Basin Spadefoot, Western Spadefoot; Lizards: Eastern Collared Lizard, Plateau Striped Whiptail, Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard, Pygmy Short-horned Lizard, Sagebrush Lizard; Snakes: Gophersnake, North American Racer, Striped Whipsnake, Coachwhip, Prairie Rattlesnake The Carrizo Plain in California is shrub-steppe habitat for several species of amphibians and reptiles, including the federally endangered Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard. MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Plan prescribed burning to avoid times when amphibians and reptiles are active. Animals are Danny Martin The Colorado Plateau is also an arid environment elevationally above true deserts, and is sometimes referred to as a semi-desert. 68

80 SHRUB AND SHRUB-STEPPE Danny Martin Vividly colored male Eastern Collared Lizards are conspicuous residents of rocky shrub-steppe habitat, where they are a predator of insects and even other lizards. The Common Sagebrush Lizard is found in the Great Basin Desert, as well as some other shrub-dominated communities, including the Colorado Plateau. As the name implies, it is often found in sagebrush habitats. Danny Martin Jackson Shedd The North American Racer (juvenile shown) is widespread over most of North America north of Mexico. This is a habitat generalist of non-desert habitats. particularly vulnerable to fire during migration, such as when snakes are dispersing from hibernacula or when amphibians are moving to or from breeding sites. Consult the appropriate fire officials before planning any prescribed burn and work with herpetologists for additional advice. Prevent the spread of weeds, particularly invasive, non-native species such as cheatgrass. Control weeds in disturbed areas such as roadsides, fencerows, and field edges with herbicides and other integrated pest management techniques. Mandate and enforce the use of weed-free feed in the backcountry. Manage off-road vehicle use to minimize impacts. All off-road travel and roads though this habitat type require careful consideration. Off-road activities in shrubland habitat damages sensitive plants, soils, and degrades amphibian and reptile habitat. If off-road use is necessary, keep motorized vehicles on designated routes and out of undisturbed habitat. Avoid mining or collecting rocks that are important as basking or retreat sites for reptiles. Attractive rocks used in landscaping may provide important thermal cover and be critical to the survival of snakes Managing for shrub-steppe may mean balancing the relative shrub, grassland, and woodland components. Open grassy areas may be replaced by dense shrublands, especially when livestock grazing is present, and trees may encroach. Heavy equipment such as mulchers and masticators can make quick work of habitat restoration. and lizards in an area. Protect important habitats such as snake overwintering sites (e.g., cliff faces, talus slopes, and caves) and wetlands used by amphibians. Buffer these important habitats to maintain the unique ecological functions of these areas. Minimize or prevent destruction of these habitats. Plan development and modification of springs for livestock in ways that are compatible with amphibians and reptiles. Do not alter water levels such that breeding or overwintering sites become unsuitable. Water livestock away from natural water sources. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Use prescribed grazing techniques to manage livestock grazing. If livestock grazing is permitted, consider keeping livestock away from amphibian and reptile aggregations, such as those occurring during breeding or overwintering periods. Techniques are Bryan Hamilton HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 69

81 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES available to help landowners and managers minimize overgrazing and loss of natural habitat. Restore areas dominated by invasive plants to native, shrub-dominated systems. Use seed mixtures that contain native grasses and forbs. Native vegetation will support a greater diversity of snakes and lizards, partly because of a greater abundance of prey (invertebrates and small mammals). Some shrubdominated systems are actually grassland types that have been converted, so it is important to consider the potential natural vegetation type based on historical records, aerial photographs, and literature to restore native systems. Restore natural fire regimes. Determine the natural burn patterns for your area. Burn in patches to maintain a variety of vegetation successional stages in an area. Habitat heterogeneity tends to increase snake and lizard species because of increased structural complexity and prey abundance. Consult local, state, and federal fire officials before planning any prescribed burns. Maintain water quality in ponds used as a water source for livestock. Maintain a buffer zone of vegetation around the pond to provide shade and capture runoff of fertilizers and pesticides. Chemicals in these products have proven harmful to amphibians, particularly tadpoles and salamander larvae. Maintain and restore wetlands used by amphibians for breeding. Wetlands are critical habitats in arid shrublands where available surface water limits the timing and length of the amphibian breeding season. Restrict or prevent off-road vehicle access, where possible. Off-road vehicles can displace or kill lizards and snakes and alter habitats used by amphibians and reptiles. This activity also damages soils, resulting in increased sedimentation in streams and increased spread of invasive weeds. Restrict vehicles to established routes. 70

82 COASTAL SAGE SCRUB AND CHAPARRAL COASTAL SAGE SCRUB AND CHAPARRAL Kenneth J. Halama and Robert E. Lovich Coastal sage scrub, California chaparral, and interior chaparral are shrub-dominated habitats located primarily in California and Arizona. Coastal sage scrub and California (coastal) chaparral predominate within the Mediterranean biome along the Pacific Coast. This region is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters, with rainfall ranging between 10 and 20 inches (25 and 51 cm) per year. Interior chaparral occurs primarily at elevations above the Sonoran Desert of central Arizona, but small disjunct patches occur in southern New Mexico. Unlike California, precipitation in chaparral habitat in Arizona and New Mexico is bi-modal with rain events occurring in winter and summer. All three habitats require fires at regular frequencies to maintain their biological integrity. The distribution of coastal sage scrub, often referred to as soft chaparral, extends along the West Coast from Contra Costa County, California, south into the Baja California Peninsula. It reaches its widest distribution in southern California where it occupies the valley floors and hill slopes at elevations ranging from sea level to approximately 3000 feet (914 m). Vegetation can be sparse to moderate in density, with bare ground, grass, or herbaceous vegetation in intervening spaces. Dominant shrub species include California buckwheat, California brittlebush, black sage, white sage, and California sage. California chaparral is more widely distributed than coastal sage scrub and extends from south-central Oregon into the Baja California Peninsula and inland as far east as the Sierra Nevada foothills and desert edges. It occupies hill slopes and mountainsides at elevations generally between 1000 and 6000 ft (305 m and 1829 m) throughout the entire region, but may extend to sea level along the coast. California chaparral reaches its widest distribution throughout central and southern California in the Coast, Transverse, and Peninsular ranges. Chaparral vegetation is renowned for its density and can be virtually impenetrable. Dominant shrub species include chamise, scrub oaks, and manzanitas. In Arizona and New Mexico, interior chaparral occurs primarily along the northern boundary of the Sonoran Desert where the desert meets the Mogollon Rim. Interior chaparral also occurs above semi-desert grasslands. It occupies mountain slopes at elevations ranging from 3000 to 6000 ft (914 to 1829 m). Dominant shrub species include manzanita, scrub oak, ceanothus, and mountain mahogany. The prominence of all three habitats in low and mid elevation regions of California and Arizona contributes to their current threatened state. These areas lie adjacent to some of the largest cities in the U.S. and are shrinking as a result of urban and suburban land conversion. The rapid population increase in southern California from the end of World War II to the present has removed, fragmented, and degraded much of the existing coastal sage scrub and chaparral habitat. Repeated fires and the spread of invasive grass species have reduced the extent of both habitat types in southern California. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 71

83 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES California chaparral is an extremely dense vegetation community of shrubs and small trees. It has a frequent natural fire interval. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Frogs and Toads: Western Spadefoot; Lizards: Orange-throated Whiptail, Granite Spiny Lizard, Granite Night Lizard, Gila Spotted Whiptail, Gilbert s Skink, Blainville s Horned Lizard; Snakes: Northern Threeline Boa, Southwestern Black-headed Snake, Striped Racer, Pyro Mountain Kingsnake, Arizona Black Rattlesnake, Red Diamond Rattlesnake Interior chaparral is found primarily in Arizona. It has a life form similar to California chaparral and is also adapted to a frequent, natural fire regime. MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Manage coastal sage scrub and chaparral lands with prescribed fire where possible. Coastal sage scrub and chaparral are fire-dependent habitats that evolved over millennia to burn periodically. Burning Chaparral and sage scrub are fire-driven ecosystems. Huge fires consume stands every few years, but the plants are supremely adapted to tolerate and thrive in these conditions. Similarly, reptiles and amphibians that occur in fire-adapted ecosystems have evolved mechanisms to survive fires. Some individuals may perish, but the population will continue when fires manage the ecosystem. 72

84 COASTAL SAGE SCRUB AND CHAPARRAL too frequently can cause unwanted habitat change and burning too infrequently will lead to fires that are too intense and damaging. Consult with biologists and the appropriate fire officials to determine the burn frequency for scrub habitat in your area. Plan prescribed burning to avoid times when amphibians and reptiles are active. Animals are particularly vulnerable during migration such as when snakes are dispersing from hibernacula, or when amphibians move to or from breeding sites. Consult local and state fire officials before planning any prescribed burn. Prevent the spread of invasive and exotic weed species. Control weeds in disturbed areas such as roadsides, fencerows, and field edges. Prescribed burns can be used to remove some weed species in shrublands as long as the existing fuel-load does not produce wildfire conditions. Jackson Shedd Blainville s Horned Lizard is adapted to the relatively cool, mesic habitats of California chaparral and coastal sage scrub, unlike most of its desertinhabiting kin. This species has been in decline for many years due to habitat loss, illegal collection, cats, ant control, and other factors. Bezy s Night Lizard is an inhabitant of a small area of interior chaparral. It is nearly always found in natural cracks in granitic rocks, a microenvironment that is easily altered by unscrupulous collectors. The Western Rattlesnake is found in a variety of habitats, including California chaparral. Illustrated is the Northern Pacific subspecies of northern California, while the Southern Pacific subspecies (sometimes regarded as a full species) is found to the south. These beautiful, but highly venomous animals can hide well in dense chaparral habitat. Jackson Shedd HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 73

85 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC The Garden Slender Salamander is familiar to many people living in southwestern California (although it is sometimes mistaken for an earthworm!). It has adapted better to urbanization than most species, but is still more likely to be encountered in semi-natural areas. Limit off-road vehicle use in sensitive areas to the extent possible. All off-highway travel and road construction in this habitat type require careful management. Keep motorized vehicles on designated routes and out of undisturbed habitat by signage or barriers. Maintain or enhance natural corridors between habitat fragments. Coastal sage scrub and chaparral often occur in fragments on the landscape. Persistence of native amphibian and reptile populations requires that some individuals move from one habitat patch to another. Consider restoring linear areas to serve as habitat corridors. Use grazing management techniques to limit livestock access to ponds and riparian areas. Livestock can foul ephemeral pools and streams, and eliminate herbaceous cover. Manage or avoid livestock grazing in natural coastal sage scrub and chaparral habitats. If livestock grazing is permitted, consider keeping them away from amphibian and reptile aggregations such as breeding ponds and hibernacula during breeding and overwintering, respectively. native shrubs and grasses. Use seed mixtures that contain native grasses and forbs, preferably obtained locally. Restore natural fire regimes. Consider burning areas dominated by invasive grass species at regular intervals consistent with natural fire cycles. Determine when fuel loads reach levels that would cause damaging fires. Consult fire officials before planning any prescribed burns. Maintain and restore wetlands used by amphibians. Wetlands are critical habitats in arid shrublands where available surface water limits the timing and length of the amphibian breeding season. There are field workshops available to help with this; PARC and ARC often list these opportunities on their websites. Restrict off-road vehicle traffic to established routes. Off-road vehicles can displace or kill lizards and snakes and alter habitats used by amphibians and reptiles. They also damage soils resulting in increased sedimentation in streams. Direct the operation of vehicles, including bicycles, away from sensitive areas, such as springs, riparian areas, and known overwintering sites. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Restore areas dominated by invasive grass with 74

86 COASTAL SAGE SCRUB AND CHAPARRAL Jackson Shedd California Slender Salamander Inyo Mountains Slender Salamander Jackson Shedd Robert W. Hansen, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC San Gabriel Mountains Slender Salamander Blacked-bellied Slender Salamander Robert W. Hansen, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC Jackson Shedd Channel Islands Slender Salamander Sequoia Slender Salamander William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC DIVERSITY OF SLENDER SALAMANDERS IN THE SOUTHWEST. Although the eastern U.S. may come to mind for salamander diversity, the Southwest (mostly California and Texas) is also very diverse. California has a surprising 42 species, due in part to the slender salamanders; 18 of the 20 species are endemic to the state, although one California species extends into northern Baja California, Mexico, and one into Oregon (the other is endemic to Oregon). They are often difficult to distinguish and many have very small ranges and occupy specialized habitats. So many species are considered in need of conservation attention that Southwest PARC includes many in the Slender Salamander (Batrachoseps) Group in their Priority Species List (see Appendix E). HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 75

87 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES THORNSCRUB Thornscrub is subtropical vegetation community transitional between deserts and tropical rainforests. It is found primarily in Mexico, but in the U.S. it is limited to southern Texas (Tamaulipan thornscrub). Foothill thornscrub is transitional or just south of Arizona in the Mexican state of Sonora. Thornscrub is characterized by shrubs and small trees to about 21 ft (7 m) in height. The vegetation is fairly dense and dominant species lose their leaves during droughts and dry spells. Most plants have small leaves, and the stems are often thorny. Cactuses may be abundant. Most of the dominant vegetation in many areas is perennial; forbs and grasses are generally not well represented, but may occur between thornscrub patches. Annual rainfall is about in ( mm), most of which falls during the summer. Tamaulipan thornscrub occurs in the lower Rio Grande Valley of south Texas, east of the Chihuahuan Desert near Del Rio to the Gulf of Mexico. Its northern distribution is bordered by the Edwards Plateau ( Hill Country ), and it occurs to the south in the Mexican states of Coahuila, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo León. Characteristic vegetation includes honey mesquite, acacias, prickly pear cactuses, and Texas ranger (cenizio). In South Texas, slightly elevated patches of thornscrub (referred to as lomas ) are the primary habitat for the Texas Tortoise, as well as the Central American Indigo Snake, among many other species. In wetter areas, as along the lower Rio Grande, Texas ebony, Montezuma Tamaulipan thornscrub is a subtropical vegetation type. Along the lower Rio Grande Valley trees grow quite large, as seen at the Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge. This photograph shows a tower that climbs above the canopy, while the title photograph shows a suspension-bridge canopy walk. This habitat represents one of the most endangered ecosystems in the U.S., and it is replete with many species of reptiles and amphibians found no where else in the country. The Central American Indigo Snake is often sought after as a pet, because it is large and glossy black, but it does not actually make a good pet. It is found in south Texas and just south of the Arizona border. This species moves great distances and requires unbroken expanses of thornscrub habitat. It is protected by law in Texas, but is threatened by illegal collection, development, fragmentation, and road mortality. Jim Rorabaugh 76

88 THORNSCRUB In Arizona, foothill thornscrub is mostly found in a transitional state with the Sonoran Desert and semi-desert grasslands. The Organ Pipe Cactus is a foothill thornscrub species that is mostly found in the appropriately named Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona. Both thornscrub and desert reptiles and amphibians are found here. bald cypress, and Texas sabal palm are conspicuous overstory trees. The wet Tamaulipan thornscrub of the Rio Grande Valley is a biological treasure; unfortunately, the area is also heavily populated and wild areas are now scarce. In Sonora, some of the characteristic plants of foothill thornscrub include tree morning glory, tree ocotillo, and echo cactus. However, some plant species representative of foothill thornscrub occur in Arizona, mostly as an ecotone with the Sonoran Desert. Examples are organ pipe cactus, senita cactus, and elephant tree species (Bursura). The Arizona upland subdivision of the Sonoran Desert is similar to a thornscrub community in several ways: rainfall amounts, lushness, and vegetative life-form characteristics actually diverge from true desert lowlands. Although classification of vegetation communities is always open for debate, there are many species of amphibians and reptiles in Arizona that are typical of the thornscrub habitat of Mexico. These species may occur in desert, semidesert grasslands, or oak woodlands. The habitat and herpetofauna of the thornscrub communities are of conservation concern. Not only is the diversity of both amphibians and reptiles extremely high, many of the species are primarily Mexican, being found nowhere else in the United States. The lower Rio Grande Valley is at risk because there are few remaining remnants of wet thornscrub, and these are being threatened by urban sprawl, development, agriculture, chemicals, and borderland issues. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Frogs and Toads: Sonoran Desert Toad, Mexican Burrowing Toad, Lowland Burrowing Frog, Mexican White-lipped Frog, Rio Grande Chirping Frog; Lizards: Reticulate Collared Lizard, Rose-bellied Lizard, Mesquite Lizard, Laredo Striped Whiptail, Blue Spiny Lizard, Clark s Spiny Lizard; Snakes: Central American Indigo Snake, Thornscrub Hook-nosed Snake, Regal Black-striped Snake, Speckled Racer, Yaqui Blackheaded Snake, Brown Vinesnake; Turtles: Sonoran Desert Tortoise, Texas Tortoise HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 77

89 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Prevent the spread of invasive species. Some of the greatest threats to thornscrub include non-native plants and animals, including buffelgrass and tamarisk (salt cedar) in both thornscrub types, and wild hogs and Nutria in Tamaulipan thornscrub. Nilgai, a large ungulate from India, are established in thornscrub habitats of South Texas and overbrowse the lomas. Become aware of the non-native species in your area and seek ways to keep them from being a problem. Avoid overgrazing where possible. Livestock overgrazing and introduction and spread of non-native grasses that support livestock grazing alters the natural habitat. Try to find a balance between grazing and keeping native habitats natural. Restore degraded habitats to natural conditions. Because so much of the thornscrub is degraded, efforts to restore this damaged habitat should be part of your management plan. Encourage recreation-based tourism. Ethically sound ecotourism helps to foster a greater appreciation of the natural environment. These lands should be valued for native plants and animals over consumptive uses. Manage for natural fire regimes. Care must be taken to protect remaining stands of thornscrub habitat (or habitat-harboring thornscrub species). Allow natural fire regimes to keep this habitat resilient to environmental perturbation. Texas thornscrub is not a fire-adapted community and the lomas can be severely damaged by fire. However, the surrounding Sacahuista (Texas beargrass) salt flats can be managed with fire to remove encroaching mesquite and other woody vegetation. Ideal When benefitting amphibians and reptiles is the primary objective. Discourage urban sprawl and development of agricultural lands. This is especially important along the lower Rio Grande Valley. Due to burgeoning human populations along the international border, only about 2% of the native wet thornscrub habitats remain. Set aside thornscrub-dominated areas into protected lands systems. All remaining natural habitats in the lower Rio Grande Valley should be purchased for conservation purposes (public trust, The Nature Conservancy) or put into conservation easements. Manage for species assemblages, as well as thornscrub habitats. True thornscrub habitat does not occur in Arizona, but there are areas where thornscrub-associated species (reptiles, amphibians, and plants) occur, so managing for the species may be the The Lowland Burrowing Treefrog is an odd little animal that is found in southern Arizona. In the U.S., it (and the Sonoran Green Toad) primarily occurs on the Tohono O odham tribal lands, so may not be handled without special permission. In the U.S., the Thornscrub Hook-nosed Snake is only found in a very small area of Southern Arizona where true thornscrub does not occur but the Madrean oak woodland and semi-desert grassland communities where it occurs can be managed for ecosystem resiliency. Another thornscrub species in the same genus (Smilisca) as the Lowland Burrowing Treefrog of south Texas and south of the Arizona Border is the Mexican Treefrog 78

90 THORNSCRUB best conservation practice. Ensure that collecting animals and plants is for scientific, educational, or husbandry purposes. Some of the most herpetologically sought-after species are those in subtropical thornscrub. Landowners and managers should notify state wildlife officials if collecting of amphibians and reptiles is noticed on their properties. Discourage the use of genetically engineered invasive species. Current research is targeting the development of more cold-tolerant strains of buffelgrass as feed for livestock. This is an ecologically dangerous practice, as buffelgrass already threatens native habitats and species, such as the Reticulate Collared Lizard, a rare thornscrub species. Exclude or minimize human activities in these special habitats in borderland areas. Thornscrub habitats occur along the border with Mexico, so border issues (human and drug trafficking, border protection) are of conservation concern. Illegal border crossers, border infrastructure (roads, fences), warming fires, and border-protection activities all pose potential threats. Border-protection personnel should become educated about the natural resources along the borderlands, and recognize when people are harming them. Establish monitoring plans that can measure the effects of climate change. As with all habitats, it would be beneficial to establish long-term monitoring programs of thornscrub habitats and their herpetofauna. Thornscrub is particularly susceptible to climate change, because it is already on the distributional fringe of its range in the U.S. Tamaulipan thornscrub habitat that has been overgrazed by non-native Nilgai (a large ungulate native to India) and feral pigs (wild boar). This provides little cover and habitat for Texas Tortoises, Central American Indigo Snakes, and a host of other native species. The Texas Tortoise is a Tamaulipan thornscrub species. It is closely related to the two desert tortoises, but gets much less attention from management agencies. It is threatened by overgrazing and human development in south Texas. Kurt Buhlmann In degraded habitat. workers replant cordgrass one plug at a time to help restore the grassland flats that connect Tamaulipan thornscrub patches, with the goal to facilitate connectivity of thornscrub species such as the Texas Tortoise. Kurt Buhlmann HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 79

91 DIVERSITY OF LEOPARD FROGS IN THE SOUTHWEST Ryan Besser William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC Rio Grande Leopard Frog Plains Leopard Frog Chiricahua Leopard Frog Relict Leopard Frog Northern Leopard Frog Lowland Leopard Frog DIVERSITY OF LEOPARD FROGS IN THE SOUTHWEST. Bryan Hamilton James Rorabaugh Taxonomically, there used to only one species of leopard frog recognized. Now there are eight U.S. species recognized; all are found in the Southwest. Two of these species were believed to be extinct, but are now known to be extant. Leopard frogs are, in general, susceptible to chytridiomycosis and non-native predators (especially American Bullfrog). Populations have also crashed because of a surface water loss through diversion, groundwater pumping, and drought. As such, several of these species are high priorities for resource managers and conservation efforts. 80

92 BOSQUES AND GALLERY FORESTS BOSQUES AND GALLERY FORESTS Esther Nelson Kenneth J. Halama Bosques ( woodlands in Spanish) and gallery forests refer to areas of native riparian vegetation that have trees flanking river and stream channels within sparsely vegetated uplands of the arid Southwest. In the lowlands, willows, cottonwood, hackberry, mesquites, and various other small trees comprise the native riparian community, whereas at increasing elevations sycamores, ashes, walnuts, oaks, pine, alders, and other trees dominate. Lowland riparian areas also support medium-low thickets and open stands of salt-tolerant plants such as arrow weed, and they may contain embedded oxbow ponds, pools, and bogs. In southeastern Arizona, lowland woods were originally associated with cienegas (Spanish for 100 waters; hence a wetland generated by multiple seepages) and other wetland types. Bosques and gallery forests have declined severely during the past century, especially in lowlands. Factors affecting lowland rivers and streams, agricultural diversions, impoundments, channel straightening, introduced salt cedar (tamarisk) and Russian olive, and groundwater draw-down, have severely degraded riparian areas. In addition, lowland riparian areas once occurred on low-lying flats near rivers, which were early prime targets for agricultural conversion. Bosques historically occurred in areas with deeper groundwater and those receiving sheet-floods. Gallery forests occur along stream margins and on lower terraces where roots can reach shallow groundwater. The Gila Box along the Gila River has a bosque type of riparian area. The word bosque means woodland in Spanish. It is consists of a gallery forest having trees significantly larger than the vegetation in the surrounding area. Hence, it is generally a riparian area with trees along a perennial river or creek, within desert, grassland, or shrubland. The Sonoran Desert Toad, also called the Colorado River Toad, has essentially been extirpated from the Colorado River, which has some significant stands of bosque habitat although much of the riverside has been converted to agriculture lands. This famous bosque has numerous other conservation challenges, including invasion by many non-native species, including American Bullfrog, Rio Grande Leopard Frog, exotic fishes, and tamarisk (salt cedar). HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 81

93 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES The Lowland Leopard Frog is often found in bosques. The larvae hatch from eggs laid in pools of the stream, while the adults often feed along the edge of the water or in the riparian zone. Like other ranid frogs, numbers have declined significantly due to chytridiomycosis (a fungus), although complex riparian-aquatic systems may be more resilient than simple systems, such as stock tanks. Today, few areas are open to overbank sheet flooding that can sustain the thriving bosques of a century ago, but treated urban effluent is increasingly available for riparian restoration, especially along the original or The Spiny Softshell is a common river turtle of parts of the Southwest, including much of the Rio Grande. new flow channels. At higher elevations, especially in canyons, gallery forests rich in tree species have persisted over a majority of their original area. Although these forests do not support all the species of the original lowlands, they remain important areas for biological diversity. An exception to this trend is the per- Laurie J. Vitt The Giant Spotted Whiptail, the largest species of this large genus in the U.S., is usually found in riparian areas, including some bosques. Several whiptail species may be common in bosques, especially along the Rio Grande. 82

94 BOSQUES AND GALLERY FORESTS While Gilbert s Skink is not limited to bosque habitat of California and Arizona, these skinks do seek out mesic microhabitats in arid areas. Jackson Shedd sistence of bosque and gallery forest on the San Pedro River in Cochise County, Arizona, where high species diversity testifies to the richness of this environmental type, and where recent grazing control has resulted in tremendous, carefully documented increases in riparian bird populations. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Frogs and Toads: Western Narrow-mouthed Toad, Rio Grande Leopard Frog; Lizards: Clark s Spiny Lizard, Giant Spotted Whiptail, alligator lizards (several species), skinks (several species), Southwestern Fence Lizard; Snakes: Terrestrial Gartersnake, Green Ratsnake, Ring-necked Snake, Western Black-tailed Rattlesnake; Turtles: Rio Grande Slider, Ornate Box Turtle fence and rotate livestock to protect natural habitats, particularly during germination periods, growing seasons, and whenever water is present. Be aware of amphibian movement periods, both into breeding sites as adults and out of them after transformation from larvae to juveniles. Minimize impacts to the original oxbow wetland and riparian pools characteristic of bosque gallery forests. Restore the natural hydroperiod to these oxbows to provide habitat for the species that depend on these wetlands, such as Rio Grande Slid- MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Manage livestock in ways to avoid trampling vegetation and animals. Where grazing is allowed, The Diamond-backed Watersnake occurs along the lower Rio Grande. Laurie J. Vitt HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 83

95 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES ers. Be aware that changing the water levels to benefit migratory waterfowl may conflict with the needs of the native, endemic herpetofauna. Minimize impacts of paved and unpaved roads on natural habitat. Where road crossings are necessary, use span bridges where possible or hardened road embankments as checks against upstream movement of erosional down-cutting. Keep roads away from amphibian breeding ponds and animal migration corridors, such as with the use of culvert systems or causeways. Manage off-road vehicle use to avoid impacts to natural habitats and animals. Reduce or eliminate off-road vehicle use in riparian bottoms or confine it to areas that are already altered. Manage recreation areas to minimize human impacts on natural habitats. Carefully develop camping areas to minimize disturbance to biologically rich areas; relocate fire rings and parking spots from beneath tree canopies. Encourage recreational and educational use of urban and near-urban riparian areas. Consider intermingling intensive use parks (e.g., sports facilities) with more natural areas to encourage broad community support. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Protect and restore hydrological processes at the micro and landscape scale. These processes include managing groundwater levels, perennial surface flow, overbank flooding onto floodplains, droughtflood cycles, and ensuring presence of summer-filled scour holes on floodplains. Maintain river meanders, eddies, backwaters, and sand and gravel bars as natural habitat. These habitats provide breeding and egg-laying areas for amphibians and aquatic reptiles, such as Rio Grande Sliders. Maintain and restore tracts of gallery forest and bosque. Fragmented habitat and soil erosion degrade ecosystem function. Roads, intensive recreational use, and urban sprawl on key floodplains increase mortality of amphibians and reptiles. Protect riparian banks from degradation such as vegetation clearing, erosion, and down-cutting. These landscape features often function as shoreline breeding areas for reptiles and amphibians. Restore riparian woodlands. Plant native woody vegetation in pockets along urban waterways and in adjoining neighborhoods that can support riparian species. Maintain brush piles, snags, downed wood, and embedded ephemeral and perennial wetlands within the riparian zone. Maintaining habitat diversity enhances amphibian and reptile diversity. Strive to maintain natural hydroperiods. Fence grazed areas and rotate livestock as needed. Managing livestock reduces grazing impacts and allows areas degraded from overgrazing time to recover. Restore eroded or disturbed banks with rock, gabions, native vegetation, or geotextiles. Restoring river bank structure allows for the development of dense understory habitat for reptiles (i.e., thickets, low shrubs, and vines, as well as mature trees) and amphibians (especially fish-free breeding pools in areas where public health problems associated with mosquitoes will not be severe). Do not use mesh netting that ensnares snakes or lizards. Remove or modify concrete bank treatments. Concrete treatments create barriers to hydrological and physical connections between rivers, banks, and floodplains. These should be removed or altered to ensure the habitat can be used by amphibians and reptiles. 84

96 DECIDUOUS AND MIXED WOODLANDS Danny Martin DECIDUOUS AND MIXED WOODLANDS Raymond Semlitsch Deciduous woodlands form important habitats for many amphibians and reptiles. For example, aspen, alder, cottonwood, and birch can be found on moist sites, along riparian areas, floodplains, and around wetlands. Hardwood thickets can also be found in disturbed areas such as along logging roads and in landings, as well as avalanche paths. Patches of aspen occur at mid to high elevations in the Rocky and Sierra Nevada mountains and in association with conifers at higher elevations. Oak woodlands occur in inland valleys and slopes throughout the Southwest at mid-elevations, and depending on the species and location, may be evergreen, deciduous, or mixed woodlands. Some of the valley oak woodlands of California and post oak woodlands of eastern and central Texas and Oklahoma are deciduous, but much of the Southwest has evergreendominated oak woodlands or mixed woodlands. Some of these mixed oak woodlands can have more than a dozen species of deciduous and evergreen species (including hybrids) within a small area. Oaks are often mixed with a variety of other species, making these woodlands biologically diverse. Evergreen woodlands are discussed in separate sections. Many species of amphibians and reptiles may be more common in deciduous and mixed stands than adjacent coniferous stands. For some, the location or climate where hardwoods grow may be more of a determining factor than specific tree species. Compared to conifer-dominated forests, hardwood stands may contain unique invertebrate assemblages, the prey base of amphibians and many reptiles. Hardwoods are economically viable for timber harvesting. Past forestry practices has resulted in a high proportion of hardwoods within the landscape. However, rates of hardwood removal in some states have exceeded the growth rate and availability of some species, such as aspen and oaks, both of which have declined. In some areas, natural hardwood stands are most common along streams and around lakes and wetlands due to adherence to riparian management guidelines. Biologically diverse oak woodlands are threatened by urban development, land conversion, grazing, fire suppression, disease, conifer encroachment, and increased recreation. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Salamanders: California Slender Salamander, Arboreal Salamander, Ensatina, Marbled Salamander, Smallmouth Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Western Chorusfrog, Hurter s Spadefoot; Lizards: Western Skink, Common Five-lined Skink, Southern Alligator Lizard; Snakes: Ring-necked Snake, DeKay s Brownsnake, California Kingsnake, Speckled Kingsnake, Timber Rattlesnake; Turtles: Eastern Box Turtle MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Promote a diversity of habitats within woodlands where possible. Different taxa have specific requirements that necessitate using different habitats span- HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 85

97 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Robert E. Lovich Oak woodland in the rolling, grassy hills of the California Coast Range. Woodlands have a lesser density of trees than forests. Also, the trees tend to be smaller in stature and have a smaller diameter than trees of true forests. ning a range from early successional to the late climax stage. Learn the habitat needs of the species on your In many areas of the Southwest, some oak stands are deciduous, some are evergreen, and some are mixed, as seen in this photograph. Oaks in particular are quite variable, and some species are drought-deciduous, meaning they lose their leaves only during droughts. The Arboreal Salamander is closely associated with California oaks, and many individuals may be found within cavities. All of its relatives (the climbing salamanders, genus Aneides) are also associated with woodlands and forests, and often climb into the canopy. Jackson Shedd property. Maintain or mimic natural disturbance processes to reset succession. Disturbances such as fire, flooding, and canopy gaps often reset succession and create the diversity of habitats used by amphibians and reptiles. Consult local, state, and federal agencies for guidance. Minimize habitat fragmentation when converting woodlands to other uses. Fragmentation in woodlands is typically a result of timber extraction and its conversion to alternative land use such as grazing and production farming. Areas of degraded habitat create barriers to movement for many species of amphibians and reptiles between remaining forest patches. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: 86

98 DECIDUOUS AND MIXED WOODLANDS William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC The Large-blotched Ensatina is a beautiful form of the highly variable Ensatina, a type of lungless salamander endemic to the West Coast. These animals are completely terrestrial, but need mesic habitat, so any activity that dries out woodlands (e.g., clearing trees) can be a threat. Maintain old-growth stands of deciduous and mixed forest whenever possible. The population viability of many long-lived amphibian and reptile species depends on stable old-growth forested habitats. Many salamander species benefit from the complex soil structure and moisture regimes that develop under old-growth forests. Identify and protect amphibian breeding sites. Amphibians with complex life cycles require aquatic habitat such as a pools, streams, or seeps for breeding, larval growth and development followed by metamorphosis into upland forest habitats where juveniles grow and become sexually mature. Protect nested habitats within woodlands. These include wetlands, ephemeral pools, springs, and seeps for amphibian breeding and caves, cliffs, ravines, rock outcrops, and talus slopes that may be used by either amphibians or reptiles for various phases of their life histories. Buffer zones should be used to protect targeted features and natural habitats. Buffers that provide full protection, for example around breeding pools, nests, or den sites, must extend as far as feasible in a radius around each feature. Development of non-forested habitats such as pastures, cropland, roads, and powerline rightsof-way should be avoided or minimized. These intervening habitats act as barriers to many amphibian and reptiles by disrupting breeding migrations and dispersal, effectively isolating forest fragments. They also provide pathways for non-native and invasive species. Maintain micro-scale habitat structure. Coarse woody debris (e.g., tree tops and branches) from harvests and dead snags should be retained to provide habitat and refugia for amphibians and reptiles. Protect streamside habitats. Buffers along streams in woodlands bordering riparian zones should be retained to provide habitat for stream-breeding The Green Treefrog is common near wetlands in deciduous or mixed woodlands of eastern Texas and Oklahoma. Eastern deciduous woodlands are mostly discussed in the deciduous forests section and the Southeast HMG. Reptiles, like this Southern Alligator Lizard, are mostly found in relatively open areas within woodlands. Woodlands are low-density forests, so tend to have more reptiles than true forests. amphibians and aquatic and semi-aquatic reptiles, minimize temperature extremes, and to minimize sedimentation created by agriculture and logging. Do not conduct prescribed burns during seasons when amphibians and reptiles are most active. For example, do not burn when animals are seasonally active, as during breeding migration, juvenile dispersal, or movement to den sites. Amphibians and reptiles differ widely in seasonal phenology (timing of biological events), so regional species-specific data should be used to plan prescribed burns to prevent detrimental effects. Laurie J. Vitt and Janalee P. Caldwell Jackson Shedd HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 87

99 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Danny Martin JUNIPER AND PINYON-JUNIPER WOODLANDS Bryan T. Hamilton Esther Nelson Juniper and pinyon (or piñon)-juniper woodlands occupy over 100 million acres in the Southwest and extend deep into Mexico. These woodlands, often referred to simply as P-J, occur at elevations intermediate between desert shrublands and mixed conifer forests in precipitation zones between inches (25-51 cm). The most widespread tree species are single-leaf pinyon, two-needle piñon, Utah juniper, and one-seed juniper. Pinyon and juniper trees are usually less than 30 ft (9.1 m) in height and often occur in a habitat mosaic with shrubs, grasses, and forbs. Three major woodland stand types have been identified in the Southwest: (1) persistent woodlands consisting Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper (P-J) stands cover over 100,000,000 acres of the Southwest. They may occur as relatively homogeneous stands extending as far as the eye can see. These evergreen woodlands tend to be relatively depauparate in herpetofauna species, but given the vast area occupied by P-J, stands cross many political boundaries. One of the issues of P-J is that it is expanding in some areas that typically have grassland or shrubland as a climax habitat type. Colorado National Monument, Colorado. of dense and stable tree stands, (2) savannahs consisting of a mosaic of grasslands interspersed with trees, and (3) wooded shrublands where tree encroachment into shrublands is regulated by fires. Different stand types have different disturbance regimes and stand dynamics requiring different management strategies. The oldest pinyon and juniper trees can exceed 1,000 years in age. Old-growth trees tend to occur on fireprotected sites, steep slopes with rocky outcrops, and areas with sparse fuels. Pinyon pine nuts have great cultural significance to Native Americans, and commercial harvest of pine nuts is an important economic activity in some areas. Pinyon trees mast erratically, producing little to no nuts most years and saturating the system with mast in other years. Both pinyon mast and juniper berries are important foods for wildlife. Reptiles can be abundant and conspicuous members of the fauna. Communal hibernacula can support hundreds of individual snakes and usually occur in rocky areas and rodent burrows. Rocky areas are also used for basking, foraging, and mating. Trees, shrubs and bunchgrasses are often used for shelter, thermoregulation, and foraging, and rodent burrows provide thermal refugia, incubation sites, and ambush sites. Amphibians may use woodlands, but usually require an aquatic interface, such as a stream or spring; however, amphibians may also use woodlands for some of their non-aquatic life-history needs. 88

100 JUNIPER AND PINYON-JUNIPER WOODLANDS Bryan Hamilton Bryan Hamilton Although P-J is a native woodland type, it can also invade other habitats, especially grasslands and shrublands at lower slopes, so removal is an important management tool to maintain open areas used by amphibians and reptiles, as well as livestock. The area to the right of the fence was thinned, while the area to the left of the fence was not. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: Western Tiger Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Great Basin Spadefoot, Western Spadefoot; Lizards: Great Basin Collared Lizard, Plateau Striped Whiptail, Pygmy Short-horned Lizard, Sagebrush Lizard; Snakes: Gophersnake, North American Racer, Striped Whipsnake, Coachwhip, Western Terrestrial Gartersnake amphibians move to or from breeding sites. Consult local and state fire officials before planning any prescribed burns. Prevent the spread of weeds, particularly invasive, non-native species such as cheatgrass. Control weeds in disturbed areas such as roadsides, fencerows, and field edges with herbicides and other integrated pest-management techniques. Non-native grasses such as cheatgrass have accelerated the natural fire cycle leading to massive conversion of woodlands to annual grasslands. Other non-native plants such as Russian thistle, tumble mustard, halogeton, knapweed, and tamarisk reduce the value of these habitats for amphibians and reptiles. Control off-road vehicle effects. All off-road travel and roads though this habitat type requires careful consideration. Off-road activities in woodland habitat damages sensitive plants and soils and degrades amphibian and reptile habitat. If off-road vehicle use is necessary, keep motorized vehicles on designated routes and out of undisturbed habitat. Manage important nested microhabitats such as snake overwintering sites, wetlands, and riparian areas. A buffer zone is recommended to maintain the unique ecological functions of these areas. Plan development and modification of springs for livestock in ways that are compatible with amphibians and reptiles. Do not alter water levels such that breeding or overwintering sites become unusable. Water livestock away from natural water sources and exclude livestock from spring heads. Use mechanical thinning and fuel reduction methods to control encroaching pinyon-juniper stands. Pinyon and juniper can invade into shrublands and grasslands reducing amphibian and reptile diversity. Thinning projects should target areas with true shrublands and grasslands. To avoid impacting old-growth woodlands, consider the potential natural MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Plan prescribed burning to avoid times when amphibians and reptiles are active. Animals are particularly vulnerable during migration such as when snakes are dispersing from hibernacula or when The Plateau Fence Lizard occurs over most of the Colorado Plateau, and is a commonly encountered species in P-J. It is often seen on the trees, rocks, fence-posts, and buildings. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 89

101 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Danny Martin The Plateau Striped Whiptail is also a common resident in parts of the P-J habitat, and is often seen on the ground as it is actively forages for food. One of the few salamander species of P-J is the Western Tiger Salamander. This species can be invasive outside its native range, and it hybridizes with other species. It is often spread through the fish bait industry, where larvae are sold as waterdogs. vegetation type based on historical and aerial photographs, remnant understory vegetation, ecological site guides, soil surveys, and literature to restore native systems. These trees may be several centuries old. Extremely dense stands may not recover due to a lack of understory vegetation. Management tools in woodlands in include hand thinning and mastication. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: The Striped Whipsnake is found throughout much of P-J habitat. large-crowned trees in rocky and sandy soil areas. Patches of bare ground are desirable for some reptile species. A mixture of open areas with nearby cover is ideal habitat for reptiles and their prey. Restore natural fire regimes. Although fire historically influenced all pinyon-juniper woodlands to some extent, there is wide variation in the fire and disturbance regimes. Consider burning in patches to maintain a variety of vegetation successional stages in an area. Habitat heterogeneity increases snake and lizard species because of increased structural complexity and prey abundance. Consult local, state, and federal fire officials before planning any prescribed burns. Maintain and restore wetlands and riparian habitat used by amphibians and reptiles for breeding and foraging. Wetlands and riparian areas are critical habitats in arid woodlands. Periodic surface water limits the timing and length of the amphibian breeding season. Cutting trees near streams, excluding livestock with fences, and replanting native plants can restore water tables, maintain stream flows, and provide habitat for amphibians and reptiles. Restrict off-road vehicle traffic to roads. Off-road vehicles can displace or kill lizards and snakes and alter habitats used by amphibians and reptiles. Offroad vehicles also damage soils resulting in increased sedimentation in streams and increased spread of invasive weeds. Bryan Hamilton Minimize livestock grazing effects. If livestock grazing is permitted, keep stock away from amphibian and reptile aggregations, such as those occurring during breeding or overwintering periods. Restore areas dominated by invasive plants to native woodlands. Use seed mixtures of native grasses, shrubs, and forbs. Native vegetation will support a greater diversity of snakes and lizards, partly because of a greater abundance of prey (invertebrates and small mammals). Retain old-growth trees, snags, and logs, especially in open stands, and scattered groups of 90

102 Evergreen WoodlandS Lawrence L. C. Jones EVERGREEN WOODLANDS Lawrence L. C. Jones Woodlands have a lower density of trees than forests, plus woodland trees tend have a smaller diameter and shorter height. This distinguishes the evergreen woodlands from the evergreen forests, which are largely composed of large conifers in the high mountains. Compare photos in this section with those in the section on evergreen forests. Evergreen woodlands are typically dominated by live oaks (do not lose leaves seasonally) and other evergreen species that typically occur at mid elevations (depends on latitude), above deserts and grasslands, and below montane coniferous forests. Pinyon-juniper woodlands (P-J) are also evergreen woodlands, but are widespread and distinctive, so they are addressed in the preceding section. Although P-J woodlands have a relatively depauperate herpetofauna, other evergreen woodlands of the Southwest may support a high diversity of amphibians and reptiles. Evergreen woodlands are found throughout much of the Southwest, but in many areas are intermixed with P-J woodlands or deciduous woodlands. In California, stands of coast and canyon live oaks are often mixed with other evergreen species such as California laurel and toyon. Coastal evergreen woodlands transition into deciduous valley oak woodlands. The western Sierras also have evergreen woodland communities similar to coastal California. Oak-dominated evergreen woodlands are extensive at mid elevations in central and southern Arizona and New Mexico. The chain of small mountain ranges in southeastern Arizona and adjacent New Mexico that emerge out of desert and grassland valleys are often referred to as the Madrean (i.e., allied to the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico) Sky Islands or Madrean Archipelago. These mountains are dominated by the Madrean evergreen woodland, consisting of a variety of evergreen oaks species, Chihuahuan pine, alligator juniper, and other evergreen species. As an eastward extension, the Chisos and Davis mountains of west Texas have evergreen woodlands dominated by oak and pine-oak woodlands or mixed P-J. Evergreen woodlands are also scattered throughout much of the Southwest, as with Texas live-oak woodlands of Texas and Oklahoma. Biological diversity tends to be high in evergreen woodlands because they are situated at mid-elevations in the southern latitudes of the Southwest. They occur above the extremely hot and arid deserts and grasslands found in the valleys, but not as high in elevation as conifer forests, which have a cold environment that is too harsh for most ectotherms. Thus, evergreen woodlands lie between temperature extremes, but are warm enough to have an extended growing period (e.g., usually without snowpack). Also, these woodlands are situated along the borderlands with Mexico, which has an inherently diverse herpetofauna due to favorable climatic conditions typically found in the tropics and subtropics. Evergreen woodlands are fire-adapted ecosystems. The lowest elevations are essentially oak savannahs, dominated by grasses and having a frequent fire return interval. At higher elevations the density of evergreens increases, species mix changes, and the fire interval is less frequent. Due to historic overgrazing by livestock and active fire suppression, the woodlands are often much denser than they used to be. The result HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 91

103 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Sycamore Canyon in the Pajarito Mountains of Arizona is well-known among wildlife enthusiasts as a bird-watcher s paradise and herpetological hotspot. Since this is along the border, biologists and ecotourists should be cognizant of border issue challenges. is that wildfires tend to be more intense than they were historically. Fortunately, evergreens tend to be resilient and may quickly re-sprout following wildfire. Evergreens are economically important for firewood and other uses. Probably the most significant conservation challenges in evergreen woodlands are related to forest health issues overly dense stands, caused by fire suppression, historic overgrazing, and drought, will set the stage for severe wildfires. However, wildfires that are low-severity and allowed to burn are beneficial. Not surprisingly, many evergreen woodlands have an assemblage of reptiles (especially) and amphibians that is more typical of the mountain ranges of Mexico than those to the north in the United States. This includes groups of species such as spiny lizards, whiptails, and montane rattlesnakes. Because evergreen woodlands are between grasslands and coniferous forests, they may have species that occur in a broad elevational gradient. Evergreen woodlands may be integrated with coastal and inland chaparral, grasslands, or ponderosa pines, so may share some of same species. This wildfire burned with moderately high severity in a Madrean evergreen woodland, including the prevent forest fires sign. Prescribed burns done when conditions are right help reduce severity of wildfires that follow periods of intense growth of grasses and shrubs, followed by drought. Clark s Spiny Lizard is a common denizen of evergreen woodlands in southeastern Arizona. It occurs elevationally between the sesert-dwelling Desert Spiny Lizard and the Yarrow s Spiny Lizard of the high mountains. 92

104 Evergreen WoodlandS CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: Ensatina, Arboreal Salamander; Frogs and Toads; Western Narrow-mouthed Toad, Canyon Treefrog, Arizona Treefrog, Tarahumara Frog; Lizards: Chihuahuan Spotted Whiptail, Texas Spiny Lizard, Yarrow s Spiny Lizard, Mountain Skink, Fourlined Skink; Snakes: Knobloch s Mountain Kingsnake, Eastern Patch-nosed Snake, Green Ratsnake, Chihuahuan Black-headed Snake, Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake; Turtles: Sonora Mud Turtle MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES: Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Restore natural fire regimes where possible to maintain natural evergreen woodland habitat. Most of the evergreen woodlands that have high herpetofaunal diversity occur on fairly remote public lands that are managed for fuel reduction and ecosystem resiliency by public land management agencies. Help improve or maintain natural habitat. Retain green areas with natural habitat in developed areas. Although most of the evergreen woodlands are in lightly populated areas, they are nice places to live because of the intrinsic beauty and mild climates. Planners should be cognizant of the ecological value of these areas and incorporate management that retains the integrity of the surrounding area, including retention of green spaces. Manage grazing for compatibility with natural resource objectives. Fortunately, livestock grazing in evergreen woodlands is often managed at levels that are compatible with the needs of native plants and animals. However, it takes vigilant range conservationists to ensure that proper levels of use and intensity are maintained and modified, especially during periods of drought and when surface water is at a premium. Maintain or restore natural vegetative structural composition where possible. It is not always possible to manage for a completely natural ecosystem, especially because so many non-native species have become irreversibly established. However, it is possible to manage for similar life-form structure, such as having canopy closures and basal area reflect the structure of natural evergreen habitats. Prevent spread of invasive species. In cases where In the U.S., the Tarahumara Frog is an Apachean endemic. It has the unfortunate distinction of being the first species to disappear in the wild in the U.S., due to amphibian chytrid fungus. Efforts to reintroduce the species have been difficult because of the continued presence of the Bd fungus. The Apachean or Apache Highlands ecoregion of Southeastern Arizona and Southwestern New Mexico is extremely diverse in herpetofauna and has species from the Chihuahuan Desert, Sonoran Desert, foothill thornscrub, and Mexican mountains. This photo in the Pajarito Mountains shows the summer green-up from monsoon rains. The extremely slender Brown Vine Snake is rarely encountered in its tiny range in the U.S., although it has the broadest range of any terrestrial snake southern Brazil to extreme southern Arizona. However, some researchers have suggested there are more than one species; Arizona specimens tend to be much smaller than Latin American individuals. Apachean Ecoregion: Hotbed of Biodiversity. The highest diversity of lizards and snakes in the U.S. is in southeastern Arizona and adjacent New Mexico an area known as the Apachean Ecoregion (among other names). This area also boasts the highest diversity of terrestrial birds in the U.S., and perhaps mammals, insects, and plants, as well. A surprising number of frogs and toads also inhabit in this region. This is where the reptile-rich Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts meet, as well as semi-desert grasslands, in the valleys and foothills. Above the valleys are the Sky Island mountains that have evergreen woodlands in the mid-elevations and evergreen forests in the high elevations. Because of the southern latitudes, these mountains are not as harsh to amphibians and reptiles as in higher elevations elsewhere in the U.S. There is an extended growing season that allows animals to be active longer in the year due to the productivity of warm climate with a dual rainy season (winter/spring and North American Monsoon). Many of the animals here are typical inhabitants of more tropical and subtropical regions, including Jaguar, Ocelot, White-nosed Coati, Elegant Trogon, Gray Hawk, tropical hummingbirds, and some noteworthy amphibians and reptiles, including Brown Vinesnake, Thornscrub Hook-nosed Snake, Green Ratsnake, three small montane rattlesnake species, and the Burrowing Treefrog. Lawrence L. C. Jones HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 93

105 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Rock Rattlesnake Twin-spotted Rattlesnake Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake In the U.S., the three small sky island rattlesnakes are endemic to some small mountains of southeastern Arizona and adjacent New Mexico. These three species are heavily targeted by poachers for the black market pet trade. International border workers should be cognizant of poachers, as well as legal nature watchers. Illegal immigrants and drug runners also use their habitat, but generally stay out of sight, since they usually prefer no human interaction. 94

106 Evergreen WoodlandS it is possible to prevent the spread of non-native species, it behooves the land or wildlife manager to do so. There are case studies of successes that should encourage us, while some efforts might be lost causes choose your battles wisely. Constructed surface waters (stock tanks, drinkers, artificial ponds, wildlife waters) can be a benefit or detriment to native species, depending upon their spatial array at the landscape level. These water bodies may be stepping stones for a variety of non-native species, such as American Bullfrogs. Use fire and other tools that aid in eradication of invasive species, but be aware that many invasives (e.g., buffelgrass, Lehmann lovegrass) are fire-adapted and spread with fire. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Incorporate life history requirements of target species in your management plans. Consider all of the ecological and physiological characteristics of the species you are trying to conserve and design projects that benefit those natural history attributes. Think habitat structure and the microenvironments they provide. Identify interactions with other species to aid in effective habitat management. Although focusing on the target species is imperative for species-specific conservation actions, it may be equally important to consider effects to multiple species. Projects may benefit one species over another, but ultimately it usually comes down to managing habitats that provide for the needs of the entire assemblage. Restore native plant assemblages. When benefiting native herpetofauna is the primary objective, consider restoring the native plant assemblage (habitat), as this is what the species are best adapted to. The physiology and reproductive success of native evergreen woodland amphibians and reptiles would function best in the natural environment. Work with law enforcement personnel to prevent unlawful collection of amphibians and reptiles. Many evergreen woodlands are near the border with Mexico and they are inhabited by many species of amphibians and reptiles found nowhere else in the United States. People who seek out these species are generally in one of two disparate categories: legal, appreciative naturalists or poachers. Law enforcement personnel should be educated about the value of the natural resources, learn to respect the legitimate herp-watchers (and legal collectors), and be aware of unethical poachers. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 95

107 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Alison Cockrum DECIDUOUS FORESTS Steven J. Beaupre Steven J. Beaupre Deciduous forests are diverse assemblages that defy simple description and foolproof management guidelines. In this HMG, many of the western deciduous trees are discussed in other sections (e.g., riparian areas; bosque and gallery forests; quaking aspens within evergreen forests; or alders along avalanche chutes, referenced in deciduous and mixed woodlands). For our purposes, there are two broad forest types that encroach on the Southwestern region from the Southeast region: upland hardwood forests and pine-hardwood forests. Upland hardwood forests, distributed throughout the Ozarks in Arkansas and Oklahoma, are generally comprised of broadleaf deciduous species such as oaks, hickory, maples and These quaking aspens at high elevations in Utah comprise a very different type of deciduous forest than the hardwood forests of eastern Oklahoma and Texas beech, interspersed with stands of conifers including cedars and pines. Pine hardwood forest, distributed in the Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma, and further south to the Gulf Coast plain of Texas, is comprised predominantly of loblolly and shortleaf pine with intermittent hardwood stands. Because these forests are extensions of large expanses of eastern deciduous forests, there are relatively few examples of endemic reptiles and amphibians. Interesting exceptions include multiple species in the salamander genus Plethodon, endemic to specific ridges in Ouachita Mountains along the Arkansas-Oklahoma border. Laurie J. Vitt Deciduous forest of the Cookson Hills, Oklahoma, during the summer, when trees are leafed out. Not all areas of the Southwest are arid, but this mesic habitat type is no less important to land managers. Deciduous forest of the Cookson Hills, Oklahoma, during the fall, after trees have lost their leaves. Laurie J. Vitt 96

108 DECIDUOUS FORESTS Laurie J. Vitt and Janalee P. Caldwell Salamanders are well-represented in the eastern hardwood forests, such as this Sequoyah Slimy Salamander, which only occurs in a tiny area of the Ouachita Mountains of eastern Oklahoma and adjacent Arkansas. However, deciduous forests of Arkansas, Oklahoma, and east Texas are in close proximity to grassland habitats, and herpetofaunal species assemblages there reflect an ecotone-like quality, with a mix of eastern (forest) and western (grassland) species. Forest quality is variable throughout the range of upland hardwood and pine hardwood forests. Moisture gradients drive primary variation with higher quality forests in more mesic areas. Productivity gradients are also affected by soil quality with rockier soils (e.g., cherty loams of the Ozark uplands) being of lower quality than older soils with more complex horizon development. Although there are documented cases of extant primary growth in surprising places (the Cross Timbers region of Oklahoma), most of the deciduous forests in eastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas are degraded secondary or even tertiary growth. Subsequently, because little sunlight reaches the forest floor, there is little ground-level productivity in secondary and tertiary stands. The major food input that supports wildlife comes in the form of highly variable mast crops (acorns). Such forests are considered unstable (and thus susceptible to insect outbreaks and disease) because of a lack of recruitment of dominant oak species due to competition with shade-tolerant species (e.g., maples, sassafras). As a result, predatory reptiles (e.g., large-bodied snakes) go through cycles of boom and bust in synch with acorn-eating small mammals, and starvation can be an important source of mortality. Sub-features of upland deciduous forests are important determinants of habitat suitability for regional herpetofauna. Notably, natural bodies of water are rare in the dry forests of Arkansas and Oklahoma. Most standing water is found in ephemeral stream systems which are less suitable for amphibian breeding due to frequent washout with runoff and the presence of Many species of frogs and toads more typical of the Southeast are found in eastern Texas and Oklahoma, such as this Crawfish Frog. predatory fish. The Ozark and Ouachita Mountains are peppered with cattle tanks, both for watering of livestock and for watering game species (e.g., deer and turkey). Most of these artificial ponds hold water year-round, and are adopted by pond-breeding amphibians. The proximity of these artificial ponds has a profound effect on amphibian diversity in any given deciduous forest tract. Likewise, upland forest tracts are punctuated by xeric limestone prairies (sometimes referred to as cedar glades ) dominated by exposed rock and prairie grasses, sedges, composites, prickly pear cactus, and other decidedly non-forest plant species. These glade openings are critical habitat elements for several reptile species and are used as thermoregulatory stations for shedding and gestation, as well as hibernacula. Several sensitive Arkansas species are described as glade-dependent, including Eastern Collared Lizards and Western Diamondback Rattlesnakes; these are typically Southwest species at the eastern peripheral edges of their ranges. The progression of succession in the absence of fire has resulted in shrinkage and loss of glade openings throughout the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains. Management efforts aimed at promoting diversity of amphibians and reptiles should specifically target the restoration and maintenance of artificial ponds and xeric limestone prairies. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: Spotted Salamander, Southern Redbacked Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Spring Peeper, American Bullfrog (native), Southern Leopard Frog; Lizards: Slender Glass Lizard, Green Anole, Broadheaded Skink; Snakes: Speckled Kingsnake, Rough Greensnake, Red-belled Snake, Western Wormsnake, Ring-necked Snake, Flat-headed Snake, Texas Coralsnake, Copperhead, Timber Rattlesnake; Turtles: Eastern Box Turtle Laurie J. Vitt HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 97

109 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Laurie J. Vitt The Timber Rattlesnake is a species that typifies the eastern U.S., but its range extends into Texas and Oklahoma in hardwood forests. This species is of conservation concern over most of its range. MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Apply thinning and prescribed fire to promote ground-level productivity. Degraded forests exhibit even-age distributions and closed canopies that exclude light from the forest floor. Opening the canopy through thinning and the application of fire increases ground-level light. Fire releases nutrients that activate seed banks, thereby increasing ground-level productivity and diversity. Fire as a coarse management tool should be used in recognition of potential vulnerabilities of surface-dwelling amphibians and reptiles. Reduce incursion of all-terrain vehicles and other vehicular traffic. Road mortality has a major impact on population persistence of many amphibians and reptiles. Consider restricting off-road vehicle travel and identifying sensitive areas or access during sensitive seasons (e.g., breeding or spring dispersal) as pedestrian only. Train forest workers to avoid killing amphibians and reptiles. Loggers and other forest workers frequently encounter amphibians and reptiles during the course of their normal work activities. Particularly in the case of snakes, these encounters usually result in mortality of the animal in question. Training and information may help to reduce reptile mortality during logging or other forest operations. Manage for forest heterogeneity. Amphibians and reptiles use all of the environmental aspects provided by hardwood forest habitats. Maintenance of diversity may be best served by managing in a mosaic to maintain patches of forest in different successional states. Where possible, the restoration of glade, xeric limestone prairies, and water features should be incorporated into the management plan. Ideal-When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Manage for forest stability, healthy age-structure, and maximization of ground level productivity. This is accomplished through the careful application of forest thinning and reintroduction of fire at natural frequencies. Healthy forests provide the productivity 98

110 DECIDUOUS FORESTS Laurie J. Vitt The diminutive Western Wormsnake may be found under cover in forests and open grassy areas. Studies in Kansas have shown that numbers can actually increase in grazed areas. Rivers within hardwood forests of eastern Texas and Oklahoma are also the home of numerous species of aquatic turtles, such as this Razor-backed Musk Turtle. This is a good example of nested habitat, or habitat within habitat. required to support complex food webs, and thus support insectivorous, carnivorous, and omnivorous amphibians and reptiles. Restrict application of fire to months during which hibernation occurs. Amphibians and reptiles generally lack the ability to escape from hot fastmoving fires, thus, application of prescribed fire during active seasons is usually detrimental. Reintroduction of fire during periods of the year when amphibians and reptiles are inactive (ca. October 15-March 15) reduces management-related mortality of those that hibernate below the surface. However, species that overwinter in leaf litter or under logs (e.g., many forest amphibians and some lizards) may be negatively impacted or even eradicated during a hot burn. Overwintering habits of target species should be considered. Aggressively manage for glade restoration and maintenance. Glades provide important habitat for many species and critical habitat for glade-dependent species. Aggressive restoration of glades may require advance cutting of encroaching cedars and liberal application of fire. Aggressively manage for retention of ponds. Ponds with some permanent water are critical for amphibians with indirect development. Ponds should be maintained to ensure that water persists long enough for the larval stage to complete development. For some species, this may require more than one year. Introduction of fish should be avoided. In addition, canopy over ponds should be variable with ample opportunity for light to attract canopy-sensitive species such as toads. Because high amphibian diversities are observed in ponds in edge habitat (e.g., forest-pasture interface), new ponds should be located in these habitats. Use forestry techniques that minimize negative impacts to microclimates. Amphibians and reptiles are sensitive to thermal and hydric stress. Forest thinning and application of fire has profound effects on thermal microhabitats, moisture content of soils, and relative humidity. Management plans should balance habitat manipulation with the need to maintain adequate thermal and mesic refugia. This is especially true for amphibian species with terrestrial adult stages. Reduce or eliminate road and off-road traffic in sensitive areas. Reduction of road mortality can have a stabilizing influence on amphibian and reptile populations. Seasonal road closures have been used effectively in some sensitive habitats. Restriction of off-road vehicle traffic to designated areas should be considered. ª Use signage to inform pedestrians of the presence of protected, sensitive, and managed species. In many cases, pedestrians are unaware that some amphibians and reptiles are protected and may be present in a specific area. In addition, pedestrians may be unaware of state and federal laws that govern collection or extermination of non-game species. Dissemination of accurate information may aid greatly in conservation efforts. Laurie J. Vitt HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 99

111 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES EVERGREEN FORESTS Esther Nelson For our purposes, evergreen forests are considered those that consist of various species of needle-leaved trees (conifers), especially at high elevations or northerly latitudes. Some common conifers are ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, and white fir. Woodlands differ from forests because they have a lower density of trees, which tend to be smaller in stature and diameter. Evergreen woodlands are quite different than evergreen forests. For a comparison, please refer to those sections. Conifers are adapted to conditions in high elevation regions with correspondingly low temperatures. A particular forest type is often referenced by the dominant tree species in a particular region (redwood, sequoia, ponderosa pine, Douglas-firs, spruces, mixed-conifer). Subalpine forests are conifer forests, but discussed in another section. In the evergreen forest understory there are typically associated species that are smaller in number and size. A layer of shrubs occurs below the understory. Under the shrub layer are herbaceous species such as flowers and grasses. Many species of amphibians and reptiles occur within the herbaceous layer, usually associated with shrubs, woody debris, rocks, or other structural features, rather than in leaf litter itself. Anthropogenic (human-caused) influences such as timber harvest, fire suppression, prescribed fire, livestock grazing, stocking non-native fish in high eleva- Alison Cockrum Evergreen forest in Bryce Canyon, Utah. In the Southwest, these forests are mostly in mountainous habitat. Conservation challenges are often the same forest health, insect disease, and risk of high-intensity wildfire (among others). In many circumstances, most or all of these issues can be resolved or mitigated by good managment decisions, which benefit herpetofauna and a host of other plant and animal species. The San Gabriel Mountains Slender Salamander only occurs in isolated pockets of mesic uplands in mixed hardwood and conifer forests in a small area above Los Angeles, California. Potential management should focus on microhabitat quality and microclimate, such as cover objects and moisture retention strategies, as well as protection from collection and habitat disturbance. William Flaxington 100

112 EVERGREEN FORESTS Most evergreen forests are found in mountainous habitat in the Southwest. A major exception is he California redwood belt, which occiur down to sea level along he northern and central California Coast. Siskiyou Mountains Salamanders have been of conservation concern because of their association with late-successional conifer forests. A huge survey and manage effort to locate the animals before timber sales resulted in many new localities being discovered. William Leonard Knoblock s Mountain Kingsnake was recently recognized as a distinct species. In the U.S., it is an Arizona and New Mexico sky island endemic, but ranges farther south into Mexico. tion lakes, noxious weed infestation, increased offroad use by off-highway vehicles, and increased vehicle traffic due to road developments have impacted amphibians and reptiles in evergreen forest habitat. Natural events have also contributed to herpetofaunal population and habitat declines. Historically, natural wildfires removed downed wood, shrubs, and young trees, and also stimulated early successional stage vegetation. Amphibians in evergreen forests are found in and around water or in moist microclimates, such as small ponds, stream banks, wet meadows, under logs, and under tree bark. Reptiles in evergreen forests are generally found in gap openings or less-dense forests that provide abundant sunlight. Microhabitats include tree trunks, logs, grass, shrubs, rock outcrops, burrows, or on open patches of soil. The Northern Rubber Boa and its southern counterpart are among the few snakes that occur in montane evergreen forests. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Salamanders: Ensatina, Clouded Salamander, San Gabriel Mountains Slender Salamander, Sacramento Mountains Salamander, Northwestern Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Western Toad, Coastal Tailed Frog; Lizards: Western Skink, Western Fence Lizard, Northern Alligator Lizard, Sagebrush Lizard; Snakes: rubber boas (both species), Pyro Mountain Kingsnake, Ridgenosed Rattlesnake. MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Conduct prescribed fire activities late in the fall (after first frost), whenever appropriate. Spring Bryan Hamilton HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 101

113 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES and early fall burns may coincide with the timing of amphibian migrations to breeding or overwintering habitats or when snakes are moving to or from hibernacula. However, spring and summer may be the naturally occurring fire season. Thus, each prescribed fire should be considered on a case-by-case basis, Retain some downed wood within stands during fuel-reduction activities, such as thinning and prescribed burning. Several salamander species use downed wood for moisture and cover. Consult a wildlife biologist or herpetologist to determine appropriate levels of wood to retain while still meeting fuel reduction objectives. Large-diameter logs usually provide better habitat than small-diameter logs. Minimize loss of vegetative cover in forest stands by grazing livestock in pastures or grazing allotments. Forests with inadequate ground vegetation provide less cover and poorer habitat conditions for amphibians and reptiles. Minimize logging on steep slopes. Steep slopes are more prone to erosion, resulting in stream sedimentation that can negatively affect amphibian species and affect natural habitats downslope. Retain some unburned or unthinned areas to provide refugia during fuel treatments. Patches of variable sizes provide a wide range of suitable habitats in case fuel (excessive small-diameter wood, such as branches and leaves these fuel fires) treatments result in high mortality or detrimentally alter habitat conditions for a species. Areas not affected harbor populations that can recolonize those that are. Restore natural fire regimes using prescribed fire at the historic return interval and during the natural fire season. In dry forests, this will involve burning under dry conditions and thus may require repeated treatments over time to accomplish objectives safely. Obtain information on historic burn intervals. Minimize livestock around forest ponds, riparian forests, and streams. Alteration of these habitats usually occurs when livestock have access. As an alternative, create livestock watering troughs away from or provide restricted access points to streams. Use fencing where appropriate. Retain large trees and conserve snags for future recruitment of downed wood. These structures provide important basking, foraging, and shelter habitats for many amphibians and reptiles. Maintain natural wetland habitats and nearby uplands with buffer zones. Buffer zones of natural habitat will provide cooler, moister conditions near streams and wetlands and increase long-term recruitment of litter and wood to the forest floor. Wide buffers are more effective than narrow buffers. Replant disturbed areas with native species, especially around skidding and landing zones. Deactivate or restore areas where temporary roads have been constructed during harvest to prevent further use by the public. Moving stumps and logs into these heavy use areas can provide cover and moisture for amphibians and reduce further use of these areas as roads. Re-seed these disturbed sites using native seed and vegetation. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Identify likely movement corridors among habitat features (ponds, seeps, rock outcrops) and maintain connectivity by minimizing activities in these areas. Undisturbed patches or corridors that have cover and moisture can provide important habitat for migrating animals. Retaining undisturbed buffers on either side of streams is an effective way of accomplishing this for amphibians and some reptiles

114 ALPINE AND SUBALPINE Bryan Hamilton ALPINE AND SUBALPINE Erin Muths The alpine zone is characterized by rugged terrain of rocky ridges and outcrops, snowfields, tundra, and wet meadows above tree line. The sub-alpine zone is similar but refers to areas below the tree line. These ecosystems endure extremes of cold during the winter, and usually have prolonged snow cover. Although summer temperatures are typically not as hot as temperatures at lower elevations, sunlight is intense. These zones are typically less complex than ecosystems found at lower elevations. Because most precipitation falls as snow, run-off events are important, with an increase in surface water in the spring. As elevation increases, conditions for animals, especially ectothermic amphibians and reptiles, become harsher. In particular, time available to feed and breed telescopes to only a small portion of the year. Some high elevation lakes may be ice-free for only a few months in the summer. In the Southwest, alpine and sub-alpine habitats are found primarily in Colorado, California, and Utah. Patches of such habitat can also be found at high elevations in New Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada. Relative to unprotected habitats in other regions (i.e., native prairie in the Midwest) a considerable portion of the alpine landscape is protected. For example, much of the alpine and sub-alpine habitat in the Southwest, especially in the Rocky Mountains and California s Sierra Nevada, is protected by virtue of inclusion in landscapes already protected by federal, state, or local entities (e.g., 35 to 84% of the land in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah and California is under federal control). Despite protection, challenges still exist, and representative vegetation types such as tundra or peat-like wet meadows are particularly sensitive to perturbation, taking decades to recover. Activities such as logging, recreation, and the infrastructure (especially roads) developed to support these activities can easily disturb these fragile ecosystems. Off-highway vehicles and even camping and stock-packing can be detrimental to mountain environments. Campsites are often close to lakes, streams, and wet meadows. Trampled vegetation, disturbance, and pollution (including human waste) follow, impacting the native plants and animals that depend on such habitats. Pond-breeding amphibians at high elevations have a limited window of opportunity to breed, and if the breeding site is compromised by trampling or pollution (e.g., soap, insect repellent, sunscreen), reproduction may fail. The use of pack stock (llamas, horses, goats, and mules) can exacerbate these negative impacts by facilitating visitation to remote sites, increased trampling by stock, and potentially spreading invasive plant species via stock feed. In addition to resource and recreational use in protected areas, pollution, introduced species, climate change, and disease are likely to impact the persistence of amphibians and reptiles in these habitats. Nitrogen deposition from fixed, mobile, and agricultural sources along Colorado s Front Range is having a measurable impact on ecosystems in Rocky Mountain National Park, including water bodies, where assessments of the diatom flora indicate increased disturbance (or eutrophication). Installation and positioning of septic systems should be considered carefully as effluents may have more direct impacts in these habitat types where vegetation and soil may be sparse. A persistent problem at many alpine and sub-alpine HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 103

115 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Arie van der Meijden, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC (inset) William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC Habitat for the Mount Lyell Salamander (inset). Alpine and subalpine areas are a tough place for amphibians and reptiles to survive, yet some have adapted to these areas. Alpine areas do face many threats, however. The Sierra Nevada Yellow-legged Frog is one of the high-elevation lake frogs that is threatened by exotic fishes (e.g., trouts intentionally stocked for recreational fishing). Gary Nafis, California Herps lakes is the occurrence of and continued stocking of non-native fishes that prey on amphibian eggs, tadpoles, or juveniles. Changes in water availability with more water in the form of rain than snow (i.e., reduced snowpack) and increased temperatures associated with climate change may affect high-elevation amphibians. Recent work on one species, the Columbia Spotted Frog, in a sub-alpine system, suggests that survival and breeding probability may increase as winter severity decreases. Disease also impacts amphibians at high-elevation systems. There are a number of amphibians and reptiles that live in alpine and sub-alpine habitats despite the harsh conditions. Mountain lakes and streams, talus slopes, meadows, and other microhabitats are inhabited by some of the most cold-tolerant amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest and the world. Low average annual temperatures, typical in these habitats, preclude most egg-laying reptiles from reproducing successfully, and thus from establishing populations at higher elevations. However, some species that lay eggs at lower elevations are live-bearing at higher elevations. Amphibians living at high elevations may experience more exaggerated boom or bust years for reproduction because extreme events can be more common. For example, extreme events such as a late spring freeze after breeding has commenced or an early autumn freeze before metamorphs have found hibernacula can affect recruitment. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: Sacramento Mountains Salamander, Jemez Mountains Salamander, Mount Lyell Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Yosemite Toad, mountain yellow legged frogs (both species), Western Toad, Boreal Chorus Frog, Columbia Spotted Frog, Wood Frog; Lizards: Sagebrush Lizard, Greater Short-horned Lizard, Yarrow s Spiny Lizard; Snakes: Terrestrial Gartersnake, Northern Rubber Boa, California Mountain Kingsnake, Twin-spotted Rattlesnake MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES William P. Leonard Despite its lack of charisma (some would argue that!), the Western Toad is a high-profile species in Colorado (and elsewhere), where it has declined drastically in numbers in high-elevation habitats, primarily due to the amphibian chytrid fungus. Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Maintain recreational fisheries in only the largest lakes most accessible by trails. Non-native fish prey on amphibian eggs, tadpoles, and juveniles. Eliminating non-native fish from off-trail lakes will affect fewer anglers because the most used lakes are close to trails and established campsites. An associated outreach program to educate anglers 104

116 ALPINE AND SUBALPINE Subalpine firs and some spruces are usually the most cold-tolerant tree species in mountains of the Southwest, so are an indicator of subalpine forests. about amphibians and waterborne disease can be useful. Appropriate signage at popular fishing areas and increased availability of information where bait and licenses are sold could be useful. Keep pack stock away from lakes, ponds, streams, and wet meadows. Fill drinking buckets for stock from lakes and streams to reduce trampling of riparian vegetation and to keep urine and fecal matter away from the water. Tether pack stock with the high-line technique and pack in weed-free hay or pellets. Pack animals tied to high-lines between trees can help minimize damage to tree roots, downed wood, and meadows. Spacing them along the line will help avoid concentrating them in one area. Weed-free hay keeps invasive plants from being introduced. Where possible, eliminate or closely manage livestock to avoid grazing practices that leave inadequate vegetative cover on forest lands. Livestock grazing in subalpine areas on federal lands is often concentrated near wetlands because of sparse vegetation and low productivity elsewhere. Manage livestock in ways to minimize trampling these sensitive plants; they may not be able to grow back. Few reptiles can tolerate temperatures of the high mountains. Yarrow s Spiny Lizard is found at the highest elevations of southern Arizona, at nearly 11,000 ft (3352 m) in the Pinaleño Mountains. Surprisingly, on some relatively warm, sunny days (if not snowpacked), they will even emerge from hibernation in the middle of winter to bask. Locate campsites as far from water as possible to avoid or minimize impacts on alpine and sub-alpine habitats. Campsites are often close to lakes, streams, and wet meadows where trampled vegetation and pollution (including human waste) can degrade these aquatic habitats. Native plants and HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 105

117 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES animals that live there year-round depend on such habitats. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Restrict camping and fishing to designated areas. Forest Service recommendations and the Leave no Trace program suggest that campsites be set-up away from any open water. Restricting camping to designated areas reduces overall impacts on fragile alpine and subalpine habitats. Remove non-native fish from lakes and streams. Gillnets have been used to remove fish successfully from lakes up to 3 acres (1.2 ha) in size. In larger lakes, piscicides such as rotenone and antimycin- A, may be needed, although these are harmful to amphibians (especially eggs and larvae). Blocking spawning habitat in inlets and outlets is an alternative to chemical treatments, but may not be viable for some trout species that spawn in gravel at the edges of lakes. Implement a permit system for overnight stays. Permit systems provide a means for monitoring recreational use; they are used extensively and successfully in national parks. They can help reduce overcrowding, water contamination, and the establishment of unwanted campsites. Implement seasonal closures. Used commonly for bird of prey (raptor) nesting sites, seasonal closures may facilitate amphibian breeding by limiting disturbance at critical times. Such closures may be especially useful for species that are threatened or endangered or have limited access to appropriate habitat. Allow wildland fires to restore natural fire regimes by not suppressing lightning-caused fires when appropriate to the local forest. Many of the alpine and sub-alpine habitats have evolved with fire, meaning that fire is an integral part of the system (e.g., assisting evergreen cones to shed seeds and encouraging emigration by some amphibians into recently burned areas). Federal agencies are now allowing some fires to burn in large wilderness areas as part of a prescribed natural fire or wildland fire use policy. Conversely, in many areas of the Southwest, such as the subalpine forests in Arizona, forests are not fire-adapted but experience standreplacing fires every few hundred years. It is likely that the importance of fire management will increase as the frequency of fire accelerates with the changing climate. Understanding the historic fire regime and the response of the landscape and native species to fire is an important component to management. Implement strict control of off-road vehicle use. All off-road travel and road design though alpine or subalpine habitat requires careful management. Offroad activities damage sensitive plants and soils and degrade amphibian and reptile habitat. Build livestock exclosures around subalpine forest ponds and control access by livestock in riparian forests along streams. Such exclosures keep livestock away from breeding aggregations at ponds, and from amphibians dispersing to and from ponds and overwintering sites. Alternatives to exclosures include the construction of cattle watering troughs away from streams or establishing restricted access points to streams

118 ALPINE AND SUBALPINE DISEASE: CONTRIBUTOR TO AMPHIBIAN DECLINE Disease is an important contributor to the decline of amphibian populations and is a focal issue for some species living in alpine and subalpine habitats. The amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) is a pathogen that has caused or contributed to declines from Panama to Spain to Australia, including species in the Southwest (e.g., both species of mountain yellow-legged frogs [California]; Western Toads [Colorado]; and Tarahumara Frogs [Arizona]). Bd is a generalist (among amphibians) fungal pathogen with a wide range of host species, ostensibly the widest range of any known pathogen. The broadness of its host base suggests that Bd is a recently emerged pathogen and the temporal pattern of current data suggest that it emerged early in the 20 th century. There are two hypotheses on the origins of Bd. The endemic pathogen hypothesis, supported by data that indicate that the fungus was present in amphibian populations long before disease outbreaks, and the novel pathogen hypothesis, supported by the identification of epidemic fronts, the identification of vectors (e.g. amphibians from the pet trade), and the patchy distribution of Bd (e.g., Chytridiomycosis, the disease caused by this fungus, thickens the skin an important component of an amphibian s respiratory system and thus interferes with water intake and electrolyte balance. The impact of Bd varies dramatically from species to species and from population to population. For some species it causes high mortality, leading to extirpation of populations. Some species like the American Bullfrog (invasive in the Southwest Region west of east Texas and Oklahoma) are carriers and apparently suffer no ill effects from the disease. Bd is only one example of a variety of pathogens that have the potential to impact amphibians. Ranavirus spp. and the newly identified chytrid fungi, B. salamandrivorans (Bsal) are other emerging infectious diseases affecting salamanders in particular. While Bsal has not yet been found in the U.S., the spread of this disease has been linked to the bait trade because mudpuppies (tiger salamander larvae) are often used as bait for fishing. Studies have shown salamanders in the Southwest are susceptible to ranavirus, but the susceptibility to Bsal is mostly unknown. Amphibian species living in the alpine and subalpine zones are already stressed by the harsh environment and may be more susceptible to additional stress in the form of disease than their counterparts living at lower elevations. What can be done? Limiting the spread of disease is important. The tiny zoospores (mobile life stage) of Bd can survive transportation long distances in damp mud. Therefore, anglers and recreationists hiking in wet meadows or off trail should take care to disinfect their boots, waders and equipment when moving between drainages (see Appendix D). The sale of larval salamanders for bait can have significant impacts on the spread of disease, particularly ranavirus; further regulation or the elimination of this practice would reduce spread. Where amphibians are struggling with disease, minimizing additional stressors, such as the presence of non-native fish, is important. Mitigation efforts directed at Bd have been implemented at various places globally. In Europe, removal and treatment of amphibians coupled with a complete draw-down and disinfection of the habitat has been successful, but is rarely used. Such methods may not be practical on a large scale, but may be effective for isolated habitats that contain species of considerable risk and conservation value. Bioaugmentation (the addition of beneficial microbiota to individuals or habitats), another form of mitigation, was initiated on a trial basis in the Sierra Nevada. In this trial, Sierra Nevada Yellow-legged Frogs were inoculated with a specific bacterium that produces a metabolite toxic to Bd (the bacterium occurs naturally on some amphibians). Hope for the future? Some populations appear to be surviving with Bd. Recent work from California suggests that some populations of yellow-legged frogs are persisting with Bd at an endemic state, that is, infected adults have low fungal loads, survive between years and frequently lose and regain infection. This suggests that the host and pathogen dynamic is geographically variable. Research in Colorado and Wyoming suggests that under favorable environmental conditions populations of Western Toads may be able to compensate for lower survival with increases in recruitment, thus offsetting or at least slowing population declines associated with Bd. Erin Muths HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 107

119 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES ROCK FEATURES Robert E. Lovich Alison Cockrum Rock outcrops, cliffs, talus slopes, scree, boulder fields, streambeds, and other rocky features are distributed throughout the Southwest. They vary widely in geological origin and parent material. Exposed rock surfaces and crevices are commonly exploited by amphibians and reptiles. In the arid climate of the Southwest, substrates are often exposed because of reduced vegetative cover. In wetter regions, the same type of substrate may be overgrown by vegetation. Rock outcrops, talus slopes, and scree can be distinguished from one another by relatively subtle differences. Although all are comprised of exposed rocky substrate, outcrops are a visual exposure of underlying rock protruding up or out of the surrounding landscape. Talus slopes and scree are fields of Surface rocks are an extremely widespread and important resource for many animals. The aridity of much of the Southwest is largely responsible for the presence of surface rocks. In forested areas, rocks are usually buried under soil and leaf litter. accumulated broken pieces of rocks that have fallen from rocky ridges or mountains above. Exposed sedimentary rock, such as sandstones, siltstones, and limestones are formed from erosion in rivers, lakes, and oceans. Igneous rocks are widely distributed in the Southwest, and are often responsible for huge boulder piles of granite, rhyolite, andesite, and basalt. All of these rock types provide important habitat for a wide variety of amphibians and reptiles. Rock outcrops are widely distributed throughout the Southwest, from coastal areas to inland, and from below sea level to the montane elevational limits of amphibians and reptiles at well over 10,000 ft (3,048 m). The geology of the western United States is relatively young and diverse. Vegetative cover varies by region, rainfall amounts, slope, aspect, and other environmental variables. Some outcrops may be covered by dense vegetation, especially on north-facing slopes or under a tree canopy. Others may be virtually devoid of vegetation, such as those found in desert regions or predominantly on south-facing hillsides. While overlying vegetation has a profound impact on the resident herpetofauna using rocky habitats, of equal or greater importance are the microvegetative components of the crack and fissure matrix that are common to any rocky habitat. Over time, detritus, algae, mosses, and other vegetation form seals along the edges of exposed cracks, fissures, and openings. These seals are important in sustaining the microhabitat for the species that use the rocky retreats, be they herpetofauna or other species

120 ROCK FEATURES MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Many lizards are rock-dwellers, but the aptly named Rock Lizard is only found on boulders and cliffs. It is relatively flat, so that it can fit in narrow crevices. Its legs are very splayed, so that it can rapidly climb over and under the surfaces of boulders and rock faces. And you can see how it matches its granite background. Rocky habitats are commonly disturbed by humans, especially cap rocks. They can be moved to expose amphibians and reptiles that may reside there. Such habitat types attract herpetofaunal enthusiasts, as well as researchers, who can find specific species by breaking apart or removing and sometimes replacing these rock refugia. Disturbance of these retreats has a direct negative impact on the abundance and diversity of herpetofauna that may colonize or continue to use them post-disturbance. In all cases, it is important to limit and/or manage manipulation or disturbance to rocky habitats to maintain healthy and viable populations of rock-dwelling amphibians and reptiles. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: Del Norte Salamander, Siskiyou Mountains Salamander, Black Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Cliff Chirping Frog, Barking Frog; Lizards: Arizona Night Lizard, Granite Night Lizard, Granite Spiny Lizard, Switak s Banded Gecko, Common Chuckwalla, Mearn s Rock Lizard; Snakes: Sonoran Lyresnake, Baird s Ratsnake, Speckled Rattlesnake, Panamint Rattlesnake, Rock Rattlesnake; Turtles: Sonoran Desert Tortoise Limit removal of any rocky habitats as much as is possible. Patches of rocky habitat should be left intact when such habitat must be disturbed. Some amphibians and reptiles are uniquely adapted to the rocky habitats they inhabit and cannot survive without them. Enhance rocky habitats in areas where they may have been impacted, removed, or altered. Foster the creation and/or enhancement of rocky habitat types, refugia, and habitat for rock-dwelling amphibians and reptiles, thus increasing numbers and diversity of respective species. Replace rocks that have been moved. Removing or displacing rocks in order to detect herpetofauna for pleasure, research, legal harvest, or any other reason requires that the rocks be placed back as close to the original position as possible. Movement of rocks from their original position results in alteration of critical microhabitats required by amphibians and reptiles. Avoid removing them in the first place. Learn which species occur in rocky habitats on your land. Knowing those species present and their unique habitat requirements will assist in managing to minimize impacts to those species. Focus management objectives on species in this habitat type, such as leaving preferred rock types and structural features. Locate potentially disturbing activities away from rocky habitats. Fencing, livestock waters, roads, offroad vehicle trails, and foot trails should be located far enough from rocky habitats that the activities do not degrade them and unsolicited human encounters with snakes are minimized. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Do not disturb these habitats unless absolutely warranted. Processes that created these habitats may have taken millions of years to form, and can be undone in a matter of minutes. What may seem like a minor exercise, the movement of rocks to detect or capture amphibians and reptiles, has been found to be far more destructive than it seems. Alteration or movement of rocks can result in lower abundance and diversity of resident herpetofauna. Avoid mining or quarrying. Removal of rocky habitats for profit or other reasons normally involves mechanical and highly invasive methods that can eliminate or drastically reduce resident amphibians and reptiles. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 109

121 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES This talus slope is famous among poachers for Twin-spotted Rattlesnakes. Research has shown that collecting here has led to smaller average size of reproductive females hence smaller litters, and less recruitment of animals into the population. The Common Chuckwalla is the second largest lizard in the U.S., and is a boulder-dependant species. Restrict human access to known hibernation sites. Rattlesnakes and some other species spend much of their time in rocky den sites. For human safety reasons, as well as the protection of the animals in the dens, limit or restrict access to these areas. This can be done by enclosing sensitive sites with chain-link fence. The Northern Three-lined Boa and its close relative, the Rosy Boa, are nearly always found near rocky areas. Rocks and shrubs are probably the two most important microhabitat features for reptiles, and many terrestrial amphibians seek rocks and logs for cover. Retain the vegetation surrounding rocky habitats. Vegetation surrounding rocky habitats provides shade, shelter, and also erosion control. Loss of vegetative buffer can limit or remove the benefits offered by the vegetation. However, vegetation should not be allowed to spread and overtake the rocky habitats. Restrict recreational use. Rock climbing may inad- Danny Martin 110

122 ROCK FEATURES Four of the five U.S. collared lizard species, including this Sonoran Collared Lizard, are boulder obligates. They use rocks for spotting predators, hiding, locating prey, and territorial displays. Although vandalism such as this rock painted like a skull may not overly alter this ecosystem, it certainly presents an eye sore to those wanting to enjoy natural landscapes. This area has had vandalism that is much more invasive; people looking for night lizards have broken off caprocks which take hundreds or thousands of years to develop. This spells death for the lizards. vertently permit users to come into close contact with venomous snakes. Providing limits on access and educational information to users is highly recommended for the protection of the amphibians, reptiles in or around rocky habitats. Create rock habitats where possible. If rocks must be moved to accommodate development or other projects and the rocks are available, well-placed and properly constructed rock piles can still function as habitat for reptiles. Learn the hibernacula structural characteristics of the species on your property to guide construction. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 111

123 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Bryan Hamilton A Great Basin Rattlesnake is returning to its den in fall. Hibernacula are sometimes sought out by individuals intent on destroying the habitat and their inhabitants. This is not only unethical, but illegal. Hibernacula. Hibernacula, called dens for some species, allow reptiles to survive cold winter temperatures, as well as offer protection most predators. When multiple individuals use the same den, the sites are called communal den sites. Many ectotherms, such as turtles and lizards, use communal hibernacula; however, these habitat features are most often associated with snakes. Many communal hibernacula are also ancestral and have supported multiple generations of snakes, sometimes for hundreds or presumably thousands of years. Snakes often show high site fidelity, returning year after year to the same den. They will rarely use another den. Hibernacula are usually located on rocky, steep, south-facing slopes, which receive solar radiation and have relatively high soil temperatures during the winter months. Higher soil temperatures lead to a shallower frost line, meaning that snakes do not have to go deep underground to avoid freezing temperatures. Protecting communal hibernacula is critical for conservation of snakes in the Southwest. Some snakes can reach their maximum densities at hibernacula, and some dens support hundreds of individuals. During spring emergence and fall ingress, basking snakes are vulnerable to indiscriminate killing and collecting. Destruction of dens can eliminate snakes from large areas. To protect hibernacula, avoid development or disturbance at den sites, protect the sites from collectors and poachers during spring emergences and fall ingress. Ensure that the allimportant migration corridors that allow snakes to move from summer foraging habitats to their hibernacula remain functional and natural. Bryan T. Hamilton The Great Basin Rattlesnake, a subspecies of Western Rattlesnake, uses a communal hibernaculum. Bryan Hamilton These Yarrow s Spiny Lizards are congregating in large numbers in a hibernaculum but are emerging to briefly bask on a warm day in February at 8,000 ft (2,438 m)! 112

124 Caves, Karst, and UNDERGROUND MINES CAVES, KARST, AND UNDERGROUND MINES Drew Stokes Karst refers to dissolved limestone underground cavities, including caves. Caves may also be formed from other materials, such as lava tubes and sink holes in igneous rock. Natural cave and karst formations, as well as artificial cave analogues such as underground mines, occur throughout North America. Karst formations are a significant part of the landscape in the Southwest, particularly in Texas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Karst areas contain important resources such as underground springs and large aquifers. Karst formations also provide unique underground habitats for rare and highly specialized fauna including several amphibians, particularly cave-adapted salamanders of the Edwards Plateau in Central Texas. They are extremely sensitive to environmental changes, including those that occur on the surface of the land. Natural granitic boulder, Not all karst formations are jaw-dropping caves like Carlsbad Caverns. This limestone rock wall, in the same general area, is replete with crevices that provide shelter for reptiles, such as Crevice Spiny Lizards or Gray-banded Kingsnakes. volcanic, metavolcanic (metamorphic rock of volcanic origin) caves, and man-made underground mines are also prevalent in the Southwest. These caves, karst features, and underground mines all provide unique microclimates and can offer refuge from extreme climates. They provide physiological conditions (temperature, humidity, light) needed by some species. They often provide drinking water and prey items. The threats most relevant to herpetofauna in karst formations, boulder caves, and mines include impacts from recreational caving, renewed mining, groundwater pumping, pollution, and above-ground construction projects (all which are not mutually exclusive). Recreational caving activity can be a disturbance factor, as well as a mechanism for spread of disease such as the White Nose Syndrome currently affecting bats. It s plausible that fungi and other diseases that affect herpetofauna, particularly amphibians, could be introduced and spread locally, as well as across regions. A land manager may decide to close mines and caves to recreational use if that use results in the degradation of this unique and valuable habitat type. One measure implemented for protecting bat colonies in caves and mines is the installation of bat-gates to prevent human access while allowing access to wildlife and minimizing alteration of internal microclimates. This technique would also likely be effective in protecting most cavedwelling herpetofauna. However, large desert tortoises (both species) are unable to negotiate the standard bat gate design and a recessed placement of the gate or modified lower bar spacing would be required to accommodate them. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 113

125 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Drew Stokes Bat gates are permeable to bats and other small animals, but protect the cave from humans Another bat gate design that allows greater access by a wider variety of species. Bryan Hamilton Those Amazing Cave Salamanders! While many species of salamanders may take refuge in the cool, moist environment of caves and karst features in the landscape, some never leave these habitats. For example, a genus of salamanders (Hydromantes) in California, known as web-footed salamanders, inhabits caves and limestone crevices or similar habitats. However, the most specialized cave-dwellers are a group of lungless salamanders (family Plethodontidae). In our area, several species inhabit limestone caves and subterranean springs in the karst systems in Texas and Oklahoma. Some species will metamorphose from the larval stage and may ultimately look like other species of terrestrial plethodontids. However, the most specialized species in this group are troglobites that never leave caves or their aquatic cave environments. These animals rarely metamorphose into a terrestrial phase, but keep their larval features, including gills and larval color patterns. Retention of juvenile characteristics in breeding individuals, known as neoteny or paedomorphosis, occurs in several groups of aquatic animals. Some of these salamanders lack functional eyes and have no pigment, so may be white in color and translucent. Texas Blind Salamanders, Comal Blind Salamanders, Austin Blind Salamanders, and Blanco Blind Salamanders in Texas represent these extremes in cave-adapted, aquatic species. Lawrence L. C. Jones Nathan Bendik Nathan Bendik Barton Springs, near Austin, Texas, is effectively managed for both spring salamanders and recreational swimming. The federally threatened Jollyville Plateau Salamander is a spring and karst-dwelling species that will be under cover objects on the surface, but when springs recede, the salamanders will seek subterranean retreats in underground springs. Spring seepages represent the above-ground habitat of the Jollyville Plateau Salamander. This species requires cool, clear springs and underground access to karst. Pristine habitat is required, but it is fragile and easily destroyed. The Comal Springs Salamander is a true troglobytic species that never leaves the dark recesses of caves and springs. As with other troglobytes, it has lost its skin pigment and has essentially vestigial eyes. This species retains gills as an adult and is thus considered neotenic or paedomorphic. Nathan Bendik Nathan Bendik 114

126 Caves, Karst, and UNDERGROUND MINES The Gray-banded Kingsnake is a limestone karst specialist. It was once thought to be extremely rare, but in fact it is just very secretive in its crevice habitat. Often found in the same area and habitat as the Gray-banded Kingsnake, the Trans-Pecos Ratsnake is sometimes found at cave and underground mine entrances, where it may feed on bats coming and going. Online videos have captured this in action. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 115

127 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Underground mines are essentially artificial caves. They provide a cool shelter for a variety of animals. The photo below shows what was seen inside this mine entrance (also called an adit). This troglobite (obligate cave-dweller) is a Comal Blind Salamander. There are several species of cave salamanders in limestone karst areas, especially in the Edwards Plateau region of Texas. Caves are sensitive habitats and cave-dwelling species are very specialized. Nathan Bendik Inside the adit of this small mine tunnel was a Speckled Rattlesnake and Black-tailed Rattlesnake, seeking temperatures more moderate than just outside. Mine tunnels and shafts can be good reptile habitat, but can also pose human safety concerns. Renewed mining is a significant problem particularly with abandoned mines. Some mines that have not been used for decades may have become important habitat and refugia for wildlife. When they are suddenly subjected to heavy disturbance, there may be significant impacts, such as conversion of underground tunnels to open pit mines. Renewed mining also often involves other processes with negative side effects such as groundwater pumping and the introduction of pollutants. Groundwater pumping can greatly impact karsts, caves and mines by reducing the amount of water and altering the humidity inside. Groundwater pumping often accompanies mining activities. These activities can occur far away from caves and mines and still affect the amount of water in caves and mines by causing localized natural springs to dry up. Pollution of sensitive underground water resources from sewage, trash, urban run-off, and domestic and industrial chemicals including fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides is a significant problem in karsts areas. Construction of buildings and roads on the land surface usually entails clearing and stabilizing features on the A seep coming out of the hillside is evidence of a karst network underground and may provide habitat for the Comal Blind Salamander. Nathan Bendik 116

128 Caves, Karst, and UNDERGROUND MINES landscape often resulting in altered drainage patterns. This can impact subsurface karst environments via destabilization of the balance between surface and underground components of karsts. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: Cascade Caverns Salamander, Comal Blind Salamander, Blanco Blind Salamander, Valdina Farms Salamander, Texas Blind Salamander, Limestone Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Barking Frog, California Treefrog, Pacific Treefrog; Lizards: Peninsula Leaf-toed Gecko, Gila Monster; Snakes: Graybanded Kingsnake, Trans-Pecos Ratsnake, Speckled Rattlesnake, Panamint Rattlesnake, black-tailed rattlesnakes (both species); Turtles: Sonoran Desert Tortoise MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maintain natural habitat buffers around cave entrances. Vegetation helps to prevent sedimentation from entering cave entrances. Organic particles generated by forest ecosystem processes serve as a food sources for cave organisms. Prevent point and non-point source pollution from entering caves. Learn all the points of entry of your caves and protect them from input of polluted water. Prohibit dumping of commercial, industrial, and residential waste into caves, including trash and organic debris. Input of petroleum products, septic waste, and other contaminants can kill sensitive cave animals. Maintain natural hydrological patterns throughout the recharge areas of the caves on your property. Maintenance of natural water flow patterns will help keep pollution from entering caves. Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Limit human activity to times outside of seasonal fauna activity where cave access is permitted. Consider guided tours over open access areas. Work with a management partner to develop a permitting system to foster user accountability. Guard against the spread of disease. Implement protocols to avoid the introduction and spread of diseases such as White Nose Syndrome (a deadly fungus affecting bats) and chytridiomycosis. Protect subterranean systems from sediments. Sediment and runoff from activities on the surface outside caves can destroy sensitive microhabitats used by cave amphibians. Use appropriate barriers and direct sediments away from sensitive areas. Establish natural buffer zones around sinkholes. Treat these sensitive habitats like vernal pools. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Erect fences or gates where necessary to prevent illegal entry. Gate design should not alter airflow, temperatures, or humidity, or interfere with passage of fauna such as bats. Designs are available through Bat Conservation International. Chain-link fences may be a good alternative to gates, because they allow easier access for animals besides bats. Maintain natural airflow patterns and prevent sediment from entering the cave. Altering cave entrances will change airflow, temperatures, and humidity. Cave organisms are sensitive to rapid changes in their cave ecosystem. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 117

129 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES CANYONS Michael D. Wilcox The canyons that carve through the varied landscapes of the southwestern United States support a wide variety of topographic and geologic features that provide substrate for many diverse plant communities. They provide habitat to a diverse array of wildlife, including amphibians and reptiles, many of which are found nowhere else in the world. Habitats range from barren sandstone gorges and slot ravines of Utah to the shady fern-laced chert, granitic canyons of the cismontane Coast and Transverse ranges of California, and the jagged gypsum and limestone cliffs of west and central Texas. Canyons are in one sense extremely diverse and in another quite similar. The canyons of the Southwest are strongly governed by geology, latitude, elevation, orientation, aspect, rainfall, and snow melt. They exhibit a wide range of ecological characteristics, including perennial, annual The Southwest typifies canyonlands. This is the Little Colorado River Canyon. and intermittent water flows, gradient, size, and other environmental variables. Because of the greater and more dramatic effect that the elements of weathering play in shaping the resistant sandstone, granite, limestone, and other strata present in arid climates, canyons are more common in the Southwest than in the more mesic areas of the country. Canyons and the diverse array of habitats they support provide critical habitat oases for species that wouldn t otherwise be able survive in the harsh conditions of the arid Southwest. Important canyon habitats and microhabitats not only include the critically important aquatic, emergent vegetation, and riparian vegetation communities often present along canyon bottomlands, but also the more arid upland areas such as adjacent alluvial benches, steep canyon walls, talus slides, rocky foothills, and ridgelines. Although the diverse array of canyon habitats include those associated with the permanent, perennial, and intermittently aquatic areas, this section will focus on the more arid uplands associated with canyon areas. In addition to those mentioned above, examples of canyon upland habitats and microhabitats also include oak, broadleaf and evergreen woodlands, xeric chaparrals, sage, desert and succulent scrubs, grasslands, caves, mines, rock cracks and crevices, stony outcrops, cap rock, cliffs, arches, spires, pinnacles, mountainsides, overhangs, scree, loose earthen slopes, seeps, springs, and weeping walls. The overall canyon ecosystem may consist of aquatic habitats, riparian corridors, floodplains, and adjacent upland communities. These are important for providing per

130 CANYONS Afton Canyon is an example of a smaller canyon with an ephemeral wash in the bottom. Michael Wilcox The tiny Rio Grande Chirping Frog would be easily overlooked in pre-project surveys which is why surveyors should become familiar with the calls. manent and temporary refuge, foraging and breeding habitats, and serve as critical movement corridors and habitat linkages for flora and fauna that are essential for dispersal, migration and genetic flow. Although canyons support some of the rarest and most critical life-sustaining habitats in the Southwest, they have been and continue to be subjected to a The aptly named Canyon Treefrog is often found in canyons and arroyos (washes). It matches its rocky substrate extremely well, so may go unnoticed, but also hides in rocky crevices. variety of disturbances and habitat degradation. Many have been heavily impacted by activities such as dam construction/inundation, mining, off-roading, grazing, introduction of non-native species such as wild burros, and other threats. Historic and ongoing threats include development, pollution, use of toxic chemicals, altered geomorphology, introduced exotic species, grazing, agriculture, and incompatible land-use practices, HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 119

131 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: San Gabriel Slender Salamander, Tehachapi Slender Salamander; Frogs and Toads: California Treefrog, Canyon Treefrog, Cliff Chirping Frog, Relict Leopard Frog, Arroyo Toad; Lizards: Canyon Lizard, Crevice Spiny Lizard, Giant Spotted Whiptail, Madrean Alligator Lizard; Snakes: Gray-banded Kingsnake, Green Ratsnake, Western Rattlesnake MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: The aptly named Canyon Lizard prefers canyon walls and boulders as its primary habitats. drought, and human-induced and increased incidence of wildfire. For these reasons, many of the canyons of the Southwest, in addition to many of the amphibians and reptiles residing within, are threatened, if not severely imperiled. Therefore their conservation and sustainability is of vital importance and should be considered a high priority. The canyons of the Southwest also traverse various jurisdictional or ownership boundaries and thus are subjected to a broad spectrum of regulatory requirements and unique management challenges and considerations. Until recently, conservation and management efforts have largely focused on freshwater resources retention, water quality, recreational uses, and flood control. With a shift in focus to sustainability, maintenance, and enhancement of the ecosystem as a whole, there is now a wider appreciation of these geological features and the associated habitats they comprise. Although land use practices such as agriculture, grazing, and high-intensity development threaten the integrity of many canyons, there are management options that will help lessen the impacts. Minimize and control activities that alter or affect streambank structure. Stabilize unnaturally eroded, steep banks and minimize use of unnatural materials (i.e., riprap, concrete, vertically incised walls) that may impede movements of amphibians and reptiles migrating between aquatic, streamside, and upland habitats. Carefully plan any road construction or improvement projects to minimize effects. Limit and manage access and incompatible activities such as logging, mining, and grazing. Avoid activities that create runoff into canyon lands from urban, agricultural, or residential areas. Maintain habitat connectivity where possible. Avoid disruption of the connectivity of canyons, sidecanyons, and their associated uplands, floodplains, and riparian zones. Control and manage public access. Unrestricted public access can result in increased erosion, soil compaction, siltation, proliferation of user-made roads and trails, killing and harassment of wildlife, and loss of plant and animal diversity. Controlling public access is intended to remove or minimize non-compatible recreational uses or activities. Manage road and trail development and maintenance. If possible, avoid the development of new roads, stream crossings, construction of retaining walls, and slope stabilization in and immediately adjacent to stream and riparian habitats. Where new roads or trails are necessary, carefully design and plan road and trail placement and construction to overlap and occur within previously disturbed areas such as fire breaks. Reclaim and restore impacted canyon habitats where possible. Restoration of habitats that have been impacted should be a high priority. Where possible and as appropriate, seed stock from local forbs, grasses, and shrubs, and cuttings from local trees should be used in restoration. Avoid use of herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers, and toxic chemicals. Prevent and control exotic plant species. Observe no-disturbance buffers. Identify, establish, 120

132 CANYONS The Midget Faded Rattlesnake is a small subspecies of the more wide-ranging Western Rattlesnake. Stephen Spear Habitat Models to Guide Management Decisions: A Case Study with Midget Faded Rattlesnakes. Many land managers and stewards are tasked with balancing the needs of resource development or extraction with biodiversity conservation. This is most difficult in environments that house both rich resources and sensitive species. Management has to identify critical resources for focal species and potentially allow other land uses while protecting those resources. However, this requires knowledge of resource use at a scale relevant to land management decisions. The sagebrush-steppe and canyon country of southwest Wyoming and western Colorado is one of the most productive areas in the region for oil, gas, and wind development, but also harbors a wide variety of wildlife species sensitive to disturbance. The Midget Faded Rattlesnake, a subspecies of the Western Rattlesnake, only occurs within the Colorado Plateau region of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. It is considered a species of conservation concern across its range and like many northern rattlesnakes relies on rocky hibernacula for overwintering. In addition, these snakes stay within the proximity of denning sites for gestation and shedding activities. We used known den locations in southwest Wyoming based on previous research to create a map of predicted den sites. When we visited the predicted sites to search for rattlesnakes, we found that our map was accurate 85% of the time. Therefore, the den model may be reliably used to guide management decisions to identify potential sources of conflict with rattlesnakes and human-oriented uses of the landscape. The model is currently being used by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department and U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) as a tool to guide permitting decisions. Because of the success of the Wyoming study, we also developed and ground-truthed a den model for the BLM in western Colorado. Use of reliable observations to create predictions of habitat use may be invaluable for developing conservation plans that minimize impacts on snake populations. Stephen F. Spear and Joshua M. Parker Colored models of habitat quality can help natural resource managers understand which areas to avoid or protect in development planning. The green areas are highquality habitat, while the red is poorer quality habitat. Stephen Spear HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 121

133 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES and implement no-disturbance buffer zones around aquatic habitats inhabited by turtles, toads, and salamanders that use adjacent canyon upland areas for nesting, hibernation, and/or aestivation. In some areas, depending on the breeding, feeding, sheltering, and migratory patterns, site specific topography and other features, buffers distances should be adjusted accordingly. Additional area may be required for nodisturbance buffers for some species that travel greater distances into upland habitats For example, Arroyo Toads have been reported using upland habitats up to about 3,281 feet (1 km) away from aquatic breeding habitats. Minimize or avoid removal of microhabitat features. Rocks, logs, stumps, duff, plant root structure, horizontal plant structure, substrate moisture, depth, texture, and ph are important characteristics of amphibian and reptile microhabitat that provide essential shelter, forage, and other critical sustenance. Removal of such features when necessary should be carefully planned and controlled. Time construction activities to minimize impacts. Conduct construction activities, routine operations, and maintenance to avoid times when amphibians and reptiles may be most vulnerable to injury, mortality, or disruption of natural activities. This generally includes periods of rainfall when amphibians may be more active, as when crossing roads to access breeding sites. Encourage partnerships among users of canyonlands. Land owners, resource managers, agencies, scientists, local organizations, and communities should participate in volunteer networks to address such projects as monitoring, re-vegetation and restoration, site clean-up, and other improvements. Partnerships among stakeholders can be effective. such as breeding sites. Use prescribed fires as a management tool where possible. Hot burns and burning at the wrong time can injure and kill wildlife, as well as introduce non-native species. Prescribed fire should be used only when a natural fire regimen cannot be relied upon. Prescribed burns and wildfire should be avoided in areas that have not evolved with natural fire intervals. Restore lost connectivity between canyons and their adjacent habitats. Restore the connectivity of canyons, side-canyons, and their associated uplands, floodplains, and riparian zones previously lost to obstructions such as dams, channelization, development, and habitat loss or fragmentation. Avoid incompatible land-use practices and promote compatible activities. Land-use practices and activities that alter canyon vegetation communities, slopes, sidewalls, rock outcrops, and upland areas should be avoided. Incompatible practices include operation of heavy equipment, use or application of toxic chemicals, and grazing. Compatible activities are recommended, such as control and eradication of exotic species, enhancement and restoration of degraded habitats, removal of debris and unnatural features, and road and trail closures in areas critical to vulnerable species. Conduct public outreach and encourage participation in low-impact activities. Public education programs emphasizing the importance of canyon habitats and their species could help adjacent landowners and visitors realize the value of these features. Intact and naturally functioning canyon environments increase their value to visitor s aesthetic and spiritual experiences. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Maintain native canyon habitats in conditions similar to what occurred in the area historically. This includes sustaining or possibly recreating the ecological processes (e.g., flood, fire) that shape and rejuvenate habitats to keep them within the range of natural variability. Canyon habitats supporting native amphibians and reptiles should not be flooded, drained, dredged, or otherwise altered. Riparian and wetland vegetation should not be removed. Avoid mowing, disking, and operation of heavy equipment for vegetation removal. Mowing, disking, and operation of heavy equipment in canyon habitats have the potential to kill and injure native wildlife and destroy their habitats. Amphibians and reptiles are especially vulnerable due to their limited mobility. Avoid these techniques in and adjacent to sensitive habitats 122

134 INTERMITTENT STREAMS AND EPHMERAL PONDS Ryan Besser INTERMITTENT STREAMS AND EPHMERAL PONDS Steve Morey Intermittent streams (including washes and arroyos) make up the majority of lotic (flowing water) habitats in the arid Southwest. Because stream substrates are wetter than their surroundings, they usually support markedly different plant communities and are comparatively rich in amphibian and reptile abundance and diversity. At low flow, some intermittent streams may contain flowing segments and even permanent pools where conditions permit. However, many ephemeral (temporally intermittent) streams may flow only briefly following precipitation events. The distinct vegetation found along intermittent (and perennial) streams defines the riparian zone. Ephemeral streams that only support upland vegetation are termed xeroriparian (i.e., dry riparian). Riparian zones vary in width, depending on local conditions. Ephemeral pools range from small natural pools which remain watered for only a few days following rainfall, to large playas and stock tanks that may hold water for weeks or months. Although they are partially dry for much of the year, intermittent streams in arid regions of the Southwest are important because they usually make up a large percentage of the stream length in a watershed and are connected to larger stream systems. What happens in intermittent streams generally has downstream effects on the whole watershed. Ephemeral pools fill after rainfall and may or may not be associated with ephemeral streams. Large pools and playas may form at the terminus of ephemeral watersheds. Humans inadvertently create ephemeral pools when activities such as road and railroad construction create depres- Joe Mitchell This ephemeral pool in Oklahoma will attract a number of amphibian species to breed as well as snakes and other wildlife to prey on the bounty. Although often overlooked as unimportant and easily eliminated by human activities, the presistence of these small wetlands determines whether certain amphibian species remain in the landscape. This pool in an intermittent stream in the Pajarito Mountains of Arizona allows several species of primarily Mexican frog species to reproduce. If there are severe wildfires or improperly planned prescribed fires in the uplands above, streams like this can easily be scoured and fill with ash rendering them useless as breeding habitat. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 123

135 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES The pools in this stream are spatially and temporally intermittent. During the spring and summer low-flow period, pools are isolated from one another. These rock pools, known as tinajas, were used to reintroduce Tarahumara Frogs back into the U.S., after the species went extinct in the wild. sions that fill with water after rainfall. One attribute of intermittent streams and ephemeral pools that makes them vital habitats for many amphibians and some reptiles is that, due to periodic drying, they usually lack fish, crayfish, and non-native, predatory American Bullfrogs. There are several reasons intermittent streams and ephemeral pools are suitable for amphibians and reptiles. The most obvious is presence of water. Most frogs and toads and some salamanders in the Southwest breed in ephemeral pools or in plunge-and-scour pools along intermittent streams. On nights after rainfall, large congregations of chorusing spadefoot toads and other species can be heard for great distances. The duration of time a pool has water, known as hydroperiod, can determine which species breed there and whether or not they will be successful. For example, the tadpoles of Couch s Spadefoot can complete development in just over a week, but tiger salamanders require pools with hydroperiods of up to several weeks. Wherever riparian zones exist along intermittent streams and washes, they are used extensively and may be preferred by many reptiles of the Southwest. Depending on topography and which riparian elements are present, spiny lizards, tree and brush lizards, gartersnakes, and Common Side-blotched Lizards can be amazingly abundant. Alluvial substrates and stream bank structure associated with ephemeral dry washes are important habitats for desert tortoises (both species), Gila Monsters, Zebra-tailed Lizards, This Great Basin Spadefoot is emerging from red rock sand dunes to seek out moisture and a breeding pool. It is important to consider all life history traits when making management decisions species such as this have an upland and wetland life history need

136 INTERMITTENT STREAMS AND EPHMERAL PONDS Ephemeral waters are not only important for amphibians, but also the animals that prey on them without their prey base, the predators could be extirpated from otherwise good habitat. Danny Martin Yellow Mud Turtles require streams or ponds. However, these aquatic habitats may dry at certain periods of the year, at which time mud turtles will often bury themselves in mud or seek refuge in adjacent upland sites. They will remain inactive and hidden until the pond or stream again contains water. Laurie J. Vitt HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 125

137 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Greater Earless Lizards, horned lizards, and Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnakes. It is not a stretch to say that most species of amphibians and reptiles, especially in the more arid portions of the Southwest, preferentially use or depend on intermittent streams and their riparian zones to some extent during their lives. During dry periods, this is even true for reptiles that are more typically associated with other surrounding habitats. Thus, it is easy to predict that changes in intermittent streams and ephemeral pools will have important consequences for the amphibians and reptiles that depend on them. Even the smallest and most ephemeral streams have connections to the larger stream system, and habitat loss and degradation in upstream reaches can have important downstream consequences. The most important threats to hydrology are ground-water pumping, impoundments, and damage to the riparian zone. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Salamanders: Western Tiger Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Arroyo Toad, Red-spotted Toad, Great Plains Toad, Couch s Spadefoot, Mexican Spadefoot; Lizards: Tiger Whiptail, Marbled Whiptail, Zebra-tailed Lizard, Greater Earless Lizard; Snakes: Black-necked Gartersnake; Turtles: Yellow Mud Turtle, Sonora Mud Turtle MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Avoid altering flow of intermittent streams and hydroperiods in natural ephemeral pools. How long water is present determines which species will breed and if breeding can be successful. Groundwater pumping and diversions can reduce hydroperiods and impoundments can increase hydroperiods. Alteration of water-retention time causes changes in amphibian abundance and diversity within the watershed. Protect adjacent uplands from alteration. Some frogs, toads, and salamanders use intermittent streams or ephemeral pools for breeding and larval development, but adults spend the rest of their lives on land, sometimes far from water. Protecting streambeds or ephemeral pools in isolation will be insufficient for these species because they depend on the stream or pool and adjacent habitats. Avoid introducing fish, bait, or other predatory aquatic species. Some ephemeral watersheds contain permanent or nearly permanent pools where conditions allow. In these settings introduced American Bullfrogs, fishes (especially sunfish, bass, and mosquitofish), and crayfish, cause individual mortality or even eliminate entire populations of native amphibians. Introduced tiger salamanders can flourish in areas with stock tanks. They are potent predators on tadpoles of native amphibians. Minimize alteration of riparian zones when conducting activities along stream corridors. Loss of riparian vegetation (usually due to stream channelization or stabilization), agricultural clearing, or unmanaged livestock use damages habitat functions essential for amphibians and eliminates important habitat for many species of reptiles. Salt cedar (tamarisk) is an invasive plant that eliminates the native riparian vegetation and likely consumes water needed for the ephemeral pools. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Identify areas for protection and restoration priority. Areas for consideration are amphibian breeding sites, riparian zones, and disturbances in headwater basins. Partnerships may be required to establish shared priorities for protection and restoration. Managing intermittent streams, ephemeral pools, and adjacent habitats is ideal because habitat value for amphibians and reptiles is dependent on the stream or pool, the riparian zone, and the surrounding uplands. Restore natural hydroperiods wherever pumps, diversions, and dams have outlived their usefulness. Removing old or unneeded structures is an ideal management strategy for restoring hydrologic functions that benefit native amphibians and reptiles. Restore the riparian zone where it has been damaged. Reverse riparian losses due to stream channelization or stabilization, invasive salt cedar introduction, agricultural clearing, or unmanaged livestock use. Consult state fish and game agencies and other experts for advice on costs and methods appropriate for local conditions. Remove non-native frogs, fishes, and introduced other species. Once established, non-native species such as American Bullfrogs are difficult to eradicate. Consult with the non-game branch of state fish and game agencies or other experts to learn effective methods for eradication or reduction of non-native populations

138 INTERMITTENT STREAMS AND EPHMERAL PONDS Danny Martin Texas Horned Lizard Pygmy Short-horned Lizard Jackson Shedd Greater Short-horned Lizard Round-tailed Horned Lizard Jackson Shedd Desert Horned Lizard Regal Horned Lizard DIVERSITY OF HORNED LIZARDS IN THE SOUTHWEST. Most people are somewhat familiar with horned lizards because of their unique body form and cranial horns. The vernacular term, horny toad, is misleading since they are lizards. All species of horned lizards are found in the southwestern U.S. or Mexico. There are nine species in the Southwest. All can be differentiated by the shape and pattern of their horns, and photographs of all species are shown in this HMG. Horned lizards mostly eat ants, especially harvester ants, and some squirt blood from their eyes as a defensive ploy another famous attribute. Although often collected as pets, they make terrible pets and usually die slowly in captivity. The poisoning of native ants and invasion of non-native ants have escalated population declines. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 127

139 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Ryan Besser RIVERS AND PERENNIAL STREAMS Jim Asmus Danny Martin Perennial streams are not as common in most of the Southwest as they are in other regions. Year-round water in arid lands is an extremely valuable resource. Rivers are flowing systems of water formed by the convergence of smaller (lower-order) streams. These systems include faster flowing, deep water habitats and slower portions of vegetated, wetland habitats. Due to their linear form, rivers often represent legal borders and traverse lands under different ownerships. Hence, private and government land owners should be involved in the management of riverine habitats. Forming partnerships with all stakeholders is critical to successfully managing riverine habitats for amphibians, reptiles, and other wildlife. A substantial diversity of river morphologies occurs in the southwestern U.S. The eastern edge of Texas is bounded by the sinuous Sabine River that flows Although there are relatively few reptiles and amphibians in high mountain streams, these headwaters are an important source of clear water downstream. across a flat landscape littered with oxbows lakes. In contrast, rivers of the desert and mountainous Southwest flow quickly from high to low elevations, a process that in some cases forms plunge pools and stretches of whitewater. Due to the mountainous geography in the Southwest and parent rock formations that are commonly sandstone or granite, rivers in the region are often characterized by substrates of sand, gravel, and cobble. The Mojave River flows from the San Bernardino Mountains in California eastward into the Mojave Desert where it eventually ends in the usually dry Cronese Lakes. Perennial streams, rivers, and their adjacent riparian zones are high value habitats amphibians and reptiles and other vertebrates. Their linear form provides natural corridors for dispersal and migration. Occurrence of perennial water maintains riparian and aquatic vegetation which forms ecotones with the adjacent upland vegetation communities. This abundant edge-effect promotes substantial biodiversity. Rivers also serve to collect and relocate nutrients, thereby serving as vital conduits in nutrient cycles. Although the Southwest is dominated by arid climates, water has too often been regarded as an unlimited resource. Rain falling onto urban and other developed areas collects in drainage structures and in some cases is quickly routed to the ocean via streams and rivers. The prevalence of concrete surfaces, compacted soils, and artificial channelization within watersheds hampers the percolation of rainfall into the soil and promotes overland runoff. Water that would otherwise move slowly underground to recharge aquifers or 128

140 RIVERS AND PERENNIAL STREAMS Laurie J. Vitt The Little River in Oklahoma, showing the riparian vegetation zone. Forested riparian areas provide movement corridors for wildlife, prevent streambank erosion, and help maintain water quality. continue to feed riverine systems later on is lost in the short-term. Those factors promote flash flood conditions within the watersheds. The inherent channeling quality of rivers also means that they, unfortunately, serve as receivers and conduits for human waste water. Consequently, rivers carry pollutants such as pesticides, salts, fertilizers, petroleum products, sewage effluent, residual pharmaceuticals, and excess sediments. Despite these threats, there are several actions landowners and managers can take to reduce their impacts on amphibians and reptiles while focusing on other uses of their lands. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: Rough-skinned Newt, California Giant Salamander, Gulf Coast Waterdog, Lesser Siren; Frogs and Toads: Northern Red-legged Frog, Coastal Tailed Frog, Northern Leopard Frog, Western Chorus Frog; Snakes: Narrow-headed Gartersnake, Mexican Gartersnake, Brazos River Watersnake; Turtles: Western Pond Turtle, Spiny Softshell, Smooth Softshell, Rio Grande Cooter capture pollutants before they enter the storm drain system. Build sediment retention basins that do not hold water perennially to avoid creating habitat for introduced species such as American Bullfrogs. Install bridges instead of culverts when constructing or retrofitting roads that cross rivers in flat terrain. Where possible, design bridges wide enough to allow the river to produce a sinuous course within the historic floodplain. Migration of the river s channel produces sandy deposits that may become stabilized with riparian vegetation. At different locales and in various states of succession, these sandy deposits offer basking sites for snakes, provide nesting sites for softshell turtles, and serve as foraging sites and daytime retreat sites for toads. Design generous Streamside Management Areas to include native mature trees and vegetation in areas of ground disturbance. Well-designed Streamside Management Areas will shade and cool the water, provide structural diversity of plants, and offer protection from excess sediment deposits. Large trees and snags are future sources of fallen dead wood along river edges that can serve as basking habitat for turtles and snakes. They create eddies in the water that are important habitat features for fish, amphibians and reptiles. Choose pervious or permeable concrete for paved surfaces. Use of these products during new construction and renovations will allow rainwater to infiltrate and percolate through soils instead of being routed into a storm drain. Schedule water releases from dams and impoundments when possible to mimic natural hydrologic cycles of river basins. Be aware of potential harm to amphibians and reptiles that may inhabit the drainage. Install a series of treatment wetlands to process discharge water from point sources (e.g., mills and plants) prior to release into adjacent rivers. Constructed basin wetlands provide habitats for MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefitting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Use Best Management Practices designed for construction sites to limit water pollution. Examples include protecting storm drains from sediment and chemical spills, installing geotextiles on bare slopes to prevent erosion, providing spill kits and containment basins at fueling sites, and building washout basins. Prevent oil runoff from parking lots and other impervious surfaces. Install oil-water separators to The Coastal Giant Salamander is the largest terrestrial salamander in the U.S., and one of the largest salamanders in the world. Larvae and paedomorphs are always aquatic and are found in perennial streams and some rivers (and ocassionally mountain lakes and ponds, or seeps and springs). The adults are rarely encountered, but are usually in the stream s forested riparian zone. Jackson Shedd HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 129

141 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Jackson Shedd The Red-bellied Newt, unlike some of its close relatives, occupies moderate to fast-moving, clear, rocky streams. Adults live in the riparian zone, then congregate in streams to breed. Larvae live in the stream until metamorphosis, then move into the surround area. Laurie J. Vitt pond-adapted amphibians and reptiles while capturing pollutants. Wetland vegetation also captures and filters contaminants. Ideal When benefitting amphibians and reptiles is the primary objective: This large adult Diamond-backed Watersnake has eaten a sizable meal. The lack of watersnakes in the arid parts of the West is part of the reason why American Bullfrogs are so successful as an invasive, non-native species. Remove dams and levees, and restore natural substrates of river channels hardened with rip-rap or concrete. Removing these materials will promote natural hydrology and basin morphology important to habitats used by amphibians and reptiles. Relocating human-made structures away from the floodplain is a prerequisite to removing water-control structures and restoring river-channel morphology. Prevent establishment of non-native species. Extermination of non-native fishes may be possible and should be attempted in smaller rivers during years of drought. This measure may not be practical for large rivers. Add key structures to rivers and streams where appropriate to promote formation of deep pools and eddies. Partially submerged trees provide basking habitats and feeding sites for amphibians and reptiles. Pools and eddies provide aquatic refugia. Implement control and eradication measures for established non-native species. Tamarisk (salt cedar) and giant reed grass modify habitats, American Bullfrogs prey on native species, and Pond Sliders (Red-eared subspecies) compete with Western Pond Turtles. Beavers are native to most of the Southwest, but they were introduced to southern California. Their 130

142 RIVERS AND PERENNIAL STREAMS Kurt Buhlmann Kurt Buhlmann Kurt Buhlmann ponds provide habitats for bullfrogs and non-native fish that in turn prey on species such as the Arroyo Toad. The Rio Grande Cooter is endemic to the permanently flowing river that bears it name, and some tributaries. This unique turtle species would not continue to survive in a river system that flowed intermittently. The Rio Grande Cooter is present in this stretch of the Pecos River that has clear, perennial water. This stretch of the Pecos River is turbid and lacks Rio Grande Cooters. Head-starting and Translocation of the Relict Leopard Frog. The Relict Leopard Frog is a species of conservation concern currently managed by federal, state, and local agencies under a voluntary conservation agreement. In the early 2000s, it occupied only a few spring-fed sites along the Colorado River and tributaries in the eastern Mojave Desert. Major components of the conservation strategy are head-starting and translocation. Eggs are collected in early spring from historical sites that still support small populations. Husbandry of eggs, tadpoles, and frogs occurs in a laboratory facility maintained at Lake Mead National Recreation Area, as well as at nearby fish hatcheries managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Nevada Department of Wildlife. Late-stage tadpoles and juvenile frogs are released before temperatures in the Mojave Desert reach summer highs. Eggs are collected from only a few egg masses each season, so translocation sites are augmented over at least five years to increase the potential for genetic diversity. Currently, eleven experimental sites have extant populations and several now have numbers that exceed population sizes known for extant historical sites. This management strategy has succeeded in increasing the number of sites occupied by the Relict Leopard Frog and has likely increased the overall abundance of the species. The challenge for the program is in identifying additional suitable habitat or in restoring unoccupied historical sites where additional releases could occur. Jef R. Jaeger Participants of a Southwest PARC workshop were treated to a field venture to see how agencies and non-government entities are managing for habitat and populations of this species. The Relict Leopard Frog was thought to be extinct, but three populations were discovered in Nevada in the 1990s. Partnerships and active habitat management have helped to reduce threats and maintain or expand extant populations. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 131

143 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Danny Martin and Janalee P. Caldwell LAKES, PONDS, AND RESERVOIRS Robert E. Lovich and Kenneth J. Halama Permanent bodies of standing water, lakes, and ponds vary in size and depth, but they characteristically do not dry. The climate of the southwestern United States causes high evaporation rates on large bodies of open water. The number of permanent water bodies has increased over the years due to creation of reservoirs, stock ponds, stormwater catchment ponds, and landscaping features common in developed areas of the Southwest. Many amphibian species breed in permanent water bodies. For some, aquatic larvae take more than a year to reach metamorphosis and are thus restricted to permanent lakes and ponds. Gartersnakes and watersnakes are sometimes found in and along vegetated perimeters of permanent lakes where they hunt for amphibians and fish. Turtles are also associated with permanent wetlands and ponds. Due to the losses of bosque gallery forest wetlands and decline in stretches of perennial streams, created ponds and reservoirs become refugia for turtle species including Western Pond Turtles and Rio Grande Cooters. One of the greatest threats to native species that inhabit permanent lakes and ponds is the introduction of non-native species, such as American Bullfrogs (non-native west of east Texas), tiger salamanders (native and non-native alike), several crayfish species, and numerous fishes (e.g., mosquitofish, bass, Bluegill, Pumpkinseed, Green Sunfish, Crappie, Yellow Perch, Brook Trout, and Brown Trout). These predators consume amphibian eggs and larvae, and often reduce or eliminate amphibian populations where they occur. These habitats offer many management opportunities. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: The North American Beaver is a native of many but not all Southwest streams and rivers that are bordered by forests and woodlands. Where they naturally occur, they are important in forming standing water that may be used by aquatic amphibians and reptiles. Salamanders: Mole Salamander, Three-toed Amphiuma, Long-toed Salamander, Rough-skinned Newt; Frogs and Toads: Western Toad, Bronze Frog, Western Chorus Frog, American Bullfrog, Plains Leopard Frog; Snakes: Aquatic Gartersnake, Black-necked Gartersnake, Common Watersnake, Cottonmouth; Turtles: Western Pond Turtle, Painted Turtle, Yellow Mud Turtle, Pond Slider, Snapping Turtle; Crocodilians: American Alligator

144 LAKES, PONDS, AND RESERVOIRS Logs are important structures in lakes and ponds, as they provide basking sites for turtles. Pickerel Frogs are similar in appearance to leopard frogs. Although dependent of aquatic habitats for breeding, they are often most common in grassy wetkands and damp, grass-dominated meadows. Laurie J. Vitt MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Maintain the integrity of shoreline areas. To the extent possible, buffer shorelines to provide shade during hot, dry periods and provide shallow areas that contain emergent vegetation. Maintain a naturally vegetated shoreline buffer as some sedges and shrubs provide cover for amphibians and reptiles. Reduce the level of fish stocking or avoid stocking fish in ponds and lakes, except in areas where recreational fishing is a primary activity. Predatory fish consume amphibians, often to the point of local extinction. Minimize use of non-native bait species. Minnows, waterdogs (larval tiger salamanders), crayfish, and numerous invertebrate species have been inadvertently introduced into permanent lakes and ponds by anglers. Bait species sold in local bait shops are usually non-native species and many carry diseases that may affect native amphibians and fishes. Implement design modifications of ponds used for irrigation, stormwater mitigation, or specific functions other than wildlife habitat. Where amphibian and reptile use may be desired, such as with irrigation and stormwater basins with relatively stable water levels, simple design modifications may attract these animals. Shallow areas, gently tapered edges, and emergent or shoreline vegetation can provide suitable breeding areas for amphibians, foraging areas for snakes, predator escape cover, and access points into and out of the pond or lake. Alternatively, fencing, vertical or steep-sided concrete edges, and joe Mitchell This restoration of stillwater habitat along the Trinity River in northern California mimics an oxbow lake or pond. Oxbow lakes were once numerous along the major rivers of the Southwest, but most rivers have receded and the lakes and ponds have been lost. Salamanders, frogs, turtles, and gartersnakes all use this habitat. The Rough-skinned Newt has skin toxins that are extremely poisonous to most animals; thus, unlike most other salamanders, it can co-exist in lakes that contain fish. Gartersnakes may be immune to the poison but the snakes are not safe from game fishes or American Bullfrogs, which usually inhabit large lakes and reservoirs. William P. Leonard HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 133

145 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES The Western Pond Turtle is primarily found in the Pacific states, and is usually found in ponds and slow-moving streams, as in this freshwater pond close to the Pacific Ocean. It has been declining throughout its range, and hatchlings are particularly vulnerable to predation by introduced American Bullfrogs. lack of vegetation will discourage use by animals if that is a management goal. Minimize the amount of fill used and install suitable crossing structures when roads are built in or near a permanent pond or lake. Consider the size, spacing, and orientation of culverts, especially where water levels fluctuate extensively. Seek ways to prevent runoff and siltation. season to avoid stranding egg masses. Vegetation provides amphibian larvae shelter from aquatic predators. Prevent input of sediment, chemicals, and livestock runoff to maintain or improve water quality. Such sources of input may directly or indirectly impact amphibians and reptiles and can be prevented by creative landscape and livestock management. Avoid placement of new roads near permanent wetlands and close existing roads at least seasonally to minimize mortality of animals that move to and from these wetlands. Vehicular traffic on roads is a prime source of mortality to many amphibians and reptiles. Evaluate a range of management options before using pesticides or other chemical applications in or near ponds and lakes. Carefully follow label directions. Do not rinse canisters or equipment in these wetlands. Restore natural shoreline habitat. Remove retaining walls, rip-rap and other unnatural objects that inhibit amphibian and reptile movements. Rock riprap creates pitfalls in which individuals will become trapped and die from exposure. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Remove non-native species, such as American Bullfrogs and non-native fishes. This can be a difficult task, but there are effective methods available. State fish and game agencies can usually provide effective measures in your area. Retain or restore ponds and lakes in a mosaic or cluster because they tend to have higher species diversity and abundance than isolated sites. These areas should be a priority for management if inhabited by native species. If possible, retain a riparian buffer of natural habitat around the entire area to enhance connectivity among habitats. At the same time, prevent establishment and spread of non-native species. Manage species such as cattails from covering the entire open water surface of shallower ponds. Create shallow, vegetated shelf areas along northwest shorelines in artificial ponds designed for amphibian habitat. In the Southwest, amphibians often breed along the north and west shore of lakes. Minimize water-level fluctuations during the breeding 134

146 small water-retention STRUCTURES Danny Martin SMALL WATER-RETENTION STRUCTURES Lawrence L. C. Jones Small, human-constructed, artificial water-retention structures include earthen and lined stock tanks, drinkers, guzzlers, watering troughs, developed springs, and wildlife waters. Stock tanks are sources of drinking water for livestock, and wildlife waters are designed as sources of drinking water for wildlife, but these need not be mutually exclusive. The most useful stock tanks are those that are designed for both wildlife and livestock. Well-designed stock tanks not only provide safe drinking water, but can also provide breeding and foraging habitat that can be used by a large number of animals, including amphibians and reptiles. Since the arrival of European settlers, and with the advent of climate change, the availability of natural surface water has been reduced in most arid lands. Surface water is continuing to diminish as human populations increase. Countless rivers and streams that historically flowed free are no longer perennial, and natural ponds, springs, and wetlands have been drained to accommodate the needs of society. In the arid Southwest, aquatic species are the most at-risk group, with many fishes and amphibians having been extirpated from most of their former range. Because of this, stock ponds are sometimes the only available water for rare plants and animals in arid regions. In some situations, by creating stock tanks, we may inadvertently be robbing natural springs, ponds, streams, and rivers of some surface water. Some species of amphibians in the Southwest use only perennial water, others use only ephemeral water, and some will use both. Stock tanks span these extremes, so amphibians that use stock tanks (not all do) may have different breeding strategies, and the general characteristics of the particular tank (e.g., polluted mud hole vs. natural, pond-like) will dictate which species may be present. Many species of turtles and semi-aquatic snakes may use whatever water they can find. The good news is that many of our native species can benefit from these artificial waters. However, poorly thought-out placement and design can have a detrimental effect. What it takes is a little knowledge about the native species and their water resources, invasive non-native species sources, and some thoughtful designing. A stock tank should be well-designed and maintained for both livestock and native species. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Salamanders: Western Tiger Salamander, Long-toed Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Chiricahua Leopard Frog, Northern Leopard Frog, American Bullfrog, Texas Toad, Sonoran Desert Toad; Snakes: Blacknecked Gartersnake, Western Ribbonsnake, Checkered Gartersnake, Diamond-backed Watersnake; Turtles: Snapping Turtle, Yellow Mud Turtle, Sonoran Mud Turtle, Painted Turtle MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 135

147 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Earthen stock ponds are a commonly encountered type of small water structure in the Southwest. They are simple environments that have the potential to provide habitat for reptiles and, especially, amphibians but they also have the potential to be stepping stones for invasive species, such as American Bullfrogs, to travel across otherwise inhospitable habitat. From an amphibian habitat perspective, this tank is overgrazed, as it lacks bank vegetation and breeding structure for amphibians. Be prepared in advance for droughts. Have a drought plan. When water levels are low in earthen stock tanks, livestock may congregate in the area and cause reduction in water quality. During low water and times of drought, the tank should be designed to provide clean drinking water (e.g., a trough) near the tank. Protect and restore remaining natural water sources where possible. Existing natural wetlands should be protected and/or restored so that the full complement of native species can exist in natural surroundings. Provide water for wildlife and livestock with properly designed stock tanks. The classic earthen stock tank is less than an optimal design. Consider building an above-ground tank for livestock and wildlife and a ground-level tank with emergent vegetation for native amphibians and reptiles. Place stock tanks so that non-native, invasive species cannot use them as stepping stones. Where American Bullfrogs (and crayfish and warmwater fishes) are not native, earthen stock tanks can be extremely counterproductive to native species conservation. American Bullfrogs move across the landscape, as much as 5 miles (3 km) overland to reach This stock tank is being surveyed for Sonoran Tiger Salamanders. This endangered subspecies of the Western Tiger Salamander most often occurs in stock tanks because there is little natural habitat left. Unfortunately, nonnative tiger salamanders also travel between stock tanks and have altered the gene pool, so that now most are hybrids. Invasive American Bullfrogs also travel from tank to tank and eat most amphibians and reptiles they encounter. This stock tank lacks emergent and submergent vegetation used by herpetofauna. Leopard frogs are most diverse in the Southwest and most species are at risk of extirpation or extinction, particularly from habitat degradation and amphibian chytridiomycosis. This is a Chiricahua Leopard Frog, one of six species in Arizona, although one (Rio Grande Leopard Frog) is actually invasive. Most leopard frogs in Arizona persist in well-managed artificial water structures

148 SMALL WATER-RETENTION STRUCTURES Esther Nelson A well-designed stock tank, carefully placed on the landscape, can meet the needs of livestock as well as provide breeding habitat for amphibians. This shows a fence to manage cattle use, submergent and emergent vegetation, and basking sites. An above-ground drinker for cattle would also keep livestock out of the artificial pond and improve drinking water quality for livestock. the next wetland. Bullfrogs also carry with them the Bd fungus that is deadly to native species; bullfrogs are immune. Where bullfrogs have become established, recovery of endangered native species is a serious challenge. Maintenance is key to managing for livestock and native species. All stock tanks must be maintained. This may include fixing fences, water pumps, eradicating non-natives, digging out earthen tanks, and so on. Of course, the best choice is to design a low-maintenance structure to begin with so that lack of maintenance does not cause the demise of the aquatic system. Provide escape ramps for amphibians and reptiles. Stock tanks with no escape mechanism should have simple, inexpensive escape ramps installed. Bat escape ramps work well for amphibians and reptiles also. This concrete drinker in southeastern Arizona was used by cattle and occasionally frogs, but the frogs could not flourish in such limited habitat. Note that there is a corral to allow cattle to use the drinker part time. To encourage a population of the threatened Chiricahua Leopard Frog, the spring was then allowed to flow into an artificial pond lined with bentonite clay, and then into a wetland. The pond now harbors large numbers of Chiricahua and Lowland leopard frogs, as well as other species of amphibians, reptiles, and a host of other vertebrate and invertebrate species. Allow for selective livestock access. Livestock can overgraze a stock tank area, and trample vegetation, but ungrazed exclosures may be too dense for amphibians and reptiles. Instead of just fencing off areas, consider installing a gate so that livestock can be used to regulate vegetation growth as needed. Ideal When benefitting amphibians and reptiles is the primary objective: This galvanized drinker was the last place in the Santa Rita Mountains known to have leopard frogs at the time, but fortunately, other new populations were discovered to the north. Eradicate and prevent establishment of nonnative species. Invasive species, such as American Bullfrogs and non-native crayfish, should be eradicated from the entire management area, wherever possible. Make water structures attractive to native species. A stock tank that is simply a retention device for water does little to promote breeding by native spe- HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 137

149 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Active management of leopard frogs is required to keep them extant. This shows two instructors seining for frogs during a training program to encourage leopard frog conservation. An impounded drainage can collect water that is useful to cattle as well as amphibians and reptiles. The emergent vegetation is an indicator of a welldesigned artificial water resource. Kurt Buhlmann cies. Structures for egg-laying (e.g., branches in the tank), logs, deep areas, shallow areas with vegetation and basking sites, and other simple modifications may provide support for several species. Keep all-terrain vehicles out of stock tanks. Vehicles can alter the substrate and destroy established native vegetation. Exclusion is especially important during the breeding and larval development period. Design stock tanks so they will dry or can be drained in some years. Weirs and pipes can facilitate drainage. Occasional drying will eliminate fish and bullfrog tadpoles

150 CIENEGAS, BOGS, WET MEADOWS, AND SWAMPS Esther Nelson CIENEGAS, BOGS, WET MEADOWS, AND SWAMPS Mike Lannoo Permanent wetlands other than lakes and ponds are sites where water is always present, but other processes, such as maintenance of sufficient levels of dissolved oxygen, are usually absent. Water levels are usually maintained by groundwater, but precipitation and snowmelt can be significant contributing factors. Cienegas, bogs, wet meadows, and swamps are typical names for these wetlands. Natural marshlands are usually found in the backwaters and oxbows of major streams and rivers. Cienegas (meaning hundred waters in Spanish) most often lie at the headwaters of streams or as marshes associated with springs. In some regions, marshlands may also occur in depressions out in flatlands or tablelands. Although most of the larger cienegas occur in the center of valleys, major springs emerging from rock at mountain fronts, and occasionally in mountain canyon basins, may also create the kinds of complex bog-marsh-rivulet complex that constitutes a classic cienega. These habitats often give rise to cool, slow streams, which are also considered part of the cienega complex. Marshes may occur in any life zone, although they were originally probably most prevalent at lower elevations where big rivers occupy low gradient valleys. In contrast, cienegas are most notable in arid grassland valleys, though certain important ones occur or occurred at Tucson, Sonoyta (Sonora), Quitobaquito, and in desert canyons such as at Tule Creek. Fluctuating water levels characterize both of these wetland types. Valley-center cienegas, which receive storm flow and groundwater, may be subjected to frequent fires in surrounding grasslands. Riverine marshes have been massively depleted by the desiccation and simplification of streams in the Southwest, whereas cienegas have been dramatically reduced by downcutting and impoundment. Both wetland types support dense, rich vegetation (especially cattails in marshes and tule [bulrush] in cienegas), and both normally support riparian vegetation around the margins. In the arid Southwest, standing bodies of water are a limited resource. Many species wild and domestic, native and non-native are dependent on these habitats. Due to this demand, especially by livestock and invasive aquatic species, these habitats may be severely degraded. Invasive reed canary grass and hybrid cattails may replace native emergent vegetation. These habitats may also host a range of nonnative vertebrate species such as American Bullfrogs (where non-native) and introduced game and nongame fish species. Not all areas of the Southwest are actually arid, and the more mesic parts of the region may have extensive wetlands, as in northwestern California and east Texas. Texas and Oklahoma have a specific wetland type more associated with the Southeast: cypress swamp. These wetlands, especially in east Texas, support high biological diversity. Habitat descriptions and management recommendations for those wetland types are provided in the Southeast HMG (available at Cienegas, bogs, wet meadows, and swamps may or may not support amphibian and reptile reproduction, HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 139

151 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Ryan Besser Large wetlands, like this one in Utah, have largely disappeared from many areas due to draining, development, and agriculture. Even small wetlands are far less abundant than they were historically. but they will serve as places where they can rehydrate and perhaps feed. Such areas may be exceptionally important places for turtles and other wetland-adapted species. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Salamanders: Small-mouthed Salamander, California Tiger Salamander, Southern Dusky Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Pig Frog, Western Narrow-mouthed Toad, Red-spotted Toad, Rio Grande Leopard Frog; Snakes: Black-necked Gartersnake, Checkered Gartersnake, Plain-bellied Watersnake, Graham s Crayfish Snake; Turtles: Sonoran Mud Turtle, Razor-backed Musk Turtle; Crocodilians: American Alligator MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility when benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Prevent the spread of invasive and exotic weed species. Native sedges, rushes, and other forms of emergent vegetation should be encouraged by minimizing trampling by livestock and promoting, even re-planting, native species. Nutrient inputs, especially those caused by livestock and agricultural practices, should be reduced or eliminated where possible. Restrict off-road vehicle use in and around wetlands. All use of off-road vehicles should be restricted to areas beyond the outer ring of emergent vegetation in these wetlands. Avoid introducing American Bullfrogs and nonnative fish and invertebrates. These predators will reduce or completely eliminate the suitability of these habitats for use by native amphibians and reptiles. Limit access by livestock where possible. Designate, if necessary, areas accessible to livestock while restricting access to most of the remaining wetland. Discourage center-pivot irrigation and other forms of groundwater discharge. These will cause local groundwater depletions and affect (shorten) wetland hydroperiods. Use groundwater only where necessary. Be conservative, especially during drought years. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Remove livestock grazing. Livestock should be completely removed from sensitive habitats, both wetlands and surrounding uplands. However, some wetlands may become completely choked out with vegetation, so limited grazing may be prudent. Restore native vegetation communities. Native vegetation is adapted to natural hydroperiods and will not result in excessive water uptake that might promote unnaturally short hydroperiods. Curtail off-road vehicle use in or near wetlands. Aside from destruction of wetland vegetation, shore- Jackson Shedd The Sierran Treefrog, like the many other species of treefrogs and chorus frogs found throughout most of the Southwest, can be the most abundant wetland vertebrates. However, they should not be written off in management considerations; one of the PARC missions is to keep common species common. Sirens, like this Lesser Siren, are eel-like salamanders that are paedomorphic retaining larva-like characteristics throughout life including gills. The formerly recognized Taumalipan subspecies from South Texas is now lumped with the western subspecies. Laurie J. Vitt and Janalee P. Caldwell 140

152 CIENEGAS, BOGS, WET MEADOWS, AND SWAMPS William P. Leonard American Alligator is one of two species of crocodilians in the U.S., and the only one that ranges west into Texas and Oklahoma. lines, and littoral zones, off-road vehicles compact associated upland soils resulting in destruction of burrows and retreat sites. Such disturbances create conditions for establishment of invasive plant species. Eliminate artificial waterways designed to connect arid wetland water bodies. These landscape features promote the spread of non-native fishes and invasive aquatic organisms such as crayfish. Eliminate forms of groundwater removal. Groundwater pumping may deplete local groundwater stores and affect (shorten) wetland hydroperiods. Remove American Bullfrogs (where non-native) and introduced fishes. Use mechanical means or piscicides to eliminate invasive species without harming native populations. Northwestern Salamanders are more typical of the Pacific Northwest, but those mesic mountains extend into northwestern California. Local survival of this species depends upon the presence of wetlands and adjacent forested habitat. Fortunately, many conservation champions have made efforts to maintain, enhance, or replace wetlands to offset the tremendous loss. This wetland was restored on Kirtland Airforce Base, New Mexico. Wetland Loss in the Southwest. Wetlands are saturated by water for all or part of the growing season. Saturation leads to development of hydric soils and supports wetland plants. Wetlands include cienegas, swamps, marshes, bogs, and vernal pools. They are highly productive habitats and extremely valuable to wildlife. Approximately 64% of all the North American amphibian species are dependent on wetland breeding habitat. Wetlands also maintain groundwater supplies and water quality, protect soils from erosion, store floodwaters, trap sediments that can pollute waterways, and buffer against the effects of climate change. Wetlands are often called nature s filters because of their role in keeping water clean and toxin free. In spite of their ecological value, about 53% of the wetlands in the lower 48 states have been drained or destroyed. In the Southwest, California has the unfortunate distinction of having lost 91% of its wetlands, the highest in the nation. Oklahoma has lost over 67% of its wetlands, Nevada and Texas 52%, Colorado 50%, Arizona and New Mexico 36%, and Utah 30%. Protection of the remaining healthy wetland habitats is vital to the survival of amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest. Bryan T. Hamilton Joe Mitchell HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 141

153 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES SPRINGS AND SEEPS Clark R. Mahrdt Springs and seeps emerge at the surface from groundwater discharge points. They are found throughout all ecosystems and elevations from below sea level to over 13,100 ft (3,993 m), and within several geologic formations in the southwestern United States. Unlike surface waters of rivers and streams, many natural springs and seeps are difficult to detect. They are restricted in size and widely scattered throughout the deserts and mountainous regions of the Southwest. Many amphibians and reptiles use spring habitats temporally for refuge and feeding sites. Some species of salamanders and frogs use spring habitats for reproduction. A few species of slender salamanders are highly specialized and restricted to desert springfed, mesic microhabitats where they live out their entire life cycles. Water temperature, in the case of thermal springs, and high concentrations of minerals are factors that may limit or restrict use by aquatic and semi-aquatic species of amphibians and reptiles. Springs are usually deep-seated in igneous, granitic, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock and may lie along fault lines. Generally, they produce year-round water sources of various size and yield, and are classified based on their origin, temperature, and minerals found in its surface waters. These include thermal (>90ºF [32ºC]) and non-thermal (<70ºF [21ºC]) springs, springs of artesian origin, and carbonated, sulphur, saline, magnesic, and iron springs. Some springs within the Southwest may have recognizable characteristics that place them under two or more mineral classifications. By comparison, seeps or perennial springs, also known as hillside springs, usually occur on or at the base of mountainous topography or slopes. Their size and output is associated with seasonal rainfall events. Within the deserts of the Southwest, several dominant plant species are reliable indicators of springs and seeps. These include arrow weed, cottonwoods, sycamores, palms, willows, rushes, and sedges. Plants such as salt grass and mesquites prefer soils high in alkalinity. In the higher elevations of the Southwest mountain ranges, desert plants are replaced by oaks, manzanita, juniper, and sagebrush. Cottonwood, sycamore, and other hydrophilic species are also present. Historically, ground waters have played a vital role in reproduction and survival of amphibian populations occurring in the Chihuahuan, Great Basin, Mojave, and Sonoran deserts. However, since , springs have also provided a life-saving resource for early settlers traveling westward. By 1908, many major springs and ground water supplies were extensively developed for agriculture and irrigation, hydroelectric power generation, livestock grazing, camping and resorts, hot springs bathing, and drinking water. Other impacts include invasive plant species such as several nonnative grasses, pepper weed, salt cedar (tamarisk), and giant reed grass. Salt cedar and giant reed grass are responsible in the reduction and availability of groundwater and increased fire frequency. The result of human activities is loss of this aquatic habitat for amphibians and reptiles

154 SPRINGS AND SEEPS CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Salamanders: Relictual Slender Salamander, Southern Dusky Salamander, Valdina Farms Salamander, Austin Blind Salamander, Dunn s Salamander, Southern Torrent Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Black Toad, Amargosa Toad, Relict Leopard Frog; Lizards: Panamint Alligator Lizard MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Limit the extent of groundwater extraction at spring sites. Many natural springs have been developed or converted by deep-well drilling for human and livestock consumption and for recreational activities. Management actions on remaining spring sites should focus on keeping springs as natural as possible that will in turn provide long-term benefits to amphibian populations. Avoid the introduction and spread of exotic and invasive plant and animal species. Manage and when possible remove introduced hydrophilic plants. Salt cedar is widespread in mesic desert habitats and a serious threat to springs and seeps where it reduces the availability of groundwater. Control or remove all established exotic animal species that may serve as predators of native amphibians and reptiles. The American Bullfrog is a notorious introduced species, although it occurs naturally in eastern Texas. Removal of all or most from a wetland is known to help in species recovery. Control off-road vehicle activity where possible. Restrict off-road activity away from and limit public access to natural spring sites and seeps. Off-road activities damage freshwater vegetation, cause compaction, and potentially erode surrounding soils that causes siltation. Avoid or restrict development near spring sites. Water discharged from nearby development will alter hydrology and groundwater levels. Any discharge should be contained and strictly enforced by federal, state, county, and tribal agencies in order to avoid or minimize physical destruction and sedimentation resulting in the potential loss of springs and seeps. Exclude or limit livestock access to these sensitive wetlands. If livestock grazing is permitted, avoid springs sites and associated ponds where amphibians and reptiles may aggregate during breeding and overwintering. Livestock trample and compact the sensitive soils characteristic of springs and seeps. Fencing or other barriers may be effective. Barton Springs in central Texas is habitat for its namesake, the Barton Springs Salamander. Resource managers have done an excellent job of managing for this species, as well as maintaining the site as a popular recreational swimming area. The name seep salamander would be more appropriate, but species the genus Rhyacotriton were given the standard English name of torrent salamanders. However, they are typically inhabitants of seeps and small streams, often the seep-like outer edges. This is the Southern Torrent Salamander, the only species of this otherwise Pacific Northwest group that is found in northern California. Follow label directions carefully for all fertilizers and pesticides used in the area. Use the minimum amount necessary to meet the management objective. Ensure there is adequate buffer in place to prevent these chemicals from entering springs and seeps. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Eliminate or strictly control livestock grazing. Uncontrolled domestic and feral grazing is extremely detrimental to restricted spring sites. Grazing damages native vegetation and degrades water quality used by amphibians and reptiles. Rangeland fencing practices should be enforced and maintained. Keep off-road vehicles away from springs and seeps. Off-road vehicles, such as four-wheelers and dirt bikes, can severely damage springs and seeps, thus disrupt breeding activities of amphibians and reptiles. They also destroy vegetation, a vital component of the breeding cycle, and displace soils resulting in Nathan Bendik Jackson Shedd HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 143

155 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Danny Martin Where you find seeps and springs, you often find gartersnakes lurking around for amphibian prey. This is a Plains Gartersnake. Conserving seeps, springs, and wetlands is not only important for the obvious breeding habitat for amphibians, but also the native predators that depend on this food source. increased sedimentation of spring sites. Restore spring sites with native aquatic and semi-aquatic vegetation. Remove non-native vegetation and replace with native grasses, shrubs, and sedges as appropriate for the specific site. Restoration results should be evaluated during routine monitoring. Avoid interruption or degradation of natural hydrological conditions. Where possible, avoid development and deep-drilling around or near natural spring sites. Excessive pumping of ground water will eliminate the water needed by amphibians and many reptiles that use these wetlands. Retain natural stream channel undulations, backwater areas, and floodplains. Do not channelize streams derived from springs and seepages. Such activity removes structural habitat diversity important to amphibians and reptiles and the food web on which they rely. Leave snags, woody debris, and rocks in springs and streams to provide microhabitat. These structures and vegetation are used extensively by larvae and juveniles to avoid predation. They provide refugia for adults as well. Restrict activities above seeps and springs that would cause sedimentation or cause contamination. Think at the landscape level. Remember that whatever is introduced or altered upslope may alter the wetlands downslope. Chemical contaminants would be spread widely once they enter springs and seeps

156 MARINE AND ESTUARY MARINE AND ESTUARY Lawrence L. C. Jones Marine and estuary habitats occur in the Southwest along the California (Pacific Ocean) and Texas (Gulf of Mexico) coasts. Although these habitats are biologically diverse and have high primary productivity, the marine, estuary, and near-shore areas have a high salt content. They are not inhabited by most reptiles. Amphibians have a more permeable skin, so cannot maintain water balance in environments with high salt content. The term marine refers to salt water, as in the open ocean, seas, and bays, while estuary is a habitat where fresh and salt water mix (brackish water), as at river mouths. Some Texas bays, inside the barrier islands, may be hypersaline, having a higher salt content than the ocean. These environments are variously known as salt marshes, mangrove swamps, and brackish wetlands. Globally, few species are specialized for life in the marine environment. However, in prehistoric times, reptiles were the dominant predators in the sea, with mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pliosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and turtles. Today, only sea turtles, sea snakes, most crocodiles, and the Marine Iguana can use saltwater habitats. All marine species have physiological adaptations to cope with the excess salt, which they must excrete to maintain water and salt balance. In the Southwest, only sea turtles and one species of sea snake occur in this habitat type. A variety of other species live in coastal areas (including amphibians), but these are covered in other sections as terrestrial or freshwater habitats. All species of reptiles need air, so must come to the surface breathe, and all except the Yellow-bellied William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC The Leatherback Sea Turtle is the largest marine turtle and one of the largest reptiles reaching nearly 6 ft (2 m) in length and weighing 1,500 (680 kg). Although it breeds on tropical beaches, offshore management in California and Texas is important; offshore threats include marine debris (e.g., getting tangled in nets or eating plastic bags, which resembles its natural prey [jellyfishes]) and fishing by catch. The Leatherback is the State Marine Reptile of California. The Kemp s Ridley Sea Turtle is the smallest marine turtle. It is the State Marine Reptile of Texas. Most nesting sites in the U.S. are on Texas beaches where an active conservation program is helping to conserve the species. National Park Service Padre Island National Seashore HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 145

157 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Laurie J. Vitt National Park Service Padre Island National Seashore The Diamond-backed Terrapin is an estuary species found along the Texas Gulf Coast and points east. There are numerous threats to this species, including the use of crustacean traps. Green Sea Turtles are infrequently detected, but regular, off the southern California Coast. However, this species is more common in the Gulf of Mexico, and it occasionally breeds on the Texas Gulf Coast. This is a juvenile heading for the sea. Breeding habitat is extremely critical for all marine turtles. Seasnake (the only species that may rarely enter the Southwest along southern California shores) must come to shore to breed. Thus, there are two environments considered in this section, the breeding beaches for those species that come ashore and the offshore areas where the animals migrate and forage. Breeding is quite limited in the U.S., as most species that use coastal areas tend to breed farther south in tropical areas. However, a notable exception is the Kemp s Ridley Sea Turtle and some other sea turtles that occasionally breed along the Texas Gulf Coast. Thus, it may seem counterintuitive to have a section devoted to managing reptiles that generally do not breed in the U.S., but there are many threats to species that have wide-ranging foraging patterns. As an example, the Leatherback Sea Turtle may breed mostly in tropical waters, but it ranges as far north as Alaska to feed. In fact, the Leatherback Sea Turtle was recently named the California State Marine Reptile. Critical Habitat for this endangered species has been The coastal dunes along the beaches of the Texas Gulf Islands harbor an array of reptile species. The Gulf Islands are long barrier islands that are sensitive to disturbance. People are warned to stay out of the Texas coastal dunes because of the high abundance of Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnakes, and this works to protect other species, such as this Keeled Earless Lizard. On hot summer days, people travel to the Texas Gulf Islands in droves, as along this Mustang Island Beach. These are important breeding grounds for marine turtles and management is ongoing. As an incentive, people can get deposits back by collecting garbage along the beach whenever they visit

158 MARINE AND ESTUARY Padre Island National Seashore Kemp s Ridley Sea Turtle is the smallest and most endangered marine turtle, and is the only marine turtle to nest during the day. This one is nesting on South Padre Island, Texas. Padre Island National Seashore, and some other Gulf Coast areas, have research and outreach efforts to help with management, as well as engaging the public in conservation education. Padre Island National Seashore Conservation Advances: Kemp s Ridley Sea Turtle. The Kemp s Ridley Sea Turtle is the world s smallest marine turtle, measuring less than 39 inches (1 m) carapace (upper shell) length. It is the most critically endangered sea turtle in the world. It occurs in the Gulf of Mexico, but occasionally migrates up the East Coast as far as Virginia. The largest breeding populations use one beach in Tamaulipas, Mexico, for nesting. In the Southwest, Kemp s Ridleys breed in waters off the Texas coast and nest on barrier islands, especially on Padre Island National Seashore. In recent years there has been a concerted effort by conservationists to bring this critically threatened species back from the brink of extinction. Numerous agencies and nongovernment organizations, as well as private citizens, both in the U.S. and Mexico, have banded together to restore populations through education, captive breeding programs, nest-watch programs, advanced fishing technology development, and other activities. The number of hatchlings documented from the coast of Texas has gone from fewer than 400 in 1996 to more than 16,000 in However, since one turtle in 100 survives to adulthood, these seemingly large numbers of hatchlings do not ensure recovery, so a long-term commitment to conservation is warranted. Lawrence L. C. Jones After hatching, the tiny turtles head for the surf, where maybe 5 in 100 survive to adulthood. Padre Island National Seashore HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 147

159 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Laurie J. Vitt The Glossy Crayfish Snake is not really estuarine but close as it occurs in freshwater tidal marshes of the Texas Gulf Coast. It is rarely encountered, so may go undetected during surveys. William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC established by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service off the coast of California, Oregon, and Washington. It is also found throughout the Gulf of Mexico. The Yellow-bellied Seasnake is the only completely marine snake in the U.S., although it is extremely rare in our area (southern California), being a tropical species. It is much more abundant off Baja California and the Hawaiian Islands. This animal is highly venomous, but usually inoffensive. It has the largest range of any snake in the world, although it is not found in the Atlantic (yet). The man-made Panama Canal could provide a potential dispersal corridor from the Pacific to the Atlantic. Populations of sea turtles have declined dramatically in the past few decades, to a point that all U.S. species (7 of the 8 species worldwide) are federally listed under the Endangered Species Act. Threats to sea turtles are many, both on land and at sea. On land, breeding habitat has diminished with urbanization, development, artificial night lighting (which disorients hatchlings), collection for food, and egg predation. In the marine environment, they are threatened by commercial fishing (e.g., drift nets), pollution, debris (especially plastic bags mistaken for jellyfish, the primary prey of Leatherback Sea Turtle). On the east coast of Texas, Diamondback Terrapins, the only truly estuarine reptiles, are threatened by habitat loss, traffic on causeways, and trapping for crabs. Gulf Salt Marsh Snakes have also been in decline due to loss of their coastal habitats, and are also killed by humans who mistakenly assume they are Cottonmouths (which also occur there), which they do not resemble

160 MARINE AND ESTUARY CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Snakes: Saltmarsh Watersnake, Cottonmouth, Yellowbellied Seasnake; Turtles: Leatherback Sea Turtle, Green Sea Turtle, Kemp s Ridley Sea Turtle, Diamondbacked Terrapin MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: unless supervised, preferably on a leash. Implement control measures for subsidized predators. Mid-sized mammal predators, such as Coyote, foxes, and Northern Raccoon, can destroy an entire breeding season s nests and eggs in just a few nights. Work with animal control or wildlife personnel to determine which methods are most effective in your area. Limit foot and motorized traffic, especially allterrain vehicles, on beaches during sea turtle nesting seasons. The primary problem is crushing and compacting of nest sites. Hatchlings need loose sand for successful nest emergence. Create educational signs for people using your lands to inform them about sensitive habitats. Education can help reduce habitat loss and herp mortality. For example, signs can elevate awareness of excluder devices for crab traps that reduce or eliminate terrapin bycatch. Signs alert people to animals at risk crossing roads in coastal areas or, for example, assure them that Saltmarsh Watersnakes are not Cottonmouths. Limit shoreline and salt marsh habitat development. One of the biggest threats to coastal species is development of shorefront properties. Avoid altering natural habitats on dunes. Reduce or redirect lighting along coastal properties to the extent possible. Night lighting disrupts hatchling sea turtle s ability to find the open sea. Work locally with groups that help provide options such as directional, low-intensity lights and altering 24 hour time cycles. Communities along the U.S. Southeast coast have implemented effective programs that have not interfered with human activities. Light, even low intensity light, can cause hatchlings to be disoriented and crawl toward the land, not the sea. Avoid adding litter to the marine environment. Plastic bags, nets, and other litter are in oceans worldwide and cause deaths of numerous marine turtles and other wildlife. Education, highway cleanups, beach clean-ups, and other activities can help make a difference. Plastic bags cause intestinal blockage in Leatherback Sea Turtles, resulting in their deaths. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Focus management on life history needs specifically for target species. For example, if there is a breeding beach for sea turtles, seek to maximize the capability of that beach for nesting, and consider options for reducing structures and human activities in that area. Control pets. Dogs dig up and eat sea turtle eggs. They should not be allowed on the beach and dunes HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 149

161 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Danny Martin AGRICULTURAL LANDS Lawrence L. C. Jones The term agriculture refers to several related activities, such as growing food and clothing crops, growing feed for livestock, raising livestock, and commercial timber harvest. For our purposes, silviculture (growing trees for timber) and grazing are addressed in separate sections, although the California statistics (below) include some livestock figures. Agriculture lands occur across the country and the Southwest, although largely an arid region, is no exception. Most of the Southwest has abundant sunshine, a critical ingredient for many crops. However, the Southwest often lacks some other ingredients needed for crops. In many areas, rainfall is insufficient to grow crops, and is exacerbated during prolong droughts. In some areas, the soil is relatively infertile and cannot provide the nutrients needed for No matter how arid the land, how poor the soil, or how infrequent the rainfall, almost any valleys in the Southwest can be turned from brown to green with the addition of water and nutrients. crop production. However, because of technology, we have successfully mastered these shortcomings by getting water to arid regions and enhancing soil quality. California is the number one state in farm crop receipts, accounting for 11.3% of the U.S. total, with a value of $42.6 billion (2012 statistics). This is not surprising given the climate; a huge variety of different crops can be grown in the California Central Valley, and elsewhere in the state, year-round. In addition to dairy and cattle, top field crops include grapes, almonds, nursery plants, strawberries, walnuts, hay, and tomatoes. The desert regions of California through Texas can grow some crops that cannot be produced elsewhere (e.g., dates, chiles, jojoba). Deserts and other arid parts of the Southwest can be made lush by the addition of water and nutrients, allowing a large diversity of field crops to be grown in these otherwise harsh conditions. A portion of the Great Plains is within portions of several Southwestern States, so the PARC Midwest HMG is also a valuable resource for much of the Southwest Region. Wheat, cotton, beans, melons, and citrus are also among the more significant crops in the Southwest. Croplands are unnatural habitats converted from natural landscapes, and only a relatively few amphibians and reptiles can adapt to a significantly different environment and persist within croplands. Thus, from a management perspective, it is best to consider how surface and groundwater will be affected by agriculture during the planning phase. Also, consider where natural areas can be retained on the landscape adja

162 AGRICULTURAL LANDS CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Frogs and Toads: Western Toad, Woodhouse s Toad, Pacific Treefrog, American Bullfrog (non-native in most areas of the Southwest), Mexican Burrowing Toad; Lizards: Western Fence Lizard; Snakes: Checkered Gartersnake, Coachwhip, Gophersnake; Turtles: sliders MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Joe Mitchell Nearly the entire Central Valley of California has been converted to agricultural lands. California ranks number one in the nation in agricultural production. cent croplands, rather than attempting to make croplands function as wildlife habitat. Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Retain naturally vegetated corridors between agricultural areas where possible. Migration and dispersal corridors are essential to amphibian and reptile survival in agricultural zones. Corridors provide habitat for movement between habitat patches. They Agricultural lands feed America, so it is important to try and meet the needs of wildlife and humans alike. American Bison are native animals and their meat is leaner than that of cattle, and since they can be free-ranging, they may offer a good alternative to cattle ranching. However, whether grazing with domestic livestock or bison, herds and habitat need to be properly managed. Esther Nelson HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 151

163 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES of animals from upland refugia to breeding sites. Be creative in preventing water pollution on your property. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Danny Martin Woodhouse s Toad is a common, adaptable species over most of the U.S. It frequently occurs in lands managed for agriculture. should be as wide as feasible. Maintain natural hydrological cycles in restored wetlands where possible. Restored wetlands should mimic the natural wet-dry cycles found in nearby natural wetlands. The USDA National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) biologists can provide design options that should work in your area. Follow label directions when using fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides. The directions on the labels are government mandated and have been tested for safety, although usually not on amphibians and reptiles. Use the minimum amounts necessary to achieve management objectives. Follow all wetland setback requirements to ensure there is an adequate buffer to prevent runoff. If herbicides need to be used near water, then it is safer for amphibians and other aquatic wildlife to use formulas that are approved for aquatic use. Use native plants, wood chip berms, hay bales, and staggered siltation fencing for erosion control in areas surrounding wetlands and their terrestrial buffers. These materials may help passage Restore agricultural lands to natural habitats. Where possible, restore the land to natural conditions, especially wetlands. Some disturbed areas may have been invaded by non-native, invasive species, and it may not be possible to restore some areas. Amphibians and reptiles will readily re-colonize areas that have been actively restored to natural conditions if populations are nearby. USDA NRCS programs contain proven methods to restore former agriculture lands. Enroll in federal agricultural incentives programs if available. Many opportunities exist in USDA conservation programs. Check online for current options. Prevent livestock access to restored wetlands. Livestock trample vegetation and compact the substrate. Manure in aquatic systems may cause algal blooms and reduce dissolved oxygen levels. Avoid mowing or plowing around shorelines of restored wetlands. Amphibians and reptiles that use restored wetlands for reproduction use the surrounding landscape for foraging and shelter, often underground. Maintaining shoreline and adjacent uplands as habitat will benefit game and non-game wildlife. Amphibians and reptiles often travel and reside hundreds of feet from wetlands, thus wide habitat buffers are preferred. Laurie J. Vitt and Janalee P. Caldwell The Eastern (shown) and Western tiger salamanders are adaptable animals that may be found in agricultural areas. The California Tiger Salamander, however, is either listed as federally endangered, or threatened, depending upon its Distinct Population Segment. It is restricted to the Great Central Valley and California Central Coast ecoregions

164 AGRICULTURAL LANDS Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake Eastern Black-tailed Rattlesnake Red Diamond Rattlesnake Arizona Black Rattlesnake Speckled Rattlesnake Massasauga DIVERSITY OF RATTLESNAKES IN THE SOUTHWEST. It could be argued that no other group of reptiles typifies the Southwest as much as rattlesnakes. While rattlesnakes are reviled and persecuted by some, they are very important links in ecosystems, being primarily predators of rodents. They are supremely adapted animals, having evolved heat-recognizing pits for prey detection (as seen in the Red Diamond Rattlesnake), an advanced venom-delivery system, and of course, the rattle for an early warning system to potential predators. Rattlesnakes have an epicenter of distribution in the American Southwest and Mexico. Of the 19 species in the U.S., 18 are found in the Southwest, and Arizona alone has 13 species. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 153

165 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Alison Cockrum URBAN AND SUBURBAN AREAS Robert Fisher Urban and suburban areas are the only habitats that continue to expand in the Southwest. They occur from below sea level to high elevations in the mountains, especially in Colorado and New Mexico. They are quite variable from high density urban centers to regions of urban sprawl with a mix of open space and large lot sizes. Scattered throughout these habitats are open spaces and parklands that may or may not be natural habitats. Urban sprawl areas are uncommon in some states such as Nevada (with exception of Las Vegas region) and Utah where large tracts of protected land preclude them. Depending on location, species of native and nonnative reptiles and amphibians may already occur within and near these areas. For example, in more xeric areas there tends to be an extreme of either xeric landscaping or mesic grass, each having a different effect on what species might occur in that area. In woodland matrix, the urban theme tends to be woodland and in scrubland matrix the urban theme tends to be a much wetter environment. In many suburban areas there may be open lands and artificial wetlands that can harbor amphibians and turtles. Some examples of the greatest areas of urban centers include the Los Angeles Basin, San Diego, Las Vegas, Phoenix, Tucson, Dallas, Houston, San Antonio, Denver, Salt Lake City, Albuquerque, Oklahoma City, and the Bay Area of California. Within high density developed areas there are scattered open-space parks containing varying herpetofaunal assemblages. Urban areas offer a wide variety of management options that benefit amphibians and reptiles. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES: Salamanders: Native California Slender Salamander, Arboreal Salamander; Frogs and Toads: Native chorus frogs, Woodhouse s Toad, Western Toad, Non-native American Bullfrog (outside native range), African Clawed Frog, Coqui Frog; Lizards: Native Southern Alligator Lizard, Green Anole, Ornate Tree Lizard, Non-native Mediterranean Gecko, Brown Anole, Ocellated Skink; Snakes: Native Gophersnake, Western Groundsnake, Rough Earthsnake, Lined Snake, Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake, Non-native Brahminy Blindsnake; Turtles: Pond Slider, Common Snapping Turtle (outside native range) MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Reduce use of water and chemicals through the use of plants native to the area. Natural vegetation may attract native amphibians and reptile species. Invasive red imported fire ants benefit from sprinklers and watering and these have negative impacts on some native species. Keep cats indoors. Doing so will benefit native species. Cats kill many thousands of animals each year, including many amphibians and reptiles. Maintain a blade height of at least eight inches (20 cm) when mowing road shoulders. Animals are particularly vulnerable to mowing, and lizards and snakes can often be found mangled and killed after 154

166 URBAN AND SUBURBAN AREAS Las Vegas, Nevada, at night. Artificial night light can affect a large number of animals by interrupting their natural activity patterns, be they diurnal or nocturnal. Las Vegas is one of the smaller big cities in the Southwest. Alison Cockrum these events. The use of native plants may reduce the need for mowing. Xeriscaping in arid lands is a good alternative to lawns. Prevent the spread of invasive and exotic weed species. Control weeds in disturbed areas such as roadsides, fencerows, field edges, and other habitats used by herpetofauna. Prescribed burns can be used but they often kill or maim herpetofauna. Burns in late fall will be less harmful than burns in the spring. However, prescribed burning can cause some invasive species to flourish (e.g., buffelgrass), so work with local fire management experts to minimize this effect. Tucson has over one million people, but is more sprawled than many cities, so many species of reptiles, amphibians, and other animals can be found in backyards and nearby undeveloped green areas, such as parks. These areas are important for herpetofauna conservation. Most reptiles and amphibians cannot endure the heart of cities, but the New Mexico Whiptail is one that can. It is frequently observed in greenspaces and vacant lots between buildings. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 155

167 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC One species that is supremely adapted to urban dwellings is the Mediterranean Gecko. Although it is non-native in the U.S., is abundant, and rapidly increasing its U.S. range, it is usually not considered invasive because it competes with no other lizards in the urban environment. Restrict use of off-road vehicles in natural habitats. These vehicles in natural habitat compact soils and destroy vegetation and microhabitat structures. Reducing traffic on wet nights in corridor areas through urban or suburban areas will reduce mortality of migrating amphibians. Reroute planned and existing roads around, instead of through, sensitive natural areas where possible. Work with planners and Department of Transportation personnel to find ways to minimize impacts on natural areas remaining in your area. Encourage and support public education programs about the values of local wildlife. Education of all ages on the behavior and natural history of native amphibians and reptiles will instill an appreciation for natural areas. Education will reduce the number of snakes killed by urbanites each year. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Restore areas dominated by landscaping to native habitats. Use seed mixtures that contain native plants, preferably obtained locally, that need less water than exotics. Create native landscapes with natural materials for wildlife cover. Remove urban structures no longer in use. The removal of structures or features that are not necessary in the landscape such as outhouses, sheds, cement pads, and other constructed features may enhance use of yards by increasing the natural vegetation footprint. Although once broken down, outhouses, sheds, and other structures may become good habitat for certain urban species for foraging and shelter. Maintain and restore wetlands used by amphibians. Wetlands are critical habits in urban and suburban areas where available surface water limits the Snakes do not generally fare well in cities, but like the Mediterranean Gecko, the Brahminy Blindsnake is starting to show up in cities probably by being moved through nursery plants. Not surprisingly, it is also called the flower pot snake. The species originates in India or southeast Asia. This animals was found in a Phoenix, Arizona, back yard. It is easy to attract backyard native amphibians and reptiles, like this Desert Spiny Lizard. Build it and they will come. Rock piles, wood piles, and ponds are all attractants. Backyard Natives Habitat: Many people in the Southwest are lucky enough to live in areas occupied by amphibians and reptiles. You can enhance the experience by improving habitat in your backyards, front yards, and greenbelts. There are two basic ingredients for encouraging back yard natives: water and structure. For amphibians, water can be in the form of ponds or depressions that catch rainwater. Water, in general, attracts amphibians and reptiles because there is so little of it available over much of the landscape. Gardens may attract some species looking for insects or shade. Structures consisting of rock piles, fences, woodpiles are often well-received retreats for the local herpetofauna. Convert yards to native xeric habitat. Backyard naturalists should be aware that poisonous toads and venomous snakes may also be attracted to your yard, especially in the arid Southwest, so precautions may be warranted. Lawrence L. C. Jones 156

168 URBAN AND SUBURBAN AREAS timing and length of the amphibian breeding season. Often these are drained to build shopping malls and parking lots, but areas that can be maintained become important regional refugia for certain species. Encourage use of educational signage at animal migration routes. Road kill during migration of amphibians to and from breeding sites causes population decline. Signs alerting motorists to the seasonal movements of animals crossing roads at known crossing points should reduce some mortality. Close roads during migration periods. Remove signs when animals are not present to avoid motorists habituating to the signage. Control subsidized predators. Native species such as Northern Raccoons and Coyotes are notorious predators of amphibians and reptiles. These species persist in urban areas because they subsist, at least in part, on human subsidies, such as food in trashcans and discards from restaurants. Work with animal control officers and wildlife experts to find ways to keep their populations at low levels. Avoid using plastic mesh used to cover horticultural and landscape plants to protect them from birds and deer. Snakes and other wildlife become entangled in the mesh and often die inhumanely from overheating. They can be removed safely by clipping the mesh away and releasing the animal. Use the minimum amount of fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides necessary to achieve management objectives, especially on lawns. These chemicals are often applied to lawns and other urban landscapes in amounts exceeding the recommended limits. Always follow the instructions on the label. Even low concentrations of some chemicals can harm amphibians, especially in aquatic breeding and larval development sites. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 157

169 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES Matt Goode GOLF COURSES Matt Goode and Mickey Ray Parker As the game of golf has increased in popularity, and due to a climate well suited to year-round golfing, golf courses and associated golf communities have proliferated in the southwestern United States. In recent years, golf course managers and designers, as well as ecologists, have focused their attention on the conservation value of golf courses and their potential to provide habitat for a variety of species. In other parts of the world, such as the eastern United States and northern Europe, golf courses have become biodiversity hot-spots in a sea of human-dominated landscapes. For example, in the United Kingdom, where loss of habitat due to urbanization and agriculture has left little natural habitat, golf courses and associated trees and vegetated roughs, have become important refugia for many wildlife species. Golf courses in arid environments, such as the Southwest, are unique because they are typically comprised of dense, green vegetation that would not normally be found in the desert, except in riparian areas. There is a trend in desert golf courses to minimize the amount of irrigated areas, leaving a relatively high percentage of non-playing areas that contain natural habitat, thereby creating conservation opportunities. The amount of water used to maintain turf greatly increases productivity around golf courses, especially those in desert habitats. This increase of resources that are limiting in adjacent habitat can attract herpetofauna and increase their reproductive success. Matt Goode As with urban areas or agriculture lands, it is sometimes a stretch to consider golf courses as habitat, rather than conservation challenges. Depending on the species and situation, they are both. This particular course integrates the natural environment with the greens. Water is often more abundant at a golf course than the area where the course is located. This attracts many species of herpetofauna, as well as their prey. Water conservation and recycling, of course, is of utmost importance in arid landscapes. Matt Goode 158

170 GOLF COURSES As amphibians and reptiles use the abundant resources associated with golf courses, they often encounter humans. Reproductive success and population growth associated with golf courses may offset the impacts that humans have on herpetofaunal populations. These include intentional killing of snakes, unintentional road mortality, exposure to pesticides and other chemicals, loss of suitable habitat, increased exposure to predators on fairways. Although this section provides guidelines for maximizing conservation potential for herpetofauna on golf courses, managing golf course habitats for herpetofauna is far too complex for a one-size-fits-all set of management guidelines. Several thousand golf courses have been built in the many habitat types that occur in the Southwest. They exist in a multitude of styles, ranging from public courses in heavily urbanized areas to upscale naturalized courses that only allow a limited number of golfers. Many courses are associated with residential developments that vary in housing densities. Indeed, every golf course has a unique set of circumstances that necessitates an individualized approach to managing amphibians and reptiles. The guidelines presented here are meant to provide a toolbox that golf course managers can use to develop their specific management actions. CHARACTERISTIC SPECIES Frogs and Toads: Great Plains Toad, Western Chorus Frog, Plains Leopard Frog; Lizards: Common Chuckwalla, Desert Iguana, Common Side-blotched Lizard, Ornate Tree Lizard, Tiger Whiptail; Snakes: North American Racer, Gophersnake, Checkered Gartersnake, Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake; Turtles: Common Snapping Turtle, Sonoran Desert Tortoise MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES Maximizing Compatibility When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is secondary to other management objectives: Maintain permanent water sources on the course. Permanent bodies of water on golf courses, such as ponds and water hazards, provide breeding sites for pond-breeding amphibians. They may also provide breeding sites for those species that would typically use seasonally flooded areas. Protect seasonally flooded areas. Many amphibian species in the Southwest use seasonally flooded areas and ephemeral pools for breeding. Although explosive breeders may take advantage of permanent bodies of water, seasonally flooded areas available to these amphibians increases regional diversity. Avoid stocking ponds with fish or introduce nonnative amphibians. Populations of native amphibians can be reduced due to predation by fish on eggs and larvae and predation by non-native American Bullfrogs. Establish natural areas throughout the course. Natural areas provide habitat for amphibians and reptiles, as well as their prey species. Added benefits include lower pesticide and fertilizer exposure, as well as fewer disturbances by mowing and other maintenance. Use native vegetation for landscaping. Exotic plants can quickly proliferate and outcompete native vegetation. A diverse array of native plant species provides more suitable habitat for insects that form the prey base for many of the lizards in the Southwest. Build the course and other features into and around, rather than on top of, natural topography. Rock piles and other natural topographic features not only create challenging hazards for golfers, they also provide habitat for a multitude of species, includ- This Gila Monster is taking advantage of the mesic environment to look for food eggs and nesting birds and rodents and, as seen here, take a drink! Matt Goode HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 159

171 SPECIFIC HABITAT TYPES ing protected species such as Gila Monsters and desert tortoises (both species). These fragile habitats should be left intact to preserve the diversity and abundance of species around the course. Use Integrated Pest Management techniques. These techniques reduce the amount of chemical pesticides needed and reduce overall cost. Lower chemical use allows for healthier insects and by extension the lizards that eat them. Ideal When benefiting amphibians and reptiles is a primary objective: Promote the presence of amphibians and reptiles as an amenity. Wildlife, including herpetofauna, is increasingly viewed as an amenity by golfers and residents of golf course communities. While benefitting amphibians and reptiles will never be the primary objective of any golf course, managers have several opportunities to simultaneously benefit herpetofauna and golfers by stressing coexistence. Use interpretive signage throughout the course. Interpretive signage can be custom designed to match the atmosphere of the course and placed near high human traffic areas, such as restroom entrances, clubhouses, and tee markers. Signs should be attractive and present simple, yet engaging, information about the amphibians and reptiles golfers may encounter. Create a wildlife experience for golfers. Other methods in conjunction with signage may encourage golfers to participate in on-course wildlife experiences. For example, golfers can be provided score cards on which they tally the species they observe while golfing, perhaps even scoring points for each. While some more serious golfers may not be interested in these kinds of activities, those wishing to involve family members who are not avid golfers may appreciate turning their hobby into a family outing. Offer educational workshops for golfers and area residents. Workshops can provide opportunities to learn more about interactions between amphibians and reptiles and golf courses. Workshops provide an excellent venue for the public to ask questions about the animals they encounter while golfing. Workshops also afford course managers opportunities to gauge their clients perceptions of wildlife on their course. Local herpetological societies, state natural resource departments, and universities can often provide speakers for educational workshops. Encourage and enforce a wildlife-friendly atmosphere with all course personnel. Golf course personnel often encounter amphibians and reptiles during course maintenance. Personnel that encounter reptiles they perceive as a threat (e.g., rattlesnakes, Gila Monsters) may intentionally kill or injure them. All course personnel should be educated in what to do Snake on the fairway! This Sonoran Lyresnake is on the move from its rocky haunts to look for prey or a mate. upon encountering venomous reptiles to ensure the safety of both the employees and the animals. Create a working atmosphere where personnel view the herpetofauna as a valuable component of the course and the golfing experience. Work with local experts to better understand the ecology of the golf course. Local experts may be enthusiastic to provide advice on plants and animals present on and in the vicinity of the golf course. University scientists, state game and fish officials, and local clubs and nonprofit organizations can provide a wealth of useful information. Matt Goode 160

172 APPENDIX A. AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE SPECIES OF THE SOUTHWEST. Management Guidelines There are 436 species of native amphibians and reptiles in the Southwest, including 85 salamanders, 76 frogs and toads, 127 snakes, 111 lizards, 36 turtles, and one crocodilian. The following shows species occurrence by state and by habitat, as covered in this book. The exception is that man-made habitats (agricultural lands, artificial water sources, urban/suburban areas, and golf courses) are not included. It is not possible to find this information for most species, and there is considerable variation in characteristics among non-natural habitats. Similarly, non-native species are not included, since every year new areas and new species are reported. Thus, the table represents native species in native habitats. Species occurrence by habitat is indicated as being preferable (P) suitable (S), or marginal habitat (M). It could be argued that any habitat occupied by the species is simply suitable, but this qualitative assessment helps the reader to ascertain the likelihood of a species being present within its range (range maps are not shown, so consult a field guide). Taxonomy and nomenclature follows Crother (2012), except for spelling of Mojave, and there are a few additions following the publication of that paper. We use global, federal, and state ranks for species as shown in NatureServe (October 2015), which is a dynamic online database of species conservation status. Because it changes with time, please consult the website at to get an updated status report. Taxonomy and nomenclature for NatureServe is not standardized by Crother (2012) or any other single entity, so the reader should be aware that taxonomic and nomenclatural choices do not align 100%. Hence, some interpretation of Nature- Serve names was transposed to the best of our ability to align with Crother (2012). NatureServe uses a rating system beginning with a letter. G = global status, N = U.S. National status, and S = state status. Following the letter are numbers indicating: (1) critically imperiled, (2) imperiled, (3) vulnerable, (4) apparently secure, (5) secure. The Nature- Serve ranking system is not the same as the federal Endangered Species Act ranking system, as shown in the table. E = endangered, T =threatened, and C = candidate. For complete descriptions of rankings and updates on status changes since the time of this compilation, please refer to the NatureServe website or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service website ( endangered). NatureServe gets its state status rankings from each of the states, but states also have their own ranking system for levels of conservation concern or protection. In the table, both NatureServe and state status are both shown, as applicable. Appendix E is a list of Southwest PARC species of conservation concern. This is a regional assessment, but takes into account global status (e.g., as per NatureServe), but not state government status. compiled by Ken Halama, Bryan Hamilton, Lawrence L.C. Jones, Robert E. Lovich, and Linda Weir HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 161

173 APPENDIX A. Amphibian and Reptile Species of the Southwest. NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary Scientific Name (Species) Common Name AMPHIBIANS:Frogs and Toads Acris blanchardi Blanchard s Cricket Frog 5 H S M M P P S Anaxyrus americanus American Toad Anaxyrus boreas Western Toad 4 NR M M M M M M P P P Anaxyrus californicus Arroyo Toad 2 E 2 M M P Anaxyrus canorus Yosemite Toad 2 T 2 M M M M P M Anaxyrus cognatus Great Plains Toad H P S P S M P S M M Anaxyrus debilis Chihuahuan Green Toad P S P P P M P S Anaxyrus exsul Black Toad 1 1 S S P P Anaxyrus fowleri Fowler s Toad 5 4 NR S M P S M Anaxyrus houstonensis Houston Toad 1 E 1 S S P S M P Anaxyrus microscaphus Arizona Toad M S M S P M Anaxyrus nelsoni Amargosa Toad 2 2 M S S P S P Anaxyrus punctatus Red-spotted Toad 5 5 NR S S P S P M S Anaxyrus retiformis Sonoran Green Toad 4 3 P S P P P M P S Anaxyrus speciosus Texas Toad S S M P S M M Anaxyrus woodhousii Woodhouse s Toad 5 5 NR U 5 S S M S S S S S P P S M Ascaphus truei Coastal Tailed Frog 4 2 S S M P M M Craugastor augusti Barking Frog S S S S S Eleutherodactylus cystignathoides Rio Grande Chirping Frog 4 3 S Eleutherodactylus gutillatus Spotted Chirping Frog 4 3 M M S P S P Eleutherodacylus marnockii Cliff Chirping Frog 5 5 M P P P S P Gastrophryne carolinensis Eastern Narrow-mouthed Toad S P P S M P S S M Gastrophryne olivacea Western Narrow-mouthed Toad S P S S M S P S S M Hyla arenicolor Canyon Treefrog M M M M P S S M S M Hyla avivoca Bird-voiced Treefrog 5 2 S S S P Hyla chrysoscelis Cope s Gray Treefrog S S P P P Hyla cinerea Green Treefrog S P P P S Hyla squirella Squirrel Treefrog S P P P S Hyla versicolor Gray Treefrog S S P P P Hyla wrightorum Arizona Treefrog M S M S S S P M S P P S Hypopachus variolosus Sheep Frog 5 2 S S S S M S M S S M M Incilius alvarius Sonoran Desert Toad 5 3 H 2 S M M S M P S M M Incilius nebulifer Gulf Coast Toad 5 5 S P P P M P P S Leptodactylus fragilis Mexican White-lipped Frog 5 1 P S M M P M Lithobates areolatus Crawfish Frog 4 4 NR S S S S P S Lithobates berlandieri Rio Grande Leopard Frog 5 NA NA 3 5 M M S P M M Lithobates blairi Plains Leopard Frog S S S M M S P M M Lithobates catesbeianus American Bullfrog 5 NA NA NA NA NA 5 5 NA S S S S S S S S S S S M M S P M M Lithobates chiricahuensis Chiricahua Leopard Frog 3 T 2 1 S S M M S P M M Jackson Shedd 162

174 SPECIES NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary AMPHIBIANS: Scientific Name Frogs (Species) and Toads continued Common Name Lithobates clamitans Green Frog NA P M S P P M Lithobates fisheri Vegas Valley Leopard Frog NR NR NR X S S M M S P M M Lithobates grylio Pig Frog 5 2 S M S P P M Lithobates onca Relict Leopard Frog 1 C 1 1 X S S P P S S Lithobates palustris Pickerel Frog S M S P P M Lithobates pipiens Northern Leopard Frog S S S S M M S P M Lithobates sphenocephalus Southern Leopard Frog M M S P M Lithobates sylvaticus Wood Frog S S M M S P S Lithobates tarahumarae Tarahumara Frog 3 X P S S P M M M Lithobates yavapaiensis Lowland Leopard Frog 4 3 X 1 NR S S S S S M S S M P S M M Pseudacris cadaverina California Treefrog 4 NR M M S S S S S M P S P Pseudacris clarkii Spotted Chorus Frog M S S S S S S M S S M Pseudacris crucifer Spring Peeper M S S S S M M M S S Pseudacris foquettei Cajun Chorus Frog 5 3 U S P M S Pseudacris hypochondriaca Baja California Treefrog 5 3 NR NR U M S S S S S S S S Pseudacris maculata Boreal Chorus Frog NR 4 S S S S S M S P Pseudacris regilla Pacific Treefrog 5 NR M S S S S S S S Pseudacris sierra Sierran Treefrog 5 NR 5 H M S S S S M S M S P S Pseudacris streckeri Strecker s Chorus Frog S P M S Rana aurora Northern Red-legged Frog 4 2 S S S M M M M S P M Rana boylii Foothill Yellow-legged Frog 3 2 M S S M M S M P S Rana cascadae Cascades Frog 3 3 S S S M P S Rana draytonii California Red-legged Frog 2 T 2 NA S S S S M M P S S Rana luteiventris Columbia Spotted Frog 4 NR 2 3 M S M S M S M S S M P P S Rana muscosa Southern Mountain Yellow-legged Frog 1 E 1 S S S P S Rana pretiosa Oregon Spotted Frog 2 T H P S S S M S S Rana sierrae Sierra Nevada Yellow-legged Frog 2 E 1 H M S S S S M S P Rhinella marina Cane Toad 5 2 M S M S S S S P P S M Rhinophrynus dorsalis Burrowing Toad 5 2 M M S M M S P S M Scaphiopus couchii Couch s Spadefoot S M S S S M S P M S Scaphiopus hurterii Hurter s Spadefoot S M S S S M S P M S Smilisca baudinii Mexican Treefrog 5 3 S S M S P P S Smilisca fodiens Lowland Burrowing Treefrog 4 2 S P P S S P M M S M Spea bombifrons Plains Spadefoot S S M P S Spea hammondii Western Spadefoot 3 3 S S S S P P M Spea intermontana Great Basin Spadefoot 5 3 NR S S S S S S M M M P S M Spea multiplicata Mexican Spadefoot S S S S S S M M M P S M AMPHIBIANS: Salamanders Ambystoma annulatum Ringed Salamander 4 2 P P M M Ambystoma californiense California Tiger Salamander 2 E-T 2 P P P S P S Danny Martin HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 163

175 APPENDIX A. Amphibian and Reptile Species of the Southwest. NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary AMPHIBIANS: Salamaders continued Scientific Name (Species) Common Name Ambystoma gracile Northwestern Salamander 5 NR P S M P S Ambystoma macrodactylum Long-toed Salamander 5 NR S S S P P S Ambystoma maculatum Spotted Salamander P P S Ambystoma mavortium Western Tiger Salamander NR NR NR S S M P P S S P S S S S S M S P S P S M Ambystoma opacum Marbled Salamander P P Ambystoma talpoideum Mole Salamander P P Ambystoma texanum Small-mouthed Salamander P P S Ambystoma tigrinum Eastern Tiger Salamander 5 5 NA P Amphiuma tridactylum Three-toed Amphiuma S S P M Aneides ferreus Clouded Salamander 3 NR S P P M Aneides flavipunctatus Black Salamander 3 NR S S S S S P S S S Aneides hardii Sacramento Mountains Salamander 3 3 P P S Aneides lugubris Arboreal Salamander 5 NR S S P S Aneides vagrans Wandering Salamander 4 NR S P P M Batrachoseps altasierrae Greenhorn Mountains Slender Salamander 4 3 P P Batrachoseps attenuatus California Slender Salamander 5 NR S S S S S S P S S M Batrachoseps bramei Fairview Slender Salamander 3 3 S S S P S S Batrachoseps campi Inyo Mountains Salamander 3 2 M P P P P Batrachoseps diabolicus Hell Hollow Slender Salamander 2 2 S P P S S S Batrachoseps gabrieli San Gabriel Mountains Slender Salamander 2 2 S S P S P S S Batrachoseps gavilanensis Gabilan Mountains Slender Salamander 4 NR S S S S S S S S Batrachoseps gregarius Gregarious Slender Salamander 2 4 S S S P S P P S S Batrachoseps incognitus San Simeon Slender Salamander 2 2 P S S Batrachoseps kawia Sequoia Slender Salamander 1 1 S P P S S Batrachoseps luciae Santa Lucia Mountains Slender Salamander 2 2 P S P S S S Batrachoseps major Garden Slender Salamander 4 NR M M S S S S S S S S S M Batrachoseps minor Lesser Slender Salamander 1 1 P P P Batrachoseps nigriventris Black-bellied Slender Salamander 4 NR S S S P S S S S Batrachoseps pacificus Channel Islands Slender Salamander 4 2 S S P P Batrachoseps regius Kings River Slender Salamander 2 1 S S S P P S S P S Batrachoseps relictus Relictual Slender Salamander 1 1 S S S P P P Batrachoseps robustus Kern Plateau Salamander 3 2 S S S S S P P S S Batrachoseps simatus Kern Canyon Slender Salamander 2 2 S S S S P P S P Batrachoseps stebbinsi Tehachapi Slender Salamander 2 2 S S S P S P Desmognathus auriculatus Southern Dusky Salamander 5 1 S P Desmognathus brimleyorum Ouachita Dusky Salamander 4 3 S P Dicamptodon ensatus California Giant Salamander 3 NR P P P M Dicamptodon tenebrosus Coastal Giant Salamander 5 NR P P M S P M M Ensatina eschscholtzii Ensatina 5 NR S S P P Eurycea chisholmensis Salado Salamander 1 T 1 S S P P P Eurycea latitans Cascade Caverns Salamander 3 1 S S P P P Jackson Shedd 164

176 SPECIES NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary AMPHIBIANS: Scientific Name Salamaders (Species) continued Common Name Eurycea longicauda Long-tailed Salamander 5 2 S S M P P Eurycea lucifuga Cave Salamander 5 3 S S S P S Eurycea multiplicata Many-ribbed Salamander 4 4 S S P S Eurycea nana San Marcos Salamander 1 T 1 P P P Eurycea naufragia Georgetown Salamander 1 T 1 S S S P S Eurycea neotenes Texas Salamander 1 2 S P P S S P Eurycea pterophila Fern Bank Salamander 2 2 S S P P P Eurycea quadridigitata Dwarf Salamander 5 5 P S Eurycea rathbuni Texas Blind Salamander 1 E 1 S S P P Eurycea robusta Blanco Blind Salamander 1 1 S S P P Eurycea sosorum Barton Springs Salamander 1 E 1 S S P P Eurycea spelaea Grotto Salamander 4 3 S S P P Eurycea tonkawae Jollyville Plateau Salamander 1 T 2 S S P P Eurycea tridentifera Comal Blind Salamander 1 1 S S P P Eurycea troglodytes Valdina Farms Salamander 3 3 S S P P Eurycea tynerensis Oklahoma Salamander 3 3 S S P P Eurycea waterlooensis Austin Blind Salamander 1 E 1 S S P P Hemidactylium scutatum Four-toed Salamander 5 1 S P P Hydromantes brunus Limestone Salamander 2 1 S S P P P S S Hydromantes platycephalus Mount Lyell Salamander 4 4 S P P P P Hydromantes shastae Shasta Salamander 1 1 S S P S S Necturus beyeri Gulf Coast Waterdog 4 3 P P Necturus maculosus Mudpuppy 5 3 P P Notophthalmus meridionalis Black-spotted Newt 1 2 P S S S S Notophthalmus viridescens Eastern Newt P S M Plethodon albagula Western Slimy Salamander P S P P P Plethodon angusticlavius Ozark Zigzag Salamander 4 2 P S S S Plethodon asupak Scott Bar Salamander 1 1 P S P P S Plethodon dunni Dunn s Salamander 4 NR S S P S P P Plethodon elongatus Del Norte Salamander 4 3 P S P P S Plethodon kiamichi Kiamichi Slimy Salamander 2 2 P S Plethodon neomexicanus Jemez Mountains Salamander 2 E 2 S P S P Plethodon ouachitae Rich Mountain Salamander 2 2 P Plethodon sequoyah Sequoyah Slimy Salamander 2 2 P Plethodon serratus Southern Red-backed Salamander P Plethodon stormi Siskiyou Mountains Salamander 2 1 P P P S Rhyacotriton variegatus Southern Torrent Salamander 3 2 S S S S S S S P Siren intermedia Lesser Siren S M S P Taricha granulosa Rough-skinned Newt 5 NR S P S S S P Taricha rivularis Red-bellied Newt 4 NR P P P S P Taricha sierrae Sierra Newt 4 NR S P P S P William P. Leonard HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 165

177 APPENDIX A. Amphibian and Reptile Species of the Southwest. NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary Scientific Name (Species) Common Name Taricha torosa California Newt 4 4 S S S S S S S P REPTILES: Crocodilians Alligator mississippiensis American Alligator 5 4? 4 M S S P P REPTILES: Lizards Anniella alexanderae Temblor Legless Lizard NR NR S S Anniella campi Southern Sierra Legless Lizard NR NR S S S S S S P Anniella grinelli Bakersfield Legless Lizard NR NR P S S S S Anniella pulchra California Legless Lizard NR NR S S S S S S S Anniella stebbinsi Southern California Legless Lizard NR NR S S S S S S S S Anolis carolinensis Green Anole 5 NA 4 5 M M S M M S Aspidoscelis arizonae Arizona Striped Whiptail 2 1 P Aspidoscelis exsanguis Chihuahuan Spotted Whiptail S S S S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis flagellicauda Gila Spotted Whiptail S S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis gularis Common Spotted Whiptail S S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis hyperythra Orange-throated Whiptail 5 2 S P S Aspidoscelis inornata Little Striped Whiptail S S S S S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis laredoensis Laredo Striped Whiptail 4 4 S S S S S S S M S S S Aspidoscelis marmorata Marbled Whiptail S S S S S S S M S S S Aspidoscelis neomexicana New Mexico Whiptail 5 NR 5 4 NA S S S S S S S M S S S Aspidoscelis neotesselata Colorado Checkered Whiptail 2 2 S S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis pai Pai Striped Whiptail 3 1 M S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis scalaris Plateau Spotted Whiptail 5 3 S S S S S S Aspidoscelis sexlineata Six-lined Racerunner S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis sonorae Sonoran Spotted Whiptail S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis stictogramma Giant Spotted Whiptail S S S S S S M S S Aspidoscelis tesselata Common Checkered Whiptail 5 NR S S S S S S S S S S S Aspidoscelis tigris Tiger Whiptail 5 5 NR S M M S S Aspidoscelis uniparens Desert Grassland Whiptail M S M S Aspidoscelis velox Plateau Striped Whiptail M S S S S S S Aspidoscelis xanthonota Red-backed Whiptail 2 2 P M M S S Callisaurus draconoides Zebra-tailed Lizard 5 5 NR P S S M S M M Coleonyx brevis Texas Banded Gecko S M S S S P S Coleonyx reticulatus Reticulate Banded Gecko 3 3 S P S Coleonyx switaki Switak s Banded Gecko 4 1 S P S Coleonyx variegatus Western Banded Gecko 5 5 NR P M S S Cophosaurus texanus Greater Earless Lizard S M M S M S Crotaphytus bicinctores Great Basin Collared Lizard 5 4 NR 4 4 S P S Crotaphytus collaris Eastern Collared Lizard S P S Crotaphytus nebrius Sonoran Collared Lizard 4 3 S P S Crotaphytus reticulatus Reticulate Collared Lizard 3 2 S P S Crotaphytus vestigium Baja California Collared Lizard 5 NR S P S Jackson Shedd 166

178 SPECIES NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary AMPHIBIANS: Lizards continued Scientific Name (Species) Common Name Dipsosaurus dorsalis Desert Iguana 5 5 NR 3 H P S M S S Elgaria coerulea Northern Alligator Lizard 5 NR 2 NR S S S S S S S S S Elgaria kingii Madrean Alligator Lizard M M S S M S S S S S S S S S Elgaria multicarinata Southern Alligator Lizard 5 NR 0 S S S S M S M S S S S M Elgaria panamintina Panamint Alligator Lizard 3 3 M S S P S P S Gambelia copeii Cope s Leopard Lizard 5 NR S M S M S S Gambelia sila Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard 1 E 1 S S S S S Gambelia wislizenii Long-nosed Leopard Lizard 5 5 NR P M S S Gerrhonotus infernalis Texas Alligator Lizard 4 4 M M S S S S S S S P S Heloderma suspectum Gila Monster 4 4 NR P M M S S Holbrookia elegans Elegant Earless Lizard 5 3 NR P M S S S S S S Holbrookia lacerata Spot-tailed Earless Lizard 3 2 M S S S S S S Holbrookia maculata Common Lesser Earless Lizard H S M S S S S S S Holbrookia propinqua Keeled Earless Lizard 4 NR P S Ophisaurus attenuatus Slender Glass Lizard S S S S Petrosaurus mearnsi Mearn s Rock Lizard 4 NR P P Phrynosoma blainvillii Blainville s Horned Lizard 3 3 S S S S S Phrynosoma cornutum Texas Horned Lizard S M S S S S Phrynosoma douglasii Pygmy Short-horned Lizard 5 NR NR S M S S S S Phrynosoma goodei Goode s Horned Lizard 3 3 P M M S Phrynosoma hernandesi Greater Short-horned Lizard S M S S S S S S S Phrynosoma mcallii Flat-tailed Horned Lizard P S S Phrynosoma modestum Round-tailed Horned Lizard S M M S S S Phrynosoma platyrhinos Desert Horned Lizard 5 5 NR 4 4 P M M S Phrynosoma solare Regal Horned Lizard 5 5 NR S M S M M S S Phyllodactylus nocticolus Peninsula Leaf-toed Gecko 5 NR S M P M S Plestiodon anthracinus Coal Skink M P S P S S Plestiodon callicephalus Mountain Skink M S M P P S S Plestiodon fasciatus Common Five-lined Skink S S S S S S Plestiodon gilberti Gilbert s Skink 5 3 NR 2 M M M S S S M S S P S Plestiodon laticeps Broad-headed Skink S S S S S S S Plestiodon multivirgatus Many-lined Skink S S S S S S S S Plestiodon obsoletus Great Plains Skink S S S S S S S S S Plestiodon septentrionalis Prairie Skink S S M M M S S Plestiodon skiltonianus Western Skink 5 1 NR 4 4 S S S S S S S S Plestiodon tetragrammus Four-lined Skink 5 5 M M S S S S S S S Sauromalus ater Common Chuckwalla 5 4 NR 3 3 S P S Sceloporus arenicolus Dunes Sagebrush Lizard M M P S Sceloporus bimaculosus Twin-spotted Spiny Lizard 5 NR NR 5 S S M S S S P S Sceloporus clarkii Clark s Spiny Lizard M S M S S S S P S HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 167

179 APPENDIX A. Amphibian and Reptile Species of the Southwest. NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary Scientific Name (Species) Common Name Sceloporus consobrinus Prairie Lizard 5 NR NR 5 5 M M S S S S P S Sceloporus cowlesi Southwestern Fence Lizard 5 NR NR NR M M S S S P S Sceloporus cyanogenys Blue Spiny Lizard 3 3 S M P S Sceloporus graciosus Common Sagebrush Lizard 5 3 NR M S M S S S S Sceloporus grammicus Graphic Spiny Lizard 5 3 M S S S S S S S Sceloporus jarrovii Yarrow s Spiny Lizard S S S P S Sceloporus magister Desert Spiny Lizard 5 5 NR S S P S Sceloporus merriami Canyon Lizard 4 3 M M P S Sceloporus occidentalis Western Fence Lizard 5 NR 5 3 S S M S S M S S Sceloporus olivaceus Texas Spiny Lizard 5 5 S S S S M S Sceloporus orcutti Granite Spiny Lizard 5 NR S S P S Sceloporus poinsettii Crevice Spiny Lizard S M M S M P S Sceloporus slevini Slevin s Bunchgrass Lizard P P P Sceloporus tristichus Plateau Fence Lizard NR NR NR M M S S S P Sceloporus uniformis Yellow-backed Spiny Lizard 5 NR NR NR NR S M P Sceloporus variabilis Rose-bellied Lizard 5 5 M M S S S S S S S S S Sceloporus virgatus Striped Plateau Lizard M S P P S S Scincella lateralis Little Brown Skink M P M P M S Uma inornata Coachella Fringe-toed Lizard 1 T 1 M P Uma notata Colorado Desert Fringe-toed Lizard 3 2 M P Uma rufopunctata Yuman Desert Fringe-toed Lizard 3 2 M P Uma scoparia Mojave Fringe-toed Lizard M P Urosaurus graciosus Long-tailed Brush Lizard 5 5 NR 4 S P S Urosaurus nigricaudus Baja California Brush Lizard 5 NR S M S P S Urosaurus ornatus Ornate Tree Lizard 5 5 NR S P S Uta stansburiana Common Side-blotched Lizard 5 5 NR S S M S S S S S M M M M S S Xantusia arizonae Arizona Night Lizard 1 1 M M P M P Xantusia bezyi Bezy s Night Lizard 2 2 M M P M P Xantusia gracilis Sandstone Night Lizard 1 1 P M P Xantusia henshawi Granite Night Lizard 4 NR M M M M M P M P Xantusia riversiana Island Night Lizard 1 3 S S S P Xantusia sierrae Sierra Night Lizard 1 1 P Xantusia vigilis Desert Night Lizard 5 4 NR 4 2 S P S M S Xantusia wigginsi Wiggins Night Lizard 5 NR S P S M S REPTILES: Snakes Agkistrodon contortrix Copperhead M P M P M S S S S S Agkistrodon piscivorus Cottonmouth S M S S S S Arizona elegans Glossy Snake 5 5 NR S M M S M S S S S S S Bogertophis rosaliae Baja California Ratsnake 4 1 S S S S S S P Bogertophis subocularis Trans-Pecos Ratsnake S M M S S S S Bryan Hamilton 168

180 SPECIES NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary REPTILES: Snakes continued Scientific Name (Species) Common Name Carphophis vermis Western Wormsnake M S S S S S S Cemophora coccinea Scarletsnake M S S S S S S Charina bottae Northern Rubber Boa 5 NR 3 4 M S S S S S S S Charina umbratica Southern Rubber Boa 2 2 M S S S S S S S Chilomeniscus stramineus Variable Sandsnake 5 4 P Chionactus occipitalis Western Shovel-nosed Snake 5 3 NR 4 S S S Chionactus palarostris Sonoran Shovel-nosed Snake 3 1 S S S Coluber bilineatus Sonoran Whipsnake M M S S S S S S S Coluber constrictor North American Racer 5 1 NR S S M S S S S S S Coluber flagellum Coachwhip 5 5 NR S S S S S S S S S S S Coluber fuliginosus Baja California Coachwhip 5 NR S S S S S S S S S S Coluber lateralis Striped Racer 4 NR S S S S S S S S S S Coluber schotti Schott s Whipsnake 5 4 S S S S S S S S Coluber taeniatus Striped Whipsnake 5 4 NR S S S S S S S S S S Coniophanes imperialis Regal Black-striped Snake 4 2 P Contia longicauda Forest Sharp-tailed Snake 4 NR S S S S S S S Contia tenuis Common Sharp-tailed Snake 5 5 S S S S S S S Crotalus atrox Western Diamond-backed Rattlesnake 5 5 NR S S M S S S S M Crotalus cerastes Sidewinder 5 5 NR 4 2 S P S Crotalus cerberus Arizona Black Rattlesnake 5 5 NR S S S S S P S Crotalus horridus Timber Rattlesnake S S S S P S Crotalus lepidus Rock Rattlesnake S S S P S M Crotalus mitchellii Speckled Rattlesnake 5 5 NR 4 3 M M S M P S Crotalus molossus Black-tailed Rattlesnake S M M S S S S P S M Crotalus oreganus Western Rattlesnake 5 5 NR NR 5 NR S M S S S S S S P S S Crotalus ornatus Eastern Black-tailed Rattlesnake NR NR 5 S M S S S P S M Crotalus pricei Twin-spotted Rattlesnake 5 2 S S S P P Crotalus ruber Red Diamond Rattlesnake 4 2 S S S S P S M Crotalus scutulatus Mojave Rattlesnake 5 5 NR S M S S S P S Crotalus stephensi Panamint Rattlesnake 4 NR NR M M S P S Crotalus tigris Tiger Rattlesnake 5 5 S M P S M Crotalus viridis Prairie Rattlesnake M S M P S M Crotalus willardi Ridge-nosed Rattlesnake M S M M M P S Diadophis punctatus Ring-necked Snake 5 5 NR S S S S S S S S M Drymarchon melanurus Central American Indigo Snake 5 3 M M S P S S S S S Drymobius margaritiferus Speckled Racer 5 1 P S S S M Farancia abacura Red-bellied Mudsnake M M M M M M S P Ficimia streckeri Tamaulipan Hook-nosed Snake 4 4 M S S S S S S Gyalopion canum Chihuahuan Hook-nosed Snake S S S S Gyalopion quadrangulare Thornscrub Hook-nosed Snake 4 1 S S S S HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 169

181 APPENDIX A. Amphibian and Reptile Species of the Southwest. NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary Scientific Name (Species) Common Name Heterodon gloydi Dusty Hog-nosed Snake 3 NR S M S S M S S M Heterodon kennerlyi Mexican Hog-nosed Snake 4 3 NR NR S M S S M S S M Heterodon nasicus Plains Hog-nosed Snake S M S S M S S M Heterodon platirhinos Eastern Hog-nosed Snake 5 NR 5 5 S M S S M S S S M Hypsiglena chlorophaea Desert Nightsnake 5 5 NR S S S S S Hypsiglena jani Chihuahuan Nightsnake 5 NR NR NR 3 5 S M S S S Hypsiglena ochrorhyncha Coast Nightsnake 5 NR M S S S S S S S M Lampropeltis alterna Gray-banded Kingsnake S P S Lampropeltis californiae California Kingsnake 5 5 NR S M S S S S S S S S S S Lampropeltis calligaster Yellow-bellied Kingsnake M S S S S S S S S S S Lampropeltis holbrooki Speckled Kingsnake 5 NR 5 5 S S S S S M S S S S Lampropeltis knoblochi Knobloch s Mountain Kingsnake 4 NR NR S P S S S P S Lampropeltis pyromelana Pyro Mountain Kingsnake M S S S P S S M Lampropeltis splendida Desert Kingsnake NR S M S S S S S S S S S Lampropeltis triangulum Milksnake S S S S S S S S S Lampropeltis zonata California Mountain Kingsnake 4 NR M M S S S S P S S Leptodeira septentrionalis Cat-eyed Snake 5 2 S S M M S S S Lichanura orcutti Northern Three-lined Boa M S S M P S M Lichanura trivirgata Rosy Boa S M P S M Micruroides euryxanthus Sonoran Coralsnake S S M S M S S M Micrurus tener Texas Coralsnake 5 5 M S S S S P S S S M Nerodia clarkii Saltmarsh Watersnake 4 4 M S P S M Nerodia cyclopion Mississippi Green Watersnake 5 5 M M M M M S S P S Nerodia erythrogaster Plain-bellied Watersnake M M M M M M M S S P S Nerodia fasciata Southern Watersnake 5 NA 2 5 M M M M M M M S S P S Nerodia harteri Brazos River Watersnake 2 1 S P M M Nerodia paucimaculata Concho Watersnake 2 2 S P M M Nerodia rhombifer Diamond-backed Watersnake M M M M M M M S S P S Nerodia sipedon Common Watersnake M M M M M M M S S P S Opheodrys aestivus Rough Greensnake S S M S M M S S M Opheodrys vernalis Smooth Greensnake X 3 S S M M M S S M Oxybelis aeneus Brown Vinesnake 5 1 M S S M S S Pantherophis bairdi Baird s Ratsnake 4 4 M S M S S S S S S S S Pantherophis emoryi Great Plains Ratsnake M S M S S S S M S S S S Pantherophis obsoletus Western Ratsnake M S M S S S S S S S S S Pelamis platura Yellow-bellied Seasnake 5 NA P Phyllorhynchus browni Saddled Leaf-nosed Snake 5 5 P M M M S M S Phyllorhynchus decurtatus Spotted Leaf-nosed Snake 5 5 NR 4 1 P M M M S Pituophis catenifer Gophersnake 5 5 NR NR 5 S S S S S S S S S S S S S Pituophis ruthveni Louisiana Pinesnake 2 C 1 M S S Bryan Hamilton 170

182 SPECIES NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary Scientific Name (Species) Common Name Pituophis slowinskii Slowinski s Cornsake 4 NR P S Regina grahamii Graham s Crayfish Snake M S S P M Regina rigida Glossy Crayfish Snake M S S P M Rena dissectus New Mexico Threadsnake NR S S S S S S S S Rena dulcis Texas Threadsnake S S S S S S S S S S S Rena humilis Western Threadsnake 5 5 NR S S S S S S S S S S S S S Rhinocheilus lecontei Long-nosed Snake 5 5 NR S M S S S M S S Salvadora grahamiae Eastern Patch-nosed Snake S S M S S S S S S S S S Salvadora hexalepis Western Patch-nosed Snake 5 5 NR NR 5 NR 3 S S M S S S S S S S S S S Senticolis triaspis Green Ratsnake M S S S S Sistrurus catenatus Massasauga M M S S S S S S P S S Sistrurus miliarius Pygmy Rattlesnake M S S S S P S S Sonora semiannulata Western Groundsnake 5 5 NR S S S S S S S S S M S Storeria dekayi DeKay s Brownsnake 5 NR 5 5 S S M S S S S M S S S S S S S S Storeria occipitomaculata Red-bellied Snake S S S S S S S S S S S S Tantilla atriceps Mexican Black-headed Snake 4 1 S S M S S S S S S Tantilla cucullata Trans-Pecos Black-headed Snake 3 2 S S S S S S S S S S Tantilla gracilis Flat-headed Snake S S M S S S S S S S S Tantilla hobartsmithi Smith s Black-headed Snake 5 5 NR S S M S S S S M S S Tantilla nigriceps Plains Black-headed Snake S S S S S S S S S Tantilla planiceps Western Black-headed Snake 4 NR S S S S S S S S S S S S Tantilla wilcoxi Chihuahuan Black-headed Snake 4 1 S M S S P P Tantilla yaquia Yaqui Black-headed Snake M S S S S Thamnophis atratus Aquatic Gartersnake 5 NR M M M M S P P S Thamnophis couchii Sierra Gartersnake 4 NR 3 S S M M M M S P P S Thamnophis cyrtopsis Black-necked Gartersnake H M M S M M S S S S M S S S S Thamnophis elegans Terrestrial Gartersnake 5 5 NR S S S M S S M M S S S S Thamnophis eques Mexican Gartersnake 4 PS 1 1 H M M M M M S M S S S S Thamnophis gigas Giant Gartersnake 2 T 2 M M P Thamnophis hammondii Two-striped Gartersnake 4 3 S S P M Thamnophis marcianus Checkered Gartersnake 5 5 NR M M S S S M M S S S S S S Thamnophis ordinoides Northwestern Gartersnake 5 NR M M S S S S S M S M S Thamnophis proximus Western Ribbonsnake 5 H M S S M S S S M Thamnophis radix Plains Gartersnake M M M S S S S M S Thamnophis rufipunctatus Narrow-headed Gartersnake 3 T 1 2 M M M S P M Thamnophis sirtalis Common Gartersnake 5 NR S S S M S M S S S S S Trimorphodon lambda Sonoran Lyresnake 5 2 NR P S Trimorphodon lyrophanes California Lyresnake 5 NR P S Trimorphodon vilkinsonii Texas Lyresnake 4 NR 3 P S Tropidoclonion lineatum Lined Snake S S S S S S HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 171

183 APPENDIX A. Amphibian and Reptile Species of the Southwest. NatureServe Global Ranks Federal Listing Status Arizona California Colorado New Mexico Nevada Oklahoma Texas Utah Desert Scrublands Desert Woodlands Dunes Grasslands Shrub and Shrub-Steppe Coastal Sage Scrub and Chaparral Thornscrub Bosques and Gallery Forests Deciduous and Mixed Woodlands Juniper and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Evergreen Woodlands Deciduous Forests Evergreen Forests Alpine and Subalpine Rock Features Caves, Karst, and Underground Mines Canyons Intermittent Streams and Ephemeral Ponds Rivers and Perennial Streams Lakes, Ponds, and Reservoirs Cienegas, Bogs, Wet Meadows, and Swamps Springs and Seeps Marine and Estuary REPTILES: SNAKES continued Scientific Name (Species) Common Name Virginia striatula Rough Earthsnake S S S S S S S S Virginia valeriae Smooth Earthsnake S S S S S S S S REPTILES: TURTLES Actinemys marmorata Western Pond Turtle S M P P Apalone mutica Smooth Softshell S S S Apalone spinifera Spiny Softshell 5 NA NA 4 4 NA 5 5 NA S S S Caretta caretta Loggerhead Sea Turtle 3 E NR 4 P Chelonia mydas Green Sea Turtle 3 T 1 3 P Chelydra serpentina Snapping Turtle 5 NA NA 4 5 NA 5 5 NA S P P Chrysemys picta Painted Turtle 5 1 NA NA S S S Deirochelys reticularia Chicken Turtle S S P Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback Sea Turtle 2 E NA 1 P Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill Sea Turtle 3 E NA 2 P Gopherus agassizii Mojave Desert Tortoise 3 T 2 NR 2 2 S S S S Gopherus berlandieri Texas Tortoise 4 2 S S S S S Gopherus morafkai Sonoran Desert Tortoise 4 4 NA S S S S S Graptemys caglei Cagle s Map Turtle 3 1 P S Graptemys geographica Northern Map Turtle 5 1 P S Graptemys ouachitensis Southern Map Turtle P S Graptemys pseudogeographica False Map Turtle 5 NR 3 P S Graptemys versa Texas Map Turtle 4 U P S Kinosternon arizonense Arizona Mud Turtle 4 2 S M S S S Kinosternon flavescens Yellow Mud Turtle S S S S S Kinosternon hirtipes Rough-footed Mud Turtle 5 1 S S S S S Kinosternon sonoriense Sonora Mud Turtle 4 4 H 3 NA S S S S S Kinosternon subrubrum Eastern Mud Turtle S S S S S Lepidochelys kempii Kemp s Ridley Sea Turtle 1 E 3 P Lepidochelys olivacea Olive Ridley Sea Turtle 3 E NA P Macroclemys temminckii Alligator Snapping Turtle S P Malaclemys terrapin Diamond-backed Terrapin 4 3 P Pseudemys concinna River Cooter S S Pseudemys gorzugi Rio Grande Cooter S S Pseudemys texana Texas Cooter 5 5 S S Sternotherus carinatus Razor-backed Musk Turtle S S S S S Sternotherus odoratus Eastern Musk Turtle S S S S S Terrapene carolina Eastern Box Turtle S S S S S Terrapene ornata Ornate Box Turtle S S S S S Trachemys gaigae Mexican Plateau Slider S S S S Trachemys scripta Pond Slider 5 NS NA 4 NA 5 5 S S S S S Alison Cockrum 172

184 APPENDIX B. DEVELOPING A MANAGEMENT PLAN. Danny Martin and Robert E. Lovich Western Pond Turtle eggs Ryan Hawks This section is intended to provide guidance to land managers for developing science-based management plans to conserve and manage herpetofauna on their properties. Even without a management plan, it is highly recommended that managers record species observed in different habitats through time (e.g., species name, where and when it was observed). This information will provide general ideas about which habitats may be important for different species. Because there is so little known about many reptiles and amphibians, we encourage all land and resource managers to consider using a science-based approach as outlined below. Doing so will greatly improve our abilities to effectively conserve these important species into the future. 1. Set well-defined, scientifically defensible management objectives and actions. Be sure to consider and define why you are writing and implementing a management plan. Your objectives for management and conservation of herpetofauna should be well-defined and achievable, and incorporate standardized methods whenever appropriate. Management plans should include defined actions to implement if monitoring demonstrates declines in species of interest. Monitoring methods used should be precise enough to detect trends relevant for conservation objectives. 2. Know what you have. In order to make wellinformed management decisions, it is essential to have sound information upon which to base those decisions. Conducting background literature and distributional record searches for historically documented species, performing an initial species inventory, and periodic monitoring of herpetofauna are essential ingredients to most management plans. Adequate inventory and monitoring of species can be implemented with relatively minimal planning and resources. Managers with limited resources or expertise (e.g., private landowners) are encouraged to consult with experts from universities or agencies to incorporate defensible, standardized survey methods as early in the management planning process as possible (see #4 below). 3. Monitor change and evaluate your success. Inventories may be necessary to gather baseline information on previously unsurveyed areas, while monitoring uses repeated, standardized efforts for gathering observations of species. Species inventories should be followed by species monitoring, with consideration given to logistics, budget, and HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 173

185 APPENDIX B. Developing a Management Plan. planning requirements. Monitoring changes in herpetofaunal populations over time relative to environmental change (e.g., droughts, wildfires, or habitat treatments) requires use of standardized survey methods and a sampling design that provides valid conclusions. Monitoring is important for evaluating the relative success of your management activities. When possible, inventories and monitoring should target all respective habitats found on the area of interest. Avoid sampling only in familiar and/or easily accessible locations (e.g., only surveying along roads or trails). Surveys should include reporting of factors that may influence detection of herpetofauna (e.g., observer bias, inclement weather) and misidentification rates (e.g., voucher photographs) when possible, in order to improve both interpretation of survey results and future efforts. With limited resources, you may focus survey efforts for species of particular conservation interest, use volunteer observers, or conduct surveys every few years rather than annually. Consult with a local experts and/or resource managers, as appropriate. 4. Collaborate with experts. There are many expert resources available for helping you consider amphibians and reptiles in your management plans and most of them are perfectly willing to assist someone with their expertise. It is recommended that you consult with subject-matter experts prior to step #1. Southwest PARC can facilitate identification of professionals or experts in your area that may be able to assist you or provide feedback on your management plans. Such collaboration can allow for independent and peer-review of the plan, which will usually result in a better management plan. 5. Use spatial data. Understanding the habitats available in your area is an important component of any management plan. Spatial data (such as aerial photography) are readily available for investigating habitat and climatological conditions relative to herpetofaunal occurrences. If you are unsure how to evaluate spatial data, take time to collaborate with or consult experts (see #4 & 6). 6. Determine important environmental factors for reptiles or amphibians. Conduct surveys focused on your area and species of interest, and record environmental variables that help you address relevant management questions. For example, larger species may have larger home ranges and use more total area of a preferred habitat than would smaller species. Limiting factors for some species may be obvious without sampling (e.g., aquatic species need water), but for others DEVELOPING A MANAGEMENT PLAN additional information may be required to determine resource requirements. A well-developed monitoring program (see #2 above) can help fill informational gaps in our understanding of some species ecological requirements. 7. Evaluate compatibility with other wildlife and land management goals. Most wildlife and land management plans focus on habitat. Habitat extent and quality should be considered, especially with respect to other goals and objectives for co-occurring wildlife. If lands are managed for multiple uses and species, acquiring information on herpetofaunal use of the area (see #1 & 2 above) can greatly improve planning. For example, an area planned as a parking lot for a public trail may be moved slightly if it is determined that the site serves as a breeding pool for amphibians during rain events. Cattle grazing in semi-arid grasslands may improve conditions for species that prefer more open habitats, but may negatively impact species that rely on denser vegetation. While species may respond differently to management actions, having well-defined objectives will improve your ability to adapt management practices to changes in the ecosystem. Management plans should include considerations for uncommon species that may occur in your area, should they be discovered on the property in the future. 8. Revisit and revise your management plans! Any good management plan should allow for changes in the environment and in herpetofaunal populations an adaptive approach. Your plan should enable adaptation of your plan and actions based on the current state of herpetofaunal populations, recent climatological and habitat conditions, and knowledge gained through monitoring or research. A management plan should be considered a work-in-progress or living document. While the initial plan should attempt to consider as many possibilities as are reasonable for the managed area and respective species therein, expect to make regular (e.g., annual) updates based on newly acquired information

186 APPENDIX C. NON-NATIVE, INVASIVE SPECIES OF CONCERN TO AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWEST. This list includes many of the most notorious non-native, invasive species that can affect amphibian and reptile populations and their habitats. Species are considered invasive if they present significant threats to the environment, so not all non-natives are invasive. A good example is the Mediterranean Gecko that is widespread in urban areas of the Southwest. Since it does not compete with native species or alter habitat, it is not considered an invasive. This is only a partial list with some examples of effects to make the reader more aware of the problem. There are actually hundreds of additional species considered invasive, and each state has its own lists. For example, in 2006, California alone had over 1,800 non-native plants identified that could be found in wildlands, of which over 200 were considered invasive (not to mention insects and other animals). The list grows every time there is a new assessment. Since a complete list of the region s invasive species is a moving target and beyond the scope of this book, the reader should use an online search engine to determine just which species are invasive in their state and habitats of concern. It is said that habitat is the key to wildlife, and these invasive species alter native habitats. compiled by Bryan Hamilton Species AMPHIBIANS American Bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeiana) Rio Grande Leopard Frog (Lithobates berlandieri) African Clawed Frog (Xenopus laevis) Tiger Salamanders (Ambysoma spp.) REPTILES Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina) Pond Slider (Trachemys scripta) Southern and Common water snakes (Nerodia sipedon, N. fasciata) FISHES Trouts (Oncorhynchus spp., Salmo spp. and Salvelinus spp.) Effects and Habitats Affected Bullfrogs are a significant factor in the decline of native species in and around standing-water habitats in the Southwest, and globally. Populations introduced outside the native range (east Texas and the Southeast) prey on and spread disease to native amphibians. Bullfrogs are highly effective at colonizing new habitats and travel up to five miles between ponds and stock tanks. Populations introduced outside their native range compete with, displace, and spread disease to native frogs in standing or slow-moving waters. Released pets and those formerly used in pregnancy testing have established populations in Arizona and California. They spread disease and compete with native amphibians in standing-water habitats. Populations of various species are often established outside their native range when unused fishing bait ( water dogs ) is released. Introduced populations cause genetic introgression with native taxa. They also compete with and spread disease to native amphibians in and around standing-water habitats. Non-native populations compete with, prey on, and spread disease to native species in still to slowflow aquatic habitats. Released pets are established widely outside their native range. They compete with, spread disease and prey on native species in still and slowly flowing aquatic habitats. Non-native populations are established in several California reservoirs. They are thought to have the potential to spread widely in California, impacting native amphibians, gartersnakes, and endangered species. While there are native trouts in many areas, non-native populations directly and indirectly impact amphibians and other native species. Amphibians are generally absent from trout streams and ponds, so when trouts are added to new systems, amphibians may be extirpated. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 175

187 APPENDIX C. Non-native, Invasive Species of Concern to Amphibians and Reptiles of the Southwest. Species Bass, Sunfish (Family Centrarchidae) Western Mosquitofish (Gambusia spp.) Freshwater Catfishes (family Ictaluridae and others) Fathead Minnow (Pimephales promelas) Armored Catfish (Hypostomus plecostomus) MAMMALS Northern Raccoon (Procyon lotor) Domestic Cat (Felis catus) Feral Pig (Sus scrofa) Feral Horse (Equus caballus), Domestic cattle and sheep (Bos taurus, Ovis aries) INSECTS Red Imported Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta) Tawny Crazy Ant (Nylanderia fulva) Plant parasites CRUSTACEANS Crayfishes (families Cambaridae and Astacidae) Effects and Habitats Affected Centrarchids directly consume amphibians and reptiles. They have been widely introduced and established outside their native range for fishing, but many species, such as Green Sunfish, can extirpate amphibians in aquatic systems. These are widely established outside their native range to control mosquito larvae, but mosquito fish alter the aquatic habitat template, negatively impacting native species and directly consuming amphibian larvae in slow-flowing water. While there are native catfishes in the U.S., the diversity is highest in the Southeast and many species have been introduced into the Southwest for sportfishing. These are ravenous predators that will eat almost anything they can catch, and some species attain large size. Released baitfish have established many populations outside their native distribution (Texas and eastward). This species negatively affects native amphibians in wetlands, ponds, and streams. Populations have become established in Texas, Arizona, and Colorado (at least) in springs, streams, and rivers. They alter aquatic habitat and indirectly affect endangered species of salamanders in Texas. Populations are spreading outside its native range and increasing in density due to subsidies, illegal feeding, and released pets. They prey on amphibians and reptiles and their nests, especially in riparian and aquatic habitats. Feral and free-range cats decimate native reptiles and amphibian populations. For example, Domestic Cats can completely eradicate all native lizards in a given area in short order. These descendants of domestic pigs now occur as feral populations in most states in the region. They directly prey on reptiles and amphibians and their nests, particularly snakes. They indirectly impact reptiles and amphibians by altering habitat and plant communities. The ungulates indirectly impact reptiles and amphibians by altering vegetation, soil structure, and plant diversity. Although many effects are negative, they are sometimes used to improve some habitats by reducing plant density and cover. Red Imported Fire Ants (RIFA) now occur throughout the Southeast since introduced to Alabama in the 1930s. RIFA have infested most terrestrial habitats of Texas and are expanding westward in the the Southwest. RIFA directly prey on eggs, hatchlings, and adult amphibians and reptiles. They compete with native ants and other insects and can even alter vegetation structure and native arthopod communities, indirect effects that cascade to amphibians and reptiles. These animals are also a health risk to humans, as people become sensitized to the sting. This species is resistant to fire ant venom and control methods. It is established in the Gulf Coast areas of Texas and may continue to spread beyond. They affect amphibians and reptiles by altering vegetation communities. Exotic plant parasites are too speciose to itemize, but can wreak ecological havoc by transforming whole ecosystems and ridding areas of native plant species, which indirectly affects amphibians and reptiles. An example is the Argentine Cactus Moth, which devastates stands of prickly pears. Spruce Aphids have been known to nearly decimate stands of spruce and along with climate change, can be converted by wildfire. Crayfishes deplete aquatic vegetation, alter nutrient cycling, increase water turbidity, and prey on native species of amphibians and reptiles. Introduced populations are associated with declines of native amphibians, pond turtles, and gartersnakes. They were originally introduced for aquatic weed control, forage, bait, and human consumption, but non-native crayfishes are widely established and extremely difficult to eradicate in standing to flowing water habitats

188 EFFECTS OF INVASIVE SPECIES Species MOLLUSKS New Zealand mud snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum) Quagga mussel (Dreissena rostriformis bugensis), Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) VEGETATION Salt cedar (Tamarix spp.), palms (Phoenix spp., Washingtonia spp.), Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia), common reed (Phragmites australis), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), red brome (Bromus rubens), medusahead (Taeniatherum caput-medusae), others Buffelgrass (Pennisetum ciliaris), Lehmann lovegrass (Eragrostis lehmanniana), giant cane grass (Arundo donax), fountain grass (Pennisetum setaceum), natalgrass (Melinis repens), others White Top (Cardaria draba), Tumble Mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum), Sahara mustard (Brassica tournefortii), ice plant (Carpobrotus edulis), Vinca spp., scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius), french broom (Genista monspessulana), Halogeton spp., Russian thistle (Kali tragus), leafey spurge (Euphorbia esula), knapweed (Centaurea spp.), bull thistle (Cirsium vulgate), musk thistle (Carduus nutans), many others Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), giant salvinia (Salvinia molesta), many others Effects and Habitats Affected Introduced populations are found widely in springs across the region. They may spread disease to native species. Introduced populations occur in reservoirs, which are already highly altered systems. They accumulate toxins, create anaerobic conditions, and consume plankton. These plants are termed phreatophytes, which use groundwater and can dry up streams and wetlands, eliminating amphibian habitat. Shading from these trees reduces water temperatures, plant diversity, and productivity. Alternatively, introduced phreatophytes can provide habitat for snakes and lizards. Annual grasses alter fire regimes, change the spatial structure of vegetation, and reduce plant diversity and ecological functioning. Indirect effects on amphibians and reptiles are dramatic. Cheatgrass is widespread in the West, but greatly affects the Great Basin Desert. Red brome affects many desert environments from California to Texas. Both species can foster wildfires in desert areas not adapted for wildfire. Perrenial grasses alter fire regimes, change the spatial structure of vegetation, and reduce plant diversity and ecological functioning. Indirect effects on amphibians and reptiles are dramatic. Buffelgrass is the scourge of the Sonoran Desert, causing intense wildfires that will eventually eliminate native desert habitat and create a buffelgrass monoculture. Lehmann lovegrass has already succeeded in establishing monocultures in areas occupied by a variety of native grass species within semi-desert grasslands. These and other introduced forbs alter fire regimes, change the spatial structure of vegetation, and reduce plant diversity and ecological functioning. Indirect effects on amphibians and reptiles are dramatic. Examples: the ecologically sensitive dune areas of California and Arizona, where several specialized reptiles occur, are being converted to Sahara mustard forb habitats. Mediterranean iceplant has already taken over most coastal California and legless lizards cannot survive in the dense foliage and root system. These exotic aquatic plants can spread rapidly and cover lakes and ponds. Dense mats of vegetation change water quality and die-offs create anoxic conditions. HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 177

189 APPENDIX D. DISINFECTION GUIDELINES FOR INDIVIDUALS WORKING IN FRESHWATER HABITATS. APPENDIX D. Disinfection Guidelines for Individuals Working in Freshwater Habitats. BACKGROUND This appendix emphasizes amphibian chytrid fungus disinfection techniques for field workers, although other pathogens are known from freshwater and terrestrial habitats, so it serves as a template for methods to minimize the spread of disease. Chytrid fungi are widespread in the environment where they act as decomposers of keratin, chitin, cellulose, and other plant material. Chytrids are also known parasites of fungi, algae, higher plants, protozoa, and invertebrates, but none were known to infect vertebrates until recently. Since the amphibian chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, Bd) was described in 1999, it has been found in many amphibian populations around the world, including many that are declining. While Bd is probably moved naturally from one water body to another on dispersing amphibians, or on water birds and flying insects, it is important to ensure that humans are not among the vectors spreading Bd between sites as part of research, monitoring, or land management programs. DECONTAMINATION OF FIELD GEAR FOR HERPETOFAUNA SURVEYS Biologists, researchers, and land managers should decontaminate field gear and equipment between sites, especially if water sources (e.g., stock tanks, wildlife waters, streams) have a history of known or suspected infections or die-offs, or if any sites within a watershed or basin have a history of exposure. If there are sites where die-offs or suspected amphibian declines have occurred, decontamination of their field gear and equipment between sites is essential. When biologists are working in aquatic systems such as streams and rivers, effort should be made, especially during first time visits, to work from sites in the upper watershed to sites in the lower watersheds and to decontaminate field gear between sites, using the guidelines in Table 1. For those working in wetland habitats such as streams, springs, creeks, cienegas, or ponds or lakes/reservoirs, they should decontaminate field gear between basins or catchments. Table 1. Information for disinfecting equipment exposed to aquatic invasive species and pathogens using bleach (sodium hypochlorite) or quat-128 (a commercially available, specific quaternary ammonium compound). These chemicals are also effective at killing other harmful aquatic organisms that affect fish or ecosystems, such as Myxobolus cerebralis, which causes whirling disease in fishes, invasive clams that affect waterways, and didymo (Didymosphenia geminata), a diatom that affects freshwater habitats. Target Organism M. cerebralis Bd Invasive clams D. geminata Disinfection Time 10 minutes 10 minutes rinse 1 minute liquid oz. bleach per gallon water 1.12 (33 ml) 8.93 (264 ml) 0.56 (17 ml) 1.79 (53 ml) liquid oz. quat 128 per gallon water If Bd is present at a given site, it should be assumed that all salamanders, frogs, toads, and their larvae have been exposed. Hence, asymptomatic or seemingly uninfected individuals have almost certainly been exposed, regardless of their handing by biologists or land managers. Humans sometimes unknowingly assist the spread aquatic invasive organisms and pathogens by transferring them from one body of water to another on footwear, waders, nets, and other equipment. Aquatic species can be protected by following the recommended prevention and disinfection procedures below. DISPOSAL Care is needed when disposing the used cleaning solution. Follow all federal, state, and local regulations. Do not dump cleaning solution into any stream or lake, or on areas where it can seep into any storm drain, water body, or sensitive habitat. Small quantities may be disposed of down sanitary drains into a municipal sewer system. Larger quantities may need to be transported to a municipal wastewater treatment facility. Consult the facility operator/manager prior to disposal. Used cleaning solution may or may not be suitable for disposal in on-site septic systems. Consult the local 178

190 Safety agency s utilities supervisor or facilities manager prior to disposal. SAFETY At the recommended dilution (Table 1), bleach and quat-128 are safe for use. However, personal protective equipment should always be used when working with these compounds. Use protective, unlined rubber gloves and splash goggles when handling the cleaning solution, and take extra precautions when handling undiluted chemicals. Have eye wash and clean water available on-site to treat accidental exposure. Respiratory protection is not normally required if there is good ventilation. on decontamination: (see Disease/ Pathogens/Parasites page), (see Field Decontamination Guide ), and Fellers (2008), Always use these products in accordance with label instructions. Never mix quat-128 with bleach, as toxic fumes may result. Consult the product label and Material Safety Data Sheets. For more information, see ( index.shtml) Esther Nelson The following websites provide additional information HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 179

191 APPENDIX E. SOUTHWEST PARC PRIORITY SPECIES (2012 LIST). APPENDIX E. Southwest PARC Priority Species (2012 list). These are the species and species group that the Southwest PARC Priority Species Working Group determined were of highest need of regional conservation attention. This list changes periodically as threats, taxonomy, and management issues change, so please visit the Southwest PARC website for any updates. A pdf of the entire Priority Species document, which includes methods and rationale, is available on the Southwest PARC website ( AMPHIBIANS SINGLE SPECIES California Tiger Salamander (Ambystoma californiense) Mexican White-lipped Frog (Leptodactylus fragilis) Mexican Treefrog (Smilisca baudinii) GROUPS Slender Salamanders (genus Batrachoseps) Inyo Mountains Salamander (B. campi) Hell Hollow Slender Salamander (B. diabolicus) San Gabriel Mountains Slender Salamander (B. gabrieli) Sequoia Slender Salamander (B. kawia) Kings River Slender Salamander (B. regius) Relictual Slender Salamander (B. relictus) Kern Plateau Salamander (B. robustus) Tehachapi Slender Salamander (B. stebbinsi) Web-toed Salamanders (genus Hydromantes) Limestone Salamander (H. brunus) Mount Lyell Salamander (H. platycephalus) Shasta Salamander (H. shastae) Woodland Salamanders (genus Plethodon) Scott Bar Salamander (P. asupak) Jemez Mountains Salamander (P. neomexicanus) Siskiyou Mountains Salamander (P. stormi) Ranid Frogs (genera Lithobates and Rana) Chiricahua Leopard Frog (L. chiricahuensis) Relict Leopard Frog (L. onca) Northern Leopard Frog (L. pipiens) Tarahumara Frog (L. tarahumarae) Foothill Yellow-legged Frog (R. boylii) California Red-legged Frog (R. draytonii) Southern Mountain Yellow-legged Frog (R. muscosa) North American Toads (Genus Anaxyrus) Arroyo Toad (A. californicus) Yosemite Toad (A. canorus) Black Toad (A. exsul) Arizona Toad (A. microscaphus) Amargosa Toad (A. nelsoni) REPTILES SINGLE SPECIES Orange-throated Whiptail (A. hyperythra) Baja California Ratsnake (Bogertophis rosaliae) Southern Rosy Boa (Charina umbratica) Regal Black-striped Snake (Coniophanes imperialis) Reticulate Banded Gecko (Coleonyx reticulatus) Switak s Banded Gecko (C. switaki) Reticulate Collared Lizard (Crotaphytus reticulatus) Baja California Collared Lizard (C. vestigium) Speckled Racer (Drymobius margaritiferus) Panamint Alligator Lizard (Elgaria panamintina) Cope s Leopard Lizard (Gambelia copei) Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard (G. sila) Mohave Desert Tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) Sonoran Desert Tortoise (G. morafkai) Thornscrub Hook-nosed Snake (Gyalopion quadrangulare) Spot-tailed Earless Lizard (Holbrookia lacerata) Blainville s Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma blainvillii) Dunes Sagebrush Lizard (Sceloporus arenicolus) Blue Spiny Lizard (S. cyanogenys) SPECIES GROUPS Black-headed Snakes (genus Tantilla) Mexican Black-headed Snake (T. atriceps) Chihuahuan Black-headed Snake (T. wilcoxi) Yaqui Black-headed Snake (T. yaquia) North American Gartersnakes (genus Thamnophis) Mexican Gartersnake (T. eques) Giant Gartersnake (T. gigas) Narrow-headed Gartersnake (T. rufipunctatus) Fringe-toed Lizards (genus Uma) Coachella Fringe-toed Lizard (U. inornata) Colorado Desert Fringe-toed Lizard (U. notata) Yuman Desert Fringe-toed Lizard (U. rufopunctata) Night Lizards (genus Xantusia) Bezy s Night Lizard (X. bezyi) Sandstone Night Lizard (X. gracilis) Sierra Night Lizard (X. sierrae) 180

192 APPENDIX F. REFERENCES AND RESOURCES General Management References GENERAL MANAGEMENT REFERENCES Biebighauser, T.R Wetland Restoration: A Technical Guide. Upper Susquehanna Coalition. Chambers, J.C. and J.R. Miller Great Basin Riparian Ecosystems: Ecology, Management, and Restoration. Island Press, Washington. Graeter, G.J., K.A. Buhlmann, L.R. Wilkinson, and J.W. Gibbons (editors) Inventory and Monitoring: Recommended Techniques for Reptiles and Amphibians, with application to the United States and Canada. PARC Technical Publication IM-1. Heyer, W.R., M.A. Donnelly, R.W. McDiarmid, L.-A.C. Hayek, and M.S. Foster (editors) Measuring and Monitoring Biological Diversity: Standard Methods for Amphibians. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. Hoekstra, T.W., and.m. Shachak (technical editors) Arid Lands Management: Toward Ecological Sustainability. University of Illinois Press. McDiarmid, R.W., M.S. Foster, C. Guyer, J.W. Gibbons, and N. Chernoff (editors) Reptile Biodiversity: Standard Methods for Inventory and Monitoring. University of California Press, Berkeley. Miller, R.F., Bates, J.D., T.J. Svejcar, F.B. Pierson, and L.E. Eddleman Biology, Ecology, and Management of the Western Juniper. Oregon State University Agricultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 52, June Mitchell, J.C., R.E.J. Brown, and B. Bartholomew (editors) Urban Herpetology. Society for the Study of Reptiles and Amphibians, Salt Lake City, UT. Semlitsch, R.D. (editor) Amphibian Conservation. Smithsonian Institution Press. Szaro, R.C., K.E. Severson, and D.R. Patton (editos) Management of Amphibians, Reptiles, and Small Mammals in North America. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-166. Whitson, T.D., L.C. Burrill, S. Dewey, et al Weeds of the West, 9th ed. Western Society of Weed Science, Newark, CA. Williams, B.K., R.C. Szaro, and C.D. Shapiro Adaptive Management. The U.S. Department of the Interior Technical Guide. Adaptive Management Working Group, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. Juvenile Madrean Alligator Lizard HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 181

193 APPENDIX E. Southwest PARC Priority Species (2012 list). Wisdom, M.J., M.M. Rowland, and L.H. Suring, Habitat Threats in the Sagebrush Ecosystem: Methods of Regional Assessment and Applications in the Great Basin. Alliance Communications Group, Lawrence, KS. AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE IDENTIFICATION, DISTRIBUTION, AND NATURAL HISTORY REGIONAL Bartlett, R.D. and P.P. Bartlett Guide and Reference to the Amphibians of Western North America (North of Mexico) and Hawaii. University Press of Florida. Bartlett, R.D. and P.P. Bartlett Guide and Reference to the Turtles and Lizards of Western North America (North of Mexico) and Hawaii. University Press of Florida. Bartlett, R.D., and A. Tennant Snakes of North America: Western Region. Gulf Publishing Company. Beck, D.D Biology of Gila Monsters and Beaded Lizards. University of California Press, Los Angeles. Behler, J.L. and F.W. King National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. Powell, R., R. Conant, R. and J.T. Collins A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern and Central North America. 3rd edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston and New York. Crother, B.I. (committee chair) Scientific and Standard English Names of Amphibians and Reptiles of North America North of Mexico, with Comments Regarding Confidence in our Understanding. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Herpetological Circular No. 39. Elliott, L., C. Gerhardt, and C. Davidson The Frogs and Toads of North America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston, MA. Ernst, C.H. and E.M. Ernst Snakes of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Books, Washington, DC. Ernst, C.H., J.E. Lovich, and R.W. Barbour Turtles of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. Gibbons, J.W. and M.E. Dorcas North American Watersnakes: A Natural History. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Hubbs, B. and B. O Conner A Guide to the Rattlesnakes of the United States. Tricolor Books. Jones, L.L.C. and R.E. Lovich (editors) Lizards of the American Southwest: A Photographic Field Guide. Rio Nuevo Publishers, Tucson, AZ. Klauber, L. M Rattlesnakes: Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence on Mankind Volume I and II. 2nd edition. University of California Press, Berkeley. Lannoo, M. (editor) Amphibian Declines: The Conservation Status of United States Species. University of California Press, Berkeley. Mitchell, J.C., R.E. Jung Brown, and B. Bartholomew (editors). Urban Herpetology. Herpetological Conservation, Number 3.Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Petranka, J. W Salamanders of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. Pianka, E. and L.J. Vitt Lizards:Windows to the Evolution of Diversity. University of California Press, Berkeley. Powell, R., J.T. Collins, and E.D. Hooper, Jr A Key to Amphibians and Reptiles of the Continental United States and Canada. University Press of Kansas. Rossman, D. A., N. B. Ford, and R. A. Seigel The Garter Snakes: Evolution and Ecology. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Rubio, M Rattlesnakes of the United States and Canada. ECO Herpetological Publishing and Distribution. Laurie J. Vitt 182

194 Amphibian and Reptile Identification, Distribution, and Natural History Sherbrooke, W.C Horned Lizards: Unique Reptiles of North America. Southwest Parks and Monuments Association. Southwestern Herpetological Society Herpetology of North American Deserts. Proceedings of a Symposium. SHS Special Publication Number 5. Stebbins, R.C A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians. 3rd edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, New York. Tennant, A Snakes of North America: Eastern and Central Regions. Lone Star Field Guides. Wright, J.W. and L.J.Vitt (editors) Biology of Whiptail Lizards (Genus Cnemidophorus). Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, Norman. STATE Arizona Brennan, T.C. and A.C. Holycross Amphibians and Reptiles in Arizona, Arizona Fish and Game Department, Phoenix. Lowe, C.H., C.R. Schwalbe, and T.B. Johnson The Venomous Reptiles of Arizona. Arizona Game and Fish Department, Phoenix. California Basey, H.E Discovering Sierra Reptiles and Amphibians. Yosemite Association and Sequoia Natural History Association. Brown, P.R A Field Guide to Snakes of California. Gulf Publishing Co. Lemm, J.M Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of the San Diego Region. University of California Press, Berkeley. Stebbins, R.C. and S.M. McGinnis Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of California. University of California Press, Berkeley. Colorado Hammerson, G.A Amphibians and Reptiles in Colorado. University Press of Colorado, Niwot. Young, M.T The Guide to Colorado Reptiles and Amphibians. Fulcrum, Golden, CO. Nevada Linsdale, J.M Amphibians and reptiles in Nevada. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 73: Robinson, M.L., P.M. Conrad, and M.M. Ryan Venomous Reptiles of Nevada. University of Nevada Cooperative Extension Nevada Department of Wildlife Partnership Publication SP-07-07:1-8. New Mexico Degenhardt, W.G., C.W. Painter, and A.H. Price Amphibians and Reptiles of New Mexico. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Oklahoma Sievert, G. and L. Sievert A Field Guide to Oklahoma s Amphibians and Reptiles. Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation, Oklahoma City. Webb, R.G Reptiles of Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Texas Dixon, J.R Amphibians and Reptiles of Texas. Third edition. Texas A&M University Press, College Station. Dixon, J.R. and J.E. Werler Texas Snakes: A Field Guide. University of Texas Press, Austin. Hibbitts, T.D., amd T.J. Hibbitts Texas Lizards: A Field Guide. University of Texas Press, Austin. Hibbitts, T.D., and T.L. Hibbitts Texas Turtles and Crocodilians: A Field Guide. University of Texas Press, Austin. William Flaxington, CalPhotos, CCA BY NC HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 183

195 APPENDIX E. Southwest PARC Priority Species (2012 list). Tennant, A The Snakes of Texas. Texas Monthly Press, Austin. Tennant, A Lone Star Field Guide to Texas Snakes. Lone Star Field Guides. Tipton, B.L., T.L. Hibbitts., T.D. Hibbitts, T.J. Hibbitts, and T.J. LaDuc Texas Amphibians: A Field Guide. University of Texas Press. Werler, J.E. and J.R. Dixon Texas Snakes: Identification, Distribution, and Natural History. University of Texas Press, Austin. Utah Cox, D.C. and W.W. Tanner Snakes of Utah. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. USEFUL REFERENCES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES FROM AREAS ADJACENT TO THE SOUTHWEST These references are a source of information for species and habitats within the Southwest state boundaries but in habitats more typical of other regions (e.g., northwest California is similar to Northwest, east Texas is similar to the Southeast, and the Border States are similar to northern Mexico). SOUTHEAST Bailey, M.A., J.N. Jolmes, K.A. Buhlmann, and J.C. Mitchell Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Southeastern United States. PARC Technical Publication HMG-4. Gibbons, W., J. Greene, and T. Mills Lizards and Crocodilians of the Southeast. University of Georgia Press, Athens. Gibbons, W. and M. Dorcas Snakes of the Southeast. University of Georgia Press. NORTHWEST Corkran, C., and C. Thoms Amphibians of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia. Lone Pine Press. Jones, L.L.C., W.P. Leonard, and D.H. Olson (editors). Amphibians of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle Audubon Society. Leonard, W.P., H.A. Brown, L.L.C. Jones, K.R. McAllister, and R.M. Storm Amphibians of Washington and Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society. Nussbaum, R.A., E.D. Brodie, Jr., and R.M. Storm Amphibians and Reptiles of the Pacific Northwest. University Press of Idaho. Pilliod, D.S., and E. Wind (editors) Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Northwestern United States and Western Canada. PARC Technical Publication HMG-4. Storm, R.M. and W.P. Leonard (editors) Reptiles of Washington and Oregon. Seattle Audubon Society. St. John, A Reptiles of the Northwest: California to Alaska; Rockies to the Coast. Lone Pine Press. MIDWEST Kingsbury, B.A. and J. Gibbons (editors) Habitat Management Guidelines for Amphibians and Reptiles of the Midwestern United States. PARC Technical Publication HMG-1, Second edition. MEXICO Grismer, L.L Amphibians and Reptiles of Baja California including its Pacific Islands and the Sea of Cortes. University of California Press, Berkeley. Lemos-Espinal, J.A. and H.M. Smith Amphibians and Reptiles of the State of Coahuila, Mexico. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico y Comision Nacional Para el Conocmiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. Lemos-Espinal, J.A. and H.M. Smith Amphibians and Reptiles of the State of Chihuahua, Mexico. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico y Comision Nacional Para el Conocmiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. Lemos-Espinal, J.A. and H.M. Smith Keys to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila, Mexico. University of Colorado at Boulder. Lemos-Espinal, J.A., H.M. Smith, and D. Chiszar Introduccion a los anfibios y reptiles del estado de Chihuahua. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico y Comision Nacional Para el Conocmiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad. Peak, R. H Amphibians and Reptiles of Baja California. Sea Challengers, Monterey, CA. Rorabaugh, J.C., and J.A. Lemos-Espinal A 184

196 ONLINE RESOURCES Field Guide to the Amphibians and Reptiles of Sonora, Mexico. ECO Herpetological Publishing and Distribution. Rodeo, NM. ONLINE RESOURCES REGIONAL NAFHA-North American Field Herping Association: Southwestern Center for Herpetological Research: PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES American Society of Ichthylogists and Herpetologists: Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles: Southwestern Association of Naturalists: biosurvey.ou.edu/swan/swaneng.html The Herpetologists League: STATES Arizona Arizona Herpetological Association: Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum: Phoenix Herpetological Society: Reptiles and Amphibians of Arizona: Tucson Herpetological Society: California California Herps: USGS Field Guide for Southern California Herps: Colorado Colorado Herpetological Society: Colorado PARC (nested within SW PARC): Reptiles and Amphibians of Colorado: reptilesofcolorado.com/ New Mexico New Mexico Herpetological Society: nmherpsociety.org/ Oklahoma Current Scientific and Common Names of the Amphibians and Reptiles in Oklahoma: Index of Oklahmona Amphibians and Reptiles: Texas Herps of Texas: Texas Herpetological Society: (also other regional herpetological societies use search engine and links for area of interest) Utah Herps of Utah: STATE AGENCIES Arizona Game and Fish Department: gf.state.az.us/ California Department of Fish and Wildlife: Colorado Parks and Wildlife: Nevada Department of Wildlife: New Mexico Game and Fish Department: wildlife.state.nm.us/ Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation: HABITAT MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES 185

197 APPENDIX E. Southwest PARC Priority Species (2012 list). Texas Parks and Wildlife Department: tpwd.state.tx.us/ Utah Division of Wildlife Resources: gov/ compiled by Bryan Hamilton and Lawrence L.C. Jones 186