ZOOLOGY RESOURCE BOOK PART 3

Transcription

1 1 ZOOLOGY RESOURCE BOOK PART 3

2 2 PHILOSOPHY This Zoology course is based on the idea that all animals are important. Our world and existence must be in constant balance with the diversity of animals in which we share the Earth. Each animal has a role in a complex web of life that makes its survival crucial. All organisms deserve our respect, for if this balance is upset our lives will ultimately be affected. This course is designed for students wanting to peruse an academic path, especially in the sciences. Material in this class is unique to other sciences, and thus presents an opportunity for the hard working student to achieve success. As an elective course, Zoology is designed to guide its students to become better learners, more responsible students, and hopefully more conscience observers of the natural world. It not our intent to make the course too hard to be successful in; however, we feel that in challenging our students we provide them with a better way to learn, therefore helping them to becoming better and more productive students.

3 PHYLUM MOLLUSCA 3 General Characteristics or more species of molluscs. They share 3 major sets of characteristics: Body enclosed by a blanket-like that secretes a shell made of or some other stiffening structure. A mantle between the mantle and the internal organs; the anus,, and excretory ducts open into the mantle cavity. A, muscular foot that is highly modified among the various groups of molluscs. Invertebrates (lack a backbone) Unsegmented Bilateral symmetry Have a Simple to complex Habitats & Niches Habitats include: (mostly) (a few) (a few) Niches (life-style): Most live on the ocean bottom and are mostly Some are (the cephalopods) Classes of Arthropods: (mono= ; placo= ; phora= ) Ex. (a= ) Ex. (poly= ) Ex. (gastro= ; poda= ) Ex.,, (bi= ; valvia= ) Ex. (cephalo= ; poda= ) Ex.,, etc.

4 Class Monoplacophora is the only genus in this entire class. These creatures were discovered in the while dredging the deep ocean. Specifically, they can be found around & Central America. Prior to 1950s only were found. Their specific characteristics include: They have pairs of gills & eights pairs of foot retractors. This segmentation suggests an ancestral relationship with. 4 Class Aplacophora Specific characteristics: No, but has a body wall made up of calcium spicules (think of the sponges). It is this that puts them in the phylum mollusca They are generally found on the. Class Polyplacophora are the only genus in the class Polyplacophora. Their specific characteristics: Posses a that consists of 8 overlapping plates. They have a tongue-like tooth-covered rasping organ ( ) to scrape algae and other food. Class Gastropoda Most class of molluscs. Consists of snails and snail-like creatures. Specific Characteristics: They have a located shell (often coiled). They have a well-developed.

5 5 Visceral mass (organs) is located inside the shell. Their viseral mass is rotated during development. They are or (carnivorous). Habitats include:, lake,, coastal shores, and land. Class Bivalvia Specific Characteristics: They have held together by powerful muscles. They have a located foot that sticks out between the two valves. Habitats include: and. They tend to burrow into or sand or attach to rocks or other shells. Large gills are used for respiration and filter feeding. Food is trapped by on the gills and moved by cilia. Water enters and exits through siphons. Class Cephalopoda Contains the molluscs. Specific Characteristics: May lack a (like an octopus) Shell may be reduced to a (like the squid or nautilus) The foot is highly modified to form a group of around the mouth. They are found in deep and shallow waters along many coasts. Squids & Nautilus are and move very quickly. Octopuses are found among rocks or crawling on the bottom of the ocean. Complex, two eyes, excellent eyesight.

6 Squid Self Test Images: 6 Squid Self-Test:

7 Complete the following chart using your notes and color plate book. Be specific with both! 7 1. TENTACLES Structure Location Function 2. ARMS 3. SUCKERS 4. SIPHON 5. BUCCAL CAVITY 6. JAWS 7. INK SAC 8. CEREBRAL GANGLIA 9. STOMACH 10. RADULA 11. AFFERENT BRANCHIAL VESSELS 12. EFFERENT BRANCHIAL VESSELS 13. PANCREAS 14. OPTIC NERVES 15. MOUTH

8 Mollusk Review Sheet 8 1. Most mollusks are but some are freshwater and terrestrial. 2. Mollusks have a part body plan. List the parts:,,. 3. The contains the internal organs, including the digestive tract, paired kidneys and reproductive organs. 4. The mantle may secrete a or contribute to gills or lungs. 5. The is an organ adapted for locomotion, attachment, food capture, or a combination of functions. 6. The organ that bears many rows of teeth and is used for grazing on food known as the. 7. Mollusks have a reduced that is limited to the region around the heart. 8. Most mollusks have an circulatory system except for the class cephalopoda that have a circulatory system. 9. Chitons are in the class. 10. Chitons have a shell that consists of overlapping plates. 11. The class includes snails, terrestrial slugs, whelks, and sea slugs. 12. Many gastropods are herbivores and use their to scrape food from surfaces. Other gastropods are and use their radula to bore through surfaces such as shells to obtain food. 13. Most gastropods have a shell. Some such as slugs a shell. 14. The class contains clams, oysters, mussels and scallops.

9 9 15. The shell of terrestrial snails offers protection and prevents desiccation. What does desiccation mean? 16. What is secreted from the muscular food of snails to help in movement? 17. Terrestrial gastropods are (contain both male and female sex organs). 18. Bivalves have a part shell, no head, no radula and little cephalization. 19. Bivalves are feeders; water comes in the siphon, passes over the gills where food is trapped. The water and wastes then exit through the excurrent. Gills are also used for. 20. Bivalves have sexes. 21. The class Cephalopoda includes,,, and. 22. Cephalopoda means. 23. Squids and octopuses propel themselves through the water by. 24. The muscular foot of cephalopods includes the and. 25. Cephalopods have well-developed sense organs, eyes and which show a capacity for learning. 26. Squids and octopuses have, which squirt a cloud of ink, to help them escape from predators. 27. Nautilus are enclosed in shells, squids have a reduced internal shell and octopuses a shell. 28. Cephalopods have sexes.

10 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA 10 Overview There are known species of arthropods. If you include all those species that have not yet been discovered the number is more likely in the. This is more in this one than you would get by grouping all members of all other phyla together. There are insects for each person on this Earth. There are so many & tiny crustaceans that together they outweigh all the on Earth. Habitat Given that there are different species, they are found in habitats on Earth. Many crustaceans live in the at depths exceeding. (That s 2.5 miles deep) Insect collembolans and jumping spiders have been found on at heights exceeding. (That s 4 MILES high.) Collembolans and the orbatid mites live in. Brine shrimp are found in some lakes. Beetles, mites, and various crustaceans can live in. Tiny crustaceans inhabit waters. support a large arthropod population, especially insects and arachnids. Niches All are, and the aspects of their niche that affect humans include: Many species of and attack food crops and timber. of all flowering plants are pollinated by insects. Soil and leaf-mold arthropods, which include insects, mites, myriapods, and some crustaceans (pill bugs), play an important role in the formation of from decomposed leaf litter and wood. To protect themselves many arthropods (insects) will sting their attacker. Medical Importance Medically, arthropods are significant as carriers of diseases, including: Yellow fever African sleeping sickness (via tsetse flies) bubonic plague (via fleas) Rocky Mountain spotted fever (via ticks)

11 11 Arthropod Characteristics What makes an organism an arthropod? Segmented Body with paired symmetry digestive system (mouth and anus) Open system Separate Arthropod Subphyla & Classes There are many different classes of Arthropods, including: Class Merostomata (horseshoe crabs, eurypterids) Class (spiders, ticks, mites) Class Class Chilopoda (centipedes) Class Diplopoda (millipedes) Class

12 12 Arthropods Again: The Crustacean The Crustacean The first type of arthropod that we will study is the. There are about species in this class. They include: o Barnacles o o Lobster o o Crab Crustacean Body Plan Crustaceans have a body plan that consists of: o consisting of:, consisting of five segments giving off appendages Segments generally modified for food handling or movement o usually segmented, but may or may not have appendages. The Crayfish Our crustacean of choice to study is the crayfish. We will complete a lab the week of March 20 th. Like other crustaceans, the crayfish has a head, thorax, and abdomen. o Specifically it has: segments segments segments Crayfish Segments In the crayfish, each segment gives rise to a specific which has specific functions. You will need to know and study what these appendages are, and what their functions are.

13 13 Head Appendages Head Segment 1: give off that are used as. Head Segment 2: give off that are also used as. Head Segment 3: give off around the mouth that are used to and food. Head Segment 4 & 5: give off that are used to the food around so that it can be put in the. Thoracic Appendages Thoracic Segments 6-8: give off which are also used to food. Thoracic Segment 9: ( )are used for, getting, and manipulating. Thoracic Segments 10-13:, which are used for. Abdominal Appendages Abdominal Segments 14-18: give off, which create, enhance air movement to gills, hold eggs in females, and are modified as reproductive structures in males. Abdominal Segment 19: (which houses the anus) used for waste and. Both structures can be used as a paddle to allow for rapid underwater. Crayfish Internal Structures Do not lose these notes, as this picture will greatly help you with your self-test.

14 14 Get to Know the Exoskeleton The dorsal and lateral parts of the are covered with the. o The carapace has an anterior extension known as the. The ventral plates is called the. The abdominal skeletal plates are known as the. All of these structures comprise the and act as for internal organs. Crayfish Muscular System Inside the thoracic and abdominal segments are,, and vessels. o The abdominal segments are nearly filled with tissue. o These muscles are used to power the appendages of the abdominal regions:. Crayfish Digestive System Mouth -> esophagous -> stomach -> digestive gland -> intestine -> anus Their stomach is divided into a region and a region. o The cardiac chamber has calcified plates that act like to grind up food into bits. o The food then moves to the pyloric region and moves on as listed above. Crayfish Excretory System The excretory system is made up of glands. While these glands are capable of some excretion, they cannot handle all of the chemical & water balance needs. o The play the largest role in regulating body fluids. Crayfish Circulatory System Crayfish have circulatory systems. o They have, but the vessels empty into. o The blood from the sinuses is then returned to the heart in, not vessels. o So, though there are vessels, they empty into sinuses so it is still considered an open system. Crayfish Respiration Respiration occurs through the (found from thoracic segment 2-6). Water is circulated over the gills by movement of a paddle-like which moves with the second.

15 15 Introduction: THE ARTHROPOD STORY 1. Arthropods have been around for years. 2. There are insects for each person of Earth. 3. There are so many, tiny crustaceans, that together they outweigh all the on Earth. Habitat & Distribution: 1. Define Habitat: 2. List 3 extreme habitats where arthropods are found: Ecological Niche: 1. Define Niche: 2. Describe the unique niche of 2 arthropods: What is an arthropod: 1. List the branches (classes) of the arthropod tree. 2. List the characteristics common to all arthropods.

16 16 COLORPLATE INTRODUCTION (CP 38 AND 41) Subphylum Chelicerata (approximately 60,000 species) Characterized by: 1. Body divided into (fused head/thorax) and pairs of appendages 1 st pair are - claw or pincer bearing 2 nd pair are 3 rd 6 th pairs are 3. Usually segmented abdomen, generally no appendages 2 Major Classes: Merostomata an example is the, whose habitat is. Arachnidia examples include whose habitat is generally and whose niche is typically. Subphylum Mandibulata (nearly 900,000 species) Characterized by one of the following: 1. A and (same as Chelicerates) 2. A,, and 3. A head and a trunk of similar or identical segments Shared characteristics include: 1. Collection of appendages that surround the mouth and form jaws ( and ) 2. Pair of sensory

17 17 4 Classes of Mandibulates: Crustacea examples of which include and whose habitat is largely. Their body plan consists of a and. Insecta examples of which include and whose habitat is largely. Their body plan consists of a,, and. Chilopoda an example of which is and whose habitat is. Diplopoda an example of which is and whose habitat is. CHILOPODA/DIPLOPODA COMPARISON CHILOPODA DIPLOPODA

18 18 Morphology of a crayfish: edible freshwater crustacean, with pincers on the two forelegs. Claw: ends of the largest of a crayfish limbs. Rostrum: extension of a crayfish's shell. Head: foremost part of a crayfish. Thorax: upper part of a crayfish's body. Abdomen: lower part of a crayfish's body. Exopodite: external part of the uropod. Endopodite: internal part of the uropod. Uropod: swimming appendage of the crayfish. Telson: last segment of the abdomen of a crayfish. Segment: ring of the abdomen of a crayfish. Walking leg: limb of a crayfish used for forward motion. Coumpond eye (stalked eye): complex sight organ of a crayfish. Antennule: small antenna. Cheliped: front leg which ends in pincers. Antenna: organ of touch of a crayfish. PLEASE LOOK AT THE APPENDAGES SET IN THE PLASTIC BLOCK FOR ADDITIONAL HELP WITH THESE LAB PROCEDURES.

19 19 CRAYFISH ANATOMY WORKSHEET Directions: Use Color Plate 42 & 43 & your notes to answer the following questions. 1. Fill in the following chart by naming the appendages connected to the segments listed in the left-hand column and give the function of each appendage. There may be some duplication of functions. Head Segments Thoracic Segments Abdominal Segments Appendage Name Function xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 2. The interior of the abdomen of the crayfish is filled almost entirely with what kind of tissue? Explain why. 3. The crayfish has teeth in its stomach. Explain this statement. 4. What type of circulatory system does the crayfish have (open or closed)? Describe in your own words the circulation of blood through the crayfish. Be sure to explain how it circulates through the gills and returns to the heart.

20 20 CRAYFISH LAB REPORT Introduction: Using CP 44, compare the crustaceans lobster, shrimp, and crab. Identify two similarities of all three and at least one difference for each of the three. EXTERNAL: Place a crayfish specimen in a dissecting pan and examine the external anatomy. 1. Is the outside of the body hard or is it rather soft? 2. Does it have an exoskeleton? The segmented hind portion is the abdomen. 3. Is the anterior portion clearly divided into a separate head and thorax, or are the two firmly united? 4. What is this area of the carapace referred to as? 5. Is the anterior part of the body divided into segments? The covering of this part of the body is called the carapace and is subdivided into a number of regions by grooves. 6. What is the name of the groove found between the head and the thorax? 7. What is the name of the sharp projection found between the eyes? 8. Is this considered a projection of the carapace?. Directly beneath the rostrum are the eyes, which are placed on short, thick, movable stalks. 9. Do the eyes appear to be simple or compound? Locate the anus at the posterior end of the abdomen. The central flap-like projection behind the anus is the telson. 10. Is the anus located on the ventral or on the dorsal side? THE APPENDAGES: 11. Are the appendages of the body segmented or not? Just below the eyes are two pairs of slender appendages; the upper pair are the antennules and the lower pair are the antennae. Please write the name of the appendage. 12. Which of these is longer? 13. Which is made up of two thread-like parts per organ and jointed at the base to a thicker stalk? Such a doubly branched appendage is said to be biramous. At the base of this appendage is the opening of the green glands, which serve as excretory organs. Examine the base of the antennae. 14. Do they have a sort of branch near their base, too? 15. Would you consider the antenna to be modified type of biramous or uniramous appendage? The appendages next in sequence are the mandibles, or jaws, which appear as hard gray objects on the midventral line. Gently pry open the mandibles with a blunt instrument. 16. Do they appear to move from side to side as those of the grasshopper or up-and-down as do your jaw?

21 21 Note the little side branches of each mandible. 17. Would you consider these to be uniramous or biramous appendages? Before studying the appendages further, examine the crayfish with part of the carapace on the lower left side of the body removed (your teacher will do this for you). The gills will be exposed, which will be seen as grayish feathery projections that are massed completely together. Move some of the legs gently. 18. Do the gills also move when you move the legs? 19. Why or why not? Locate some of the gills and note that they are attached to the bases of appendages. Now, behind the mandible on each side, find the short fan-like structures, the maxillae, which lie so closely together as they appear as one. These, together with the next three pairs of longer appendages, the maxillipeds are used in handling food, circulating water, and the like. Move the appendages one by one. 20. Do most of the maxillipeds appear to be biramous or uniramous? 21. Do all the maxillipeds have gills? 22. Which ones do not have gills? The five pairs of long appendages behind the shorter ones are the periopods or walking legs. The first one bears a large claw or pincher, and is called the cheliped. 23. Are the chelipeds biramous or uniramous? 24. Which other pairs of walking legs have claws? 25. Which ones do not have gills? 26. How many segments are found on the third pair of walking legs? 27. How many segments are found on the fourth pair of walking legs? 28. How many segments are found on the first and second pair of walking legs? Zoologists believe that the pincher is composed of the last two segments of the legs. 29. Would all the walking legs have equal number of segments if you include the two composing the claw? On the ventral side of the abdomen are a number of shorter appendages called swimmerets. The first two pairs are modified for sexual purposes. In the male, the first pair or two are usually thickened and lengthened, whereas in the female, the first pair is thread-like and may be tucked out of sight between the bases of the last pair of walking legs. Examine your specimen. 30. What is its sex? Please use the symbols for male and female. 31. How many pairs of swimmerets are present? 32. Are the swimmerets biramous or uniramous? The last pair of abdominal appendages are flattened and fan-like; they are the uropods located on each side of the telson. 33. What is the function of the uropod and telson? 34. Are they uniramous or biramous? Count carefully the number of different kinds of appendages found on your crayfish. 35. How many different kinds of appendages are there? 36. How many pairs of appendages are there?

22 22 CRAYFISH SELF TESTS

23 23 SELF TEST for the Crayfish. CP

24 24 38 INTRODUCTION TO ARTHROPHODS 1. What makes up the exoskeleton? 2. Where is the exoskeleton? 3. Why are these animals called Arthropods? STUDY SHEET ARTHROPODS I C.P. 38 & What are three characteristics of the Subphylum Chelicerata? 5. Why are Chelicerate Arthropods different than other Arthropods? 6. What is a cephalthorax? 7. What are the two classes of Chelicerates? 8. List five examples of Arachnids? 9. How do Arachnids kill their prey? 10. What is the function of chelicerae? 11. What is the function of pedipalps? 12. What characterizes mites and ticks? 13. Describe the body of a spider? 14. What do all spiders produces? 41- INTRODUCTION TO ARTHROPODS II 15. What are three characteristics of Mandibulate Arthropods? 16. What surrounds the mouth of all mandibulates? 17. How are the three groups of mandibulates organized? 18. Describe the appendages around the mouth of a crustacean? 19. What are the functions of the appendages of the abdomen? 20. What do all of the appendages have in common? 21. What type of thoracic appendages have the gills? 22. Why are the insects the most successful organisms on rules? 23. Describe the body plan of insects? 24. What is on an insect s head? 25. What is on an insect s thorax? 26. Describe the insects abdomen. 27. Give at least two ways centipedes differ from millipedes?

25 25 STUDY SHEET ARTHROPOD III CRAYFISH/CRUSTACEAN C.P CRAYFISH: EXTERNAL STRUCTURES C.P Name the two body regions of the crayfish. 2. Name the parts and number of segments that make up the cephalothorax. 3. What is the anterior extension of the carapace? 4. What is located at the end of the pedicles? 5. Name the two pairs of sensory appendages located on the head? 6. What are the functions of the mandibles with the palps? 7. What do the two pairs of maxillae do? 8. Where are the maxillae located? Name their functions. 9. Where are the cheliped located and name their function? 10. Where are the gonopores located? 11. What is located under the telson? 12. What is made possible with the telson and uropods? 13. What do swimmerets do? 14. What additional function do swimmerets have in females? CRAYFISH II : INTERNAL STRUCTURES C.P What is the ventral transverse skeletal plate called? 16. Where are the thoracic viscera and abdominal structures located? 17. What is the function of the muscles located in the cephalothorax? 18. What do muscles in the abdominal region surround? 19. What occurs in the cardiac region of the stomach? In the pyloric? 20. What is the function of the green glands? 21. What are the main excretory organs in the crayfish? 22. What causes circulation of the water over the gills? COMPARISON OF SOME CRUSTACEAN BODY FORMS C.P What are decapods? 24. What determines the differences between the abdomen and abdominal appendages and the cephalothorax in the decapods? 25. Who has the shortest and widest body of the decapods? 26. What enhances water conservation in the crabs?

26 26 PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA echinos = derma = ata = General Characteristics: Special Note: The larval forms are bilaterally symmetrical. This symmetry is lost during transition to adulthood. Why transition from bilateral symmetry in larvae to radial symmetry in adults? Pentaradial symmetry: - - Why 5 arms instead of 6? Additions to our directional terminology: Aboral: Oral: Habitat: - - -

27 27 Niche: - - o o o o Classes of Echinodermata: Class Stelleroidea examples: sea stars (starfish), brittle stars *sea stars: - general characteristics: found on pier pilings and rocks in tide pools along coasts *brittle stars: - general characteristics: found on the seashore, burrowed in sand or deep sea sediments or under rocks and kelp Class Echinoidea examples: sand dollars, sea urchins *sand dollars

28 28 - general characteristics *sea urchins - general characteristics Class Holothruoidea examples: sea cucumbers, feather stars *sea cucumbers - general characteristics found on the sea bottom, often partially submerged in mud or sand, or among intertidal rocks *feather stars - general characteristics 1. 2.

29 29 Digestive System: o o Reproduction: o o Nervous System: o o o

30 30 ECHINODERMATA LAB: STARFISH The phylum Echinodermata consists of familiar seashore animals commonly known as starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, and sea lilies. The phylum is so named because of the presence of spiny plates (calcareous ossicles), which form a dermal skeleton. Echinoderms are typically radially symmetrical (although the larva is bilaterally symmetrical) and they have true coeloms arising as outpocketings from embryonic mesoderm of the gut. It is on the basis of this last characteristic, and because the bilateral larva more closely resembles the chordate larva, that the echinoderms are said to be more closely related to the chordates. An unique feature of the echinoderms is a derivative of the coelom known as the water vascular system. Although a circulatory system is present, it is greatly reduced. Thus, the coelomic fluid acts as the principal medium for the transport of food, respiratory gases, and so forth. There are no excretory organs and thus enchinoderms have little capacity for ionic exchange, which explain why this group of organisms has never invaded fresh waters. The phylum is divided into at least ten distinct classes but only the following five include live species: Class Asteroidea (starfish): having a star-shaped body, with five to twenty-five arms, that are covered by a flexible spine skeleton Class Crinoidea (feather stars and sea lilies): having a flower-like body with many slender branched arms Class Ophiuroidea (brittle stars): having a body with a central disc and five distinct slender jointed arms Class Echinoidea (sea urchins and sand dollars): having a cynlindrical or disc-shaped body in a shell of fused plates that bear moveable spines. Class Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers): having a soft wormlike body with no arms or spines. CLASS ASTEROIDEA (STARFISH) The simplest and perhaps most familiar of all echinoderms is the starfish. The common starfish, Asterias, found on the Atlantic coast of North America is a typical example of this class. Starfish crawl on the shallow bottom or in tide pools among the rocks and sand of the seashore and coral reef. They have been serious predators of oysters. At one time oyster fishermen caught starfish, cut them up, and threw them back into the ocean. Then it was discovered that each of the pieces could regenerate and grew into another starfish. Today, sea mops made of cloth are dragged over the oyster beds to entrap the starfish. They are then exposed to the sun to dry. PRE-LAB QUESTIONS: 1. Why are starfish considered to be more closely related to chordates? 2. What is one unique feature of echinoderms? 3. Compare and constrast the classes: Asteroidea, Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea, Holothuroidea. 4. Where are starfish found? 5. What interesting aspect of starfish was discovered by oyster fisherman? 6. How are starfish caught?

31 31 ECHINODERMATA LAB: STARFISH 1. External Aatomy Examine a preserved specimen and notes that the body is composed of a central disc from which radiate five arms or rays. Some of the specimens may have fewer arms but this is usually because they have been broken off in handling. Some starfish have more than five arms and in rare cases, specimens with as many as twenty-five have been found. The oral, or ventral, surface of each arm contains grooves extending outward from the centrally located mouth. The spiny surface is the aboral or dorsal, surface. Locate the madeporite plate, a small, porous, button-like structure at on side of the aboral surface. The spines of the aboral surface are part of small calcareous plates (ossicles) that lie buried beneath the integument. These plates form the exoskeleton. Around the spines are many minute pincher-like pedicellariae. Each pedicellaria has two jaws that are moved by muscles and that open and shut when touched they keep the body surface clean of debris and may also help to capture food. The groove on the oral surface of each arm is called the ambulucral groove. Along the sides of the ambulucral groove are a series of flexible spines that can lie across the groove for protection. Located in these grooves are rows of small, finger-like projections called tube feet, which are organs of locomotion. IF you separate the tube feet, you may be able to see the thick, which radial nerve cord that runs down the center of each arm. At the tip of each arm locate the small, light sensitive, eye spot. These light sensitive tips are thrust upward during locomotion. 2. Internal Anatomy Cut off the tip of one of the arms and then make longitudinal cuts on one side of the arm to the central disc. Carefully remove the aboral surface to expose the internal organs. Note that most of the coelom in each arm is taken up by two highly branched digestive glands, the hepatic caeca. Examine the glands with a hand lens or dissecting microscope and note the numerous lobes that secrete digestive enzymes. The two main ducts of these glands join at the base of the arm to form the pyloric duct, which enters the centrally located saclike stomach. A ventral mouth and a short esophagus lead directly into the stomach, which consists of a lower cardiac stomach, which is lobed, and an upper pyloric stomach. During feeding, the cardiac stomach is everted through the mouth. The food is partly digested and passed into the pyloric stomach which empties into the anus located in the center of the aboral disc. Two small rectal caeca can usually be found near the anus. These caeca are thought to function as temporary storage areas for waste products. Cut the pyloric duct where it enters the stomach and remove the hepatic area. If the starfish was caught during the breeding season, the arms will be filled with the gonads (reproductive organs). At other times the gonads are normally very small. The male and female gonads look alike. The ovaries of the female produce spherical eggs that are considerably larger than the sperm. Eggs and sperm are discharged into the water where fertilization takes place. The water vascular system of the starfish consists of a series of seawater-filled ducts that function in locomotion and feeding. To study this system, carefully remove the reproductive organs and remaining parts of the digestive system the stomach and anus. Be careful not to damage the sieve plate. Water enters this system through a sieve-like madreporite, which is connected to a circular ring canal by the stone canal. The water is then distributed to the radial canals that are in each of the rays. The margin of the ring canal bears Tiedemann s bodies, which apparently produce the free amoboecytes found in the water vascular system. Lining the ridge through which each radial canal passes is a double row of bulb-like structures called ampullae. These structures are connected to the tube feet, which project from the ambulucral groove on the under surface of each ray. Water from the radial canal collects in the ampullae. Contraction of the ampullae causes the tube feet to elongate as water is forced into them. Expansion of the ampullae results in shortening of the tube feet. Thus, thorugh the use of small suction discs at the end of each tube foot and the alternale expansion and contraction of the ampullae, the starfish is able to move.

32 32 STARFISH LAB REPORT Introduction: Using CP 58 and pg.52 in the RB to list the three characteristics all echinoderms share. Explain how radial symmetry is an advantage for echinoderms. Describe the niche and the habitat of echinoderms. Results: Please read the procedures outlined on pg in the resource book. 1. Locate the structures listed in the dissection list. Be sure to be signed off by your teacher. EXTERNAL 1. DISC 2. ARM/RAYS 3. MADREPORITE PLATE 4. AMBULACRAL GROOVE 5. SPINES 6. TUBE FEET 7. MOUTH INTERNAL 8. CECUM 9. PYLORIC DUCT 10. PYLORIC STOMACH 11. GONADS 12. RING CANAL 13. STONE CANALS 14. RADIAL CANALS 15. AMPULLA 2. CHART STRUCTURE LOCATION FUNCTION 1. MADREPORITE PLATE 2. PEDICELLARIA 3. AMBULACRAL GROOVE 4. TENTACLE 5. TUBE FEET 6. MOUTH 7. PYLORIC/HEPATIC CECA

33 33 8. CARDIAC STOMACH 9. PYLORIC STOMACH 10. GONADS 11. DERMAL GILLS 12.AMPULLAE 13. WATER VASCULAR SYSTEM Starfish Self-Test using C.P xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

34 34 C.P. 59 STARFISH ANATOMY 1. Name the major structures of the water vascular system of the starfish. 2. Describe the function of the water vascular system of the starfish. 3. How do the tubefeet stick to the objects they touch? 4. Describe the structures making up the endoskeleton of the starfish. C.P Describe the structure, location, and function of the dermal gills. 6. What are pedicellariae, and why are they important for the proper functioning of the dermal gills? 7. Explain the following statement: A starfish can stick its stomach out at its prey. 8. How do starfish reproduce? (2 ways)

35 35 STUDY SHEET ECHINODERMS INTRODUCTION TO ECHINODERMS C.P What three characteristics do all Echinoderms have in common? 2. What type of symmetry does the larvae show? 3. What does the radial symmetry of the echinoderms make possible? 4. What are the aboral and oral surfaces on the echinoderm? 5. What are the four ways that echinoderms can get their food? 6. What is the most common echinoderm? 7. How do brittle stars differ from sea stars? 8. What is on the aboral surface of the sand dollar? 9. What is the function of tube feet in the sand dollar? 10. What is fused in the sea urchin? 11. What characterizes the sea cucumber? 12. Where do sea cucumbers live? 13. What is the most primitive echinoderm? SEA STAR I: EXTERNAL STRUCTURES C.P On what surface is the mouth located? 15. What supports the body? 16. What pushes up through the epidermal-lined surface? 17. What is the function of the madreporite? Where is it located? 18. What is located inside the ambulucral groove? 19. What makes up the water vascular system? What is its function? 20. What is the stone canal? 21. From what does the radial canals project? 22. What branches off the radial canals? Where do they lead? 23. Describe how the tube feet are extended and retracted? SEA STAR II: INTERNAL FEATURES C.P List the five parts of the body wall? 25. What are the functions of the pedicellariae? 26. What is the difference between the visceral and parietal peritoneum? 27. Where are the stomachs located? 28. What occurs before the prey can be brought into the body?

36 36 PHYLUM CHORDATA CLASSES: AGNATHA, CHONDRICHTHYES, AND OSTEICHTHYES (Around 45,000 species found in every possible habitat throughout the planet Earth.) General characteristics of member of this phylum: 1. bilaterally symmetrical, animals deuterostome 2. 4 unique characteristics present at some stage in development: a. b. c. d. Notochord The notochord is: Pharyngeal Slits: Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord: Postanal Tail: Examples of chordates: sea squints (or tunicates) lampreys bony fishes frogs, toads, salamanders alligators, snakes, lizards

37 37 The representative member of the phylum Chordata we will begin with is the spiny dogfish shark, Squalus acanthias. phylum ( ) subphylum ( class ( ) subclass The spiny dogfish shark,. a.k.a piked dogfish, skittledog, spotted dogfish, white-spotted dogfish, codshark, and thorndog Useful information concerning your specimen: Habitat: worldwide distribution, from the to the regions, from the waters of the to depths of fathoms ( ) Niche: They are voracious eaters, feeding on: o o o omnivorous o o o Life span: Typically from years. Reproduction: ; most shark pups hatch internally, and continue their development within the of the mother born alive as much smaller versions of the adult Gestation period up to (the of any vertebrate) Adaptations: Sharks do not drink?! The regulate their osomotic pressure by retaining a high concentration of and other in their body fluids. Water enters their cells by. The lack a as seen in most bony fish. The above 2 facts are responsible for the following interesting fact. Sharks must in order to survive. If they stop moving they because they are somewhat heavier than the water they displace. If stopped, they sink, and will be crushed by the of the deep ocean. Sharks of the deeper ocean must continue to move from the moment of to the moment of!

38 38

39 39 WORKSHEET: Noncranial Chordates Directions: Using color plate 61, answer the following questions. 1. How is the nerve cord of animals in Phylum Chordata different from the nerve cords in other animals? 2. What is the notochord? In what stage of development is the notochord well developed in numbers of Phylum Chordata? 3. What replaces the notochord in adult sharks and adult higher vertebrates? 4. Describe the unique features of the pharynx of a Phylum Chordata embryo. 5. How do fish use the unique features of the pharynx to help in respiration? 6. What is the major difference between Subphylum Vertebrata and the other two subphyla (Urochordata and Cephalochordata) in Phylum Chordata?

40 40 PHYLUM CHORDATA FISH C.P. 70 CLASSES: AGNATHA, CHONDRICHTHYES, AND OSTEICHTHYES A. CLASS AGNATHA (AG-NAH-THE) 1. Commonly referred to as what? 2. List the common characteristics of agnates: a. Skin b. Support/Skeleton c. Appendages/Fins d. Mouth e. Habitat f. Niche 3. Examples - B. CLASS CHONDRICTHYES (CON-DREE-ICK-THESE) 1. Commonly referred to as what? 2. List the common characteristics of chondricthyes: a. Skin b. Support/Skeleton c. Appendages/Fins d. Mouth e. Habitat f. Niche 3. Examples C. CLASS OSTEICHTHYES (O-STEE-IKE-THESE) 1. Commonly referred to as what? 2. List the common characteristics of osteichthyes: a. Support/skeleton b. Importance 3. Examples

41 41 D. Comparing the Sharks and Bony fish: CP 72 (Using text and pictures) CHARACTERISTIC SHARK BONY FISH 1. Scales (List the types) 2. Presence of spiracles (y/n) & (purpose) 3. Teeth 4. Location of the mouth on the body 5. Gill Slits (type) 6. Lateral line present (y/n) & (purpose) 7. Types of fins

42 42 STUDY SHEET - INTRODUCTION TO CHORDATES C.P. 61, 67, 68 INTRODUCTION TO CHORDATES C.P What three structures do all Chordates exhibit at some time? 2. How does the chordate s nerve cord differ from the invertebrates? 3. What is the notochord? 4. What replaces the notochord in sharks? In vertebrates? 5. Where are the vestiges of the notochord in adult mammals? 6. Describe the pharynx of the embryos of all Chordates. 7. What replaces the gill slits in other vertebrates? 8. What is formed by some pharyngeal pouches and gill in adults? 9. What are the two groups of Chordates? 10. Give two examples of the noncranial chordates and their subphylum. 11. What is the name of the subphylum of chordates with a cranium? 12. List the seven classes of Vertebrates and give an examples of each. TUNICATE METAMORPHOSIS C.P Give three characteristics of larval tunicates. 14. What happens to the notochord and nerve chord during metamorphosis? 15. What are two common names of Tunicates? 16. Where are Tunicates usually found? 17. What three thing happen during Tunicate Metamophosis? 18. What is the Tunic? AMPHIOXUS C.P What is an amphioxus? 20. What is located in the dermis? 21. Where is the transverse muscle located? What is its function? 22. What makes up the notochord? 23. What is present in the ventral aorta, that takes the place of a heart? 24. What is the vestibule? 25. What is the function of the cirri? 26. What is the function of the velum and tentacles? 27. What enhances digestion?

43 43 SHARK LAB REPORT External Anatomy: 1. Dorsal Lobe of Caudal Fin 2. Tail 3. Trunk 4. Head 5. Eye 6. Spiracle 7. Gill Slits 8. Pectoral Fin 9. Lateral Line Canal 10. Pelvic Fin 11. Ventral Lobe of Caudal Fin 12. Posterior Dorsal Fin 13. Fin Spine 14. Anterior Dorsal Fin 15. Clasper 16. Spine (only on male) 17. Urinary Papillae 18. Cloacal Aperture Score: Head 1. Spiricular Pore 2. Spiricular Valve 3. Upper Eyelid 4. Conjunctiva 5. Lower Eyelid 6. Pupil 7. Iris Score: 8. Gill Slits 9. Interbranchial Septa 10. Medial Aperture 11. Nasal Flap 12. Lateral Aperture 13. External Naris 14. Labial Groove 15. Labial Pouch 16. Mouth 17. Teeth 18. Pore of Ampullae of Lorenzini The Viscera 1. Mesentary Tissue 2. Colon 3. Pericardial Cavity 4. Atrium 5. Ventricle 6. Liver 7. Gall Bladder 8. Hepatic Portal Vein 9. Common Bile Duct 10. Pancreas Score: 11. Anterior Mesenteric Artery 12. Posterior Intestinal Vein 13. Rectal Gland 14. Gills 15. Transverse Septum 16. Falciform Ligament 17. Cardiac Stomach 18. Ventral Gastric Vein 19. Duodenum 20. Spleen 21. Lateral Abdominal Vein 22. Valvular Intestine 23. Dorsal Aorta 24. Pyloric Stomach 25. Esophagus 26. Esophageal Papillae 27. Spiral Valve 28. Esophageal Rugae Circulatory System 1. Coronary Artery 2. Conus Arteriosus 3. Atrium 4. Ventricle Score: 5. Sinoatrial Aperture 6. Transverse Septum 7. Sinus Venosus 8. Common Cardinal Vein 9. Atrium 10. Gill Lamellae 11. Gill Pouch 12. Pericardial Cavity

44 44 Reproductive System (Female) 1. Ostium of Oviducts 2. Ovary 3. Shell Gland 4. Oviduct Score: Reproductive System (Male) 1. Testis 2. Mesorchium 3. Ductus Deferens 4. Kidney Score: Brain & Nervous System 1. Superficial Ophthalmic Nerve 2. Cerebral Hemisphere 3. Foramen of Monro 4. Optic Lobe 5. Aqueduct of Sylvius 6. Cerebellum Score: 5. Mesovarium 6. Mesotubarium 7. Uterus 8. Abdominal Pore 5. Seminal Vesicle 6. Siphon 7. Cloaca Opening 8. Clasper 7. Fourth Ventricle 8. Gill 9. Spinal Cord 10. Medulla Oblongata 11. Mouth 12. Tegmentum 13. Hypophysis 9. Rectum 10. Cloaca 11. Urogenital papillae 9. Sperm Sac 10. Urogenital Papillae 14. Third Ventricle 15. Optic Nerve 16. Olfactory Nerve 17. Olfactory Bulb 18. Cerebellum 19. Vagus Nerve 20. Diencephalon Total Points: Shark Self-Tests External Self-Test -- Pg. 9 in Shark Dissection Manual

45 45 Male & Female Reproductive System Self-Test -- Pg. C.P. 75 & Pg in shark dissection manual.

46 46 Circulatory System Self-Test Pg in shark dissection manual. Digestive System Self Test Pg

47 47 Shark Lab Self-Tests Answer Sheet To complete the following self tests, use your shark dissection manuals as well as the coloring books. External Self-Test Pg Circulatory System Self-Test Pg Male & Female Reproductive System Self-Test Pg Digestive System Self Test Pg

48 48 SHARKS STUDY SHEET I C.P VERTEBRATE ORGANIZATION C.P Complete the following chart listing the eleven systems of the vertebrate body for each system, list the organs and the function. Use the skeletal system as an example. SYSTEM ORGANS FUNCTION 1. SKELETAL BONES, JOINTS, LIGAMENTS INTRODUCTION TO FISH C.P What are the three groups of fishes? 3. What are the principle living agnates? 4. What does the word agnates mean? 5. Describe the skin of an agnate? 6. What replaces the jaw in these animals? 7. Give three examples of Chondrichthyes? 8. How do Chondrichthyes differ from agnates in their skeleton? 9. What covers the skin of Chondrichthyes? 10. Why do sharks sink to the bottom when they are not swimming? 11. How does the ratfish differ from sharks and rays? 12. Name two bottom dwelling representative of the class Osteichthyes. 13. Why are lungfish unique?

49 49 SHARKS STUDY SHEET II C.P LAMPREY AND ITS LARVAE C.P What is an ammocoetes? 2. Where and how long does a sea lamprey spend its larvae life? 3. How and where does a sea lamprey spend its adult life? 4. List four parts of the larvae mouth. 5. What two structures help water with nutrients and oxygen enter the buccal cavity? 6. How does food enter the esophagus? 7. What are two functions of the notochord? 8. What is at the anterior end of the nerve cord? 9. What makes up the spinal column? 10. What does the hypophysis and the hypothalamus make up in higher vertebrates? 11. What replaces the oral hood of the larvae in adult sea lampreys? 12. How does water enter the adult pharynx? SHARKS AND BONY FISH: A COMPARISON C.P Give two differences between teeth in sharks and in boney fish? 14. How are gill slits different in sharks and fish? 15. What is the lateral line? 16. Give the function and location of each of the following fins: a. Pectoral b. Pelvic c. Dorsal d. Anal e. Caudal 17. Sharks do not have which of the above fins? 18. Give the location and the function of the following structures: f. Gill Arches: g. Gill Septum: h. Gill Filament: i. Gill Rakers: j. Gill Slits:

50 50 SHARK I: SKELETON C.P List the regions of the shark skeleton. 2. Describe the brain case of the shark. 3. What is located in the nasal capsule? 4. What is located in the orbital region? 5. What are the two functions of the shark s ear? 6. What joins the cranium to the first vertebrae? 7. What are formed by the seven pairs of gill rakers? SHARKS STUDY SHEET III C.P What projects from the centrum of the shark s vertebrae? 9. What extends below the centrum? 10. What is the function of the intercalary plates? 11. What replaces the notochord? 12. What are the two cartilaginous girdles? SHARK II: CIRCULATORY C.P What is the sinuous venosus? 14. What vessels bring blood to the sinous venosus? 15. To what chamber does the blood flow after the sinous venosus? 16. Where is the major propulsive force for the blood generated? 17. Into what vessels lead immediately off the ventral aorta? 18. What vessel leads immediately off the ventral aorta? 19. Into what vessel is oxygenated blood conducted? 20. What is the principle conducting artery to the tissues and organs? 21. List what organ is nourished by the following vessels: k. Subclavian l. Celiac m. Iliac n. Caudal 22. What vessels drain the head and the anterior of the body? 23. What vessel drains the tail and the kidney? 24. What vessel gives blood to the kidney? 25. What is the systems of the vessels that feed the liver? 26. What transports blood from the liver to the common cardinal vessel?

51 51 SHARKS STUDY SHEET IV C.P SHARK I: NERVOUS SYSTEM C.P What are the parts of the central nervous system? 2. What are ventricles? 3. List three regions of the brain and give their divisions. 4. List the two divisions of the telencephalon and give their functions. 5. What are the two divisions of the diencephalon and what are their functions? 6. What parts of the shark s brain correlates sensory impulses and motor responses? 7. What is the main part of the metencephalon and what is its function? 8. From what part of the brain does the medulla oblongata originate and what is its function? 9. What makes up the spinal cord? 10. What makes up the peripheral nervous system? SHARKS II: UROGENITAL SYSTEM C.P What is the nephron? 12. What are the kidneys and where are they located? 13. Into what do the uninary and genital ducts open? 14. What system compose the urogenital system? 15. What are the archinephric ducts? 16. In males, where does the urine go after the archinephric ducts? 17. What composes the testes in sharks? 18. What is the epididymis? 19. Where do the seminal vesicles lead? 20. What is the function of the claspers? 21. Where are the eggs discharged in the female? 22. Where do the eggs go after entering the funnels? 23. Where are the shell glands located?

52 52 FISH STUDY SHEET: C.P BONY FISH: SKELETON C.P What are the three reasons that bony fish have more complex skeletons than sharks? 2. What are the two kinds of bone present in the higher vertebrate skeleton? Describe each type. 3. Where do you find endochondral bone? Membranous bone? 4. What composes the posterior part of the brain? 5. What are the four parts of the occipital? 6. What is the function of the auditory capsule bones? 7. What does the trabecular section surround? 8. Name two bones of the nasal region? 9. What composes the operculum? What is its function? 10. What composes the upper jaw? 11. Name the three parts of the lower jaw. 12. What has replaced the notochord in adult fish? 13. What is the centrum? 14. What specifically surrounds the nerve cord? 15. What are the two flat bones embedded in the body wall that compose the pelvic girdle? 16. What supports the dermal rays of the median tail fin? BONY FISH: INTERNAL STRUCTURE C.P What is present in the oral cavity? 18. What may occur in the fish s esophagus? 19. How does the liver receive absorbed foodstuff? 20. What occurs in the gall bladder? 21. Name two chemicals secreted by the pancreas. 22. What are nephrons? 23. What is the function of the nephrons? 24. What is the function of the bladder? 25. How does sperm get to the urogenital sinus? 26. Describe the swim bladder. 27. What is the function of the swim bladder? 28. Why is the spleen associated with the cardiovascular system?

53 53 PHYLUM CHORDATA Class Amphibia (American bullfrog Rana catesbiana) CLASSES: AMPHIBIA & REPTILIA Froggy Classification: Phylum Sub-phylum Class Super-order Order Family Genus Species - The Orders Amphibia: 1. examples are frogs & toads 2. examples are salamanders & newts 3. examples are caecilians Amphibians are significant because they represent the most with four limbs that maintain a terrestrial niche. 3 Examples of the order Anura There are about species of frogs and toads. Frog: Habitat Niche Toad: Characteristics Habitat & Niche

54 54 Salamanders / newts: Characteristics Habitat Niche General Characteristics Most have a tongue that is and Spends first stages of life in water as They go through drastic changes during development (caused by changes in hormones) Tadpoles are while adults are They are. During extreme environmental conditions they either (winter) or s (summer). Temperature regulation is mainly behavioral They breathe through and. Amphibians Systems Well developed brain attached to the. They contain a well developed. located all over the skin Good vision since these animals are mainly ; that is, they have to use their sight to food (think of a frog going after a fly!) Amphibians Reproduction & Reproductive System 2 different sexes very similar in structure (appearance) in moist environments. Exceptions to the external fertilization are (only about 10% are external). Jelly-like eggs need to be laid in water Interactions between internal ( ) controls and extrinsic factors determine the timing of activities. Their offspring develop through a process called.

55 55 Vocalization Sound production is primarily a function of male anurans. These calls attract females to breeding areas and to announce to other males that a given territory is occupied. These calls may also cause some internally to occur, readying the breeding process in females. Sounds are caused by being forced from the lungs over the and cartilages of the larynx, causing them to. Our Dissection Froggy The American bullfrog Typically the specimens are and, measuring about 7 inches from the tips of their snouts to the ends of the trunks. Their long hind legs, when extended, add another 8 inches to their total length of. Arteries are injected with latex, and veins with or latex. Frogs show, along with a relatively complete & system. Special Amphibian Facts Amphibians have a double life because they spend half their life in and half on. In PA waters, the presence of and frogs show signs of environment.

56 56 PHYLUM CHORDATA CLASSES: AMPHIBIA / REPTILIA Using CP 78 A. CLASS AMPHIBIA (AM FIB E AH) 1. Name the three orders of amphibians and give at least one example for each. 2. Why are they significant? 3. Identify any characteristics, habitats and niches for the following amphibians. Frog Hab Niche Toad Char - Hab Niche Salamanders/Newts Char - Hab Niche 4. Why are amphibians sometimes referred to as having a double life? B. CLASS REPTILIA (REP TILL LEEAH) 1. Name the three orders of reptiles and give at least one example for each. 2. Why are the embryos of reptiles important?

57 57 3. Identify any characteristics, habitats and niches for the following reptiles. Lizards Char - Hab Niche Turtles Char - Hab Niche Snakes Char - Niche Alligators/Crocodiles Char - Hab C. Comparing Amphibians and Reptiles: Characteristic Amphibians Reptiles 1. Type of skin 2. Presence of nails on toes. 3. Types of eggs 4. Teeth 5. Mouth 6. Life Cycle

58 58 AMPHIBIAN SELF TESTS Head/Mouth Region C.P. 85 Ventral Musculature C.P. 80 Dorsal Musculature C.P 81 Internal Organs I C.P

59 59 Internal Organs II C.P Female Urogenital Region C.P. 86 Male Urogenital Region C.P. 86 Skeletal System C.P. 79

60 60 Frog Lab Self-Test Answer Sheet To complete the self-tests, use your frog dissection manuals as well as the coloring books. Head/Mouth Region Ventral Musculature Dorsal Musculature Internal Organs I & I Female & Male Urogenital System Skeletal System

61 61 MUSCULATURE: 1. Deltoid 2. Pectorialis 3. External Oblique 4. Rectus Abdominis 5. Triceps Femoris AM MPHIBIAN LAB: DISSECTION LIST 6. Sartorius 7. Gastrocnemius 8. Tibialis Anterior 9. Tibialis Posterior 10. Temporalis 11. Triceps Branchii 12. Biceps Femoris 13. Peroneus 14. Gluteus 15. Latissimus Dorsi Score : Teacher Sign Off : Date : INTERNAL ORGANS: 1. Pharynx 2. Maxillary Teeth 3. Vomerine Teeth 4. Internal Naris 5. Tongue 6. Lungs 7. Liver 8. Spleen 9. Heart 10. Large Intestine 11. Stomach 12. Small Intestine 13. Duodenum 14. Pancreas 15. Fat Bodies Score : Teacher Sign Off : Date : REPRODUCTIVE/UROGENITAL: 1. Testis 2. Ovaries 3. Cloaca 4. Bladder 5. Kidney 6. Oviducts Score : Teacher Sign Off : Date : WORKSHEETS FOR MUSCLES AND SKELETON Make a chart listing the following muscles. In the first column, list the name of the muscle, in the second column, tell what the muscle does. See example below. MUSCLE Submaxillary Subhyoid MUSCLES FOR THE CHART 1. Temporalis 2. Masseter 3. Pectorialis 4. External Oblique 5. Deltoid 6. Common Flexors 7. Rectus Abdominus 8. External Oblique 9. Internal Oblique 10. Triceps Femoris 11. Sartorius 12. Abductor Magnus LOCATION Side of lower jaw Side of lower jaw 13. Gracilis 14. Semitendinosus 15. Gastrocnemius 16. Tibialis Major 17. Common Extensors 18. Dorsalis Scapulae 19. Latissimus Dorsi 20. Triceps Branchii 21. Gluteus 22. Piniformis 23. Peroneus MOVEMENT Swallowing & breathing Swallowing & breathing

62 62 Amphibians Fill in the Blanks: 1. Members of the order Anura do not contain a(n). 2. The males enlarged thumb allows it to help expel eggs from the female during the process of. 3. The two girdles of the frog's endoskeleton are the and the. 4. The frog's liver produces the substance called which is stored in the organ called the. 5. Salamanders differ from frogs and toads by the presence of a(n). 6. Amphibians are ectothermic and must hide during unseasonable weather. is a period of summer inactivity and is a period of winter inactivity. 7. The area behind the frog's tympanic membrane is connected to its throat by a tube called the. 8. The frog's heart contains chambers. Of these the collects blood from the lungs. 9. The part of the frog's brain that controls its involuntary responses is the. 10. The frog uses its lungs and to carry on respiration. Matching: 11. Excretory & Reproductive Opening 12. Tail-less Amphibians 13. Structures for transmitting sounds 14. Food for tadpoles 15. Brain part associated with involuntary responses 16. Order of leg-less amphibians a. Apoda b. Algae c. Cloaca d. Anura e. Tympanic Membrane f. Medulla Oblongata Compare the tadpole and adult frog: Characteristics Tadpole Frog # of Heart Chambers Type of Limbs Type of Food Eaten Respiratory Organ Essay: 1. Discuss the evidence for the hypothesis that amphibians are intermediates between fish and land-living animals. 2. Discuss the characteristics that enable the frog to be successfully on land and in the water.

63 63 Graph the Following Data: Number of Tadpoles ph of Water Graph Title: 1. What is the optimum water ph for tadpole development?. 2. What is the mean ph of the experiment?. 3. What is the dependent variable?. 4. Between what ph readings is there the greatest change in tadpole number?. 5. How many tadpoles would we expect to find in water with a ph reading of 4?. 6. What is ph?.

64 64 FROG STUDY SHEET I C.P INTRODUCTION TO AMPHIBIANS & REPTILES C.P List the three orders of amphibians and give an example of each. 2. Why are amphibians especially significant? 3. What do frogs eat? FROGS I: SKELETON C.P Name the four body regions of the frog. 5. List the three bones that compose the upper jaw. 6. List the two major bones of the skull. 7. What forms the foramen magnum? What is it s function? 8. List the four parts of the vertebral column. 9. What are the two basic parts of the vertebrae? 10. What composes the lower parts of the pectoral girdle? 11. What is the base of the pectoral girdle? 12. What is the dorsal arm of the pectoral girdle? 13. Where does the humerous join the scapula? 14. What bone is in-between the carpels and the humerous? 15. What supports the palm of the hand? 16. What are the bones of the fingers? 17. List the three main bones of the pelvic girdle. 18. To what do the two ilia bones fuse? 19. What is the acetabulum? 20. To what does the femur articulate with at the knee? 21. What bones form the major support for the foot? 22. What joins to the base of the phalanges in the foot? FROGS II: MUSCULATURE C.P. 80 & What must you do to determine one muscle from another when dissecting a frog s muscle system? 24. What is the origin of a muscle? 25. What is an insertion of a muscle?

65 65 FROG STUDY SHEET II C.P. 82, 85, 86 DISSECTION C.P When does the quantity of fat bodies vary? 2. When are the ovaries filled with eggs? 3. What is the pleuroperitoneal cavity? 4. What takes up the most room inside the body? 5. What is located under the liver? 6. Where is the spleen located? FROG VI: DISSECTION & RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS 7. Complete the chart below. STRUCTURE LOCATION FUNCTION Maxillary Teeth Internal Naris Vomerine Teeth Auditory Orifices Tongue Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small Intestines Large Intestines Liver Pancreas Spleen 8. Explain how the frog gets air inside his body. Use the terms glottis, floor of mouth and larynx. 9. Where are the vocal cords located? 10. How is sound created in the frog? 11. Describe the passage of air into the air sacs. Use terms such as bronchus, lung, and alveoli. 12. How is air returned to the outside of the frog?

66 66 FROG VII: UROGENITAL SYSTEM C.P Describe the appearance of the kidney. 14. What composes the kidney? 15. What is the function of the tubules? 16. What is the name for the filtrate of these tubules? 17. Into what structure does the bladder release its contents? 18. From what site do the fat bodies originate? 19. Trace the passage of sperm from the testis to the cloaca. 20. What happens to the eggs once they are deposited inside the female s body cavity? 21. When are the eggs discharged outside the female? FROG V: HEART AND ARTERIAL SYSTEM C.P List the four parts of the amphibian heart. 23. What is the function of the valves? 24. What type of blood enters the right atrium? 25. What type of blood enters the left atrium? 26. What is the function of the ventricle? 27. Name the three parts of the wall of the heart. 28. List the structures become the following vessels after metamorphosis: conus arteriosus, carotid arch, systemic arch, and pulmonary arteries. 29. What part/parts of the body receive blood from the following vessels: coeliacomesenteric, celiac, hepatic, mesenteric, genital, renal, femoral, and sciatic. FROG VI: VENOUS SYSTEM C.P Why is the pulmonary vein different than all other veins? 31. How is blood returned from the kidneys? 32. Where does the posterior vena cava enter the heart? 33. What forms the hepatic portal vein? 34. What is contained in portal blood? Where does the hepatic portal system lead? FROG IX: NERVOUS SYSTEM C.P What do the olfactory and cerebrum do in the frog? 36. What is the function of the thalamus? 37. What is the function of the hypothalamus? 38. What is centered in the optic lobes? 39. What is the function of the cerebellum? 40. What is located within the medulla oblongata? 41. List the names of the ten cranial nerves and the spinal nerves.

67 67 REPTILES Reptiles are one amazing group of animals. There are giant snakes longer than a bus that can swallow crocodiles whole. There are bizarre turtle with fleshy skin flaps that lure fish to their death. There are three-horned lizards with turret-like eye sockets and tongues as long as their Turret bodies. And there are sea turtle, weighing as much as a large horse, that can swim faster than you can run. And that s just the start. We ll take a close-up look at the characteristics of this diverse crew, which includes the turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles, and two lesser-known groups the worm-lizards and the tuatara. And we ll focus on some of the amazing ways they are adapted for survival. TAKING A LOOK AT TURTLES There are over 200 species of turtles in the world, living on almost every continent and in most of the world s oceans. Some turtles, such as sea turtles and soft-shell turtles, spend almost their entire life in oceans, lakes, or rivers. Others, such as bog turtle and wood turtles, are semi-aquatic, spending their time in bogs, swamps, marshes, and other wetland areas. And many turtles, such as tortoises and box turtles, live their entire life on land. (NOTE: The term turtle refers to all reptiles in this group. Tortoise and Terrapin are sometimes refer to specific kinds of turtles.) What makes a Turtle a turtle?: The most noticeable feature turtles share is a shell, the tough, armorlike covering that encloses their bodies. The shell varies from species to species, but it always consists of the same three-part structure, the carapace, which covers the back; the plastron, which covers all or part of the belly, and the bridge, which connects the two. Most turtle shells are covered with horny plates, others are protected by tough, leathery skin. Turtles lay clusters of eggs in soil or sand. And they breathe with lungs, although a few may also get some oxygen through their skin and the lining of the throat. Feeding, Turtle-Style: Like birds, turtle do not have teeth, instead they use their feet and horny beaks to rip, tear, and cut their foods. (Most turtles have hard beaks, but a few, such as the matamata, have soft mouthparts.) As a group, turtles feed on a variety of foods, from insects, worms, and fish to fruits, mushrooms, and other plant material. Matamata Turtle GETTING TO KNOW LIZARDS, SNAKES, AND WORM-LIKE LIZARDS Together, lizards and snakes make up the largest group of reptiles. (There are roughly 3700 species of lizards and 2400 species of snakes.) Even though they don t look like cousins, these scaly creatures are closely related. By studying fossil remains and comparing characteristics of living snakes and lizards, scientists have

68 68 concluded that snakes probably evolved from an ancient line of lizards about 135 million years ago. (Worm- Lizards, a small group of burrowing reptiles, are also considered part of the lizard and snake group. Although rarely seen, these reptiles have characteristics of both lizards and snakes, they are different enough to make many scientists think they should be classified as a separate group.) LOTS OF LIZARDS When you re talking lizards, you are talking variety. Take the way they get around. Some climb tress, some glide from tree to tree; some swim through hot desert sands; a few can stand up and run on their hind legs; some can crawl upside down; some burrow into the soil; and some don t have any legs at all and slither to get around. Lizards also vary in color, size, and shape, and in the way they behave. So what makes a lizard a lizard? Here are some general characteristics: Eyes, Ears, and Legs: Like most vertebrates, many lizards have movable eyelids. And most also have external ear openings on the sides of their head. (Most lizards have good hearing, but they also rely on their sense of sight and smell to know what going on.) And although there are a few species legless lizards, most lizards have four legs, and with five clawed toes on each foot. Lizard Chow: Lizards usually feed on anything they can catch and swallow which, depending on the species, can include other reptiles, insects, spiders, worms, and mammals. But some feed mainly on fruit, flowers, leaves, and almost all vary their diet with the season. Lizard Survival: When lizards run into trouble, each species has its own survival strategy. Some lizards nimbly scramble out of sight. Others putt up, act tough and then run. A few stay and fight. Some freeze. Some can change colors in a matter of seconds to match their surroundings --- a great way to seem to disappear quickly. Some lizards also use the tails as a special defense decoy. When a lizard is attacked, its tail breaks off at a special fracture joint. Often the tail keeps twitching for a few seconds, distracting the predator while the lizard makes a quick getaway. Lizards that lose their tails can slowly regenerate new ones. Tail and Tongue Tricks: Tails are also important to lizards for other reasons. They help lizards keep their balance as they walk, swim, or run. Many lizards rely on their tails as storehouses of fat that can be used during cold weather and droughts when food is scarce. Lizards also have well-developed tongues, and many use them to zap food, clean their eye coverings, smell, and even scare their enemies. Chameleons tongues are incredibly long and can shoot out about as far as the length of their body.

69 69 Born a Lizard: Most lizards are egg-layers, usually hiding their eggs in nest cavities they dig in the soil or under logs or rocks. But, in some species, the eggs develop inside the mother s body until the embryos are well developed. The females then give birth to live young. SIZING UP SNAKES Snakes are missing body parts that many other animals have. For example, they don t have legs, eyelids, outside ear opening, or bladders. And instead of having a pair of lungs, many have only one. Snakes also look very different from most other animals. They have greatly elongated bodies that can twist and turn in ways that make them look like contortionists. Moving Like A Snake: Snakes can coil, climb, and slither because they have a very flexible spine made up of vertebrae, each of which is attached to a pair of separate, thin ribs. Most snakes move in a series of S- shaped curves, pushing themselves along using plants, rocks, sticks, and other irregularities as shove-off points. Many snakes can also travel in almost a straight line using the wide, overlapping plates, or belly scales, on their undersides. Muscles attached to the ribs pull and lift, these scales, creating a series of wave-like motions. As the scales push against rough surfaces on the ground, the snake moves forward. Many thickbodied snakes, such as pythons, often move in this way. Most snakes use a combination of these methods, but some also use an accordion-type movement especially when climbing trees. And a few desert snakes move using a complicated series of sideways body movements. Snake Senses: Snakes have a variety of ways to sense their environment. They have fairly good close-up eyesight and an excellent sense of smell. Their flicking forked tongue and a structure in the roof of their mouth called the Jacobean s organs are, in combination, responsible for their incredible ability to smell the environment. For a long time, people thought snakes were deaf. But they can actually hear low-frequency sounds and they can feel vibrations. That s why snakes often sense your presence long before they see you. Some snakes also have incredible sensory devices that other reptiles don t have heat sensors located in pits on the sides of their face or on their lips. These heat sensors can detect slight differences in the amounts of radiant heat energy that animals give off. Snakes process the information to determine both the direction and distance of the objects. These heat sensors allow snakes to successively hunt mammals, birds, and other prey in complete darkness. Gulping Their Grub: Snakes always swallow their food whole. They can do this because they have some incredible mouth machinery. Snakes can move their upper jaw away from their lower jaw and the left side of their lower jaw away their right side. This expandability, due to extremely elastic muscles and ligaments of the

70 70 throat and between bones in the jaw, allows snakes to swallow animals that are several times bigger than their head. Most snakes also have rows of sharp teeth on each jawbone that help hold the prey and walk it down the throat. Because they can eat such huge meals at one time and because they are cold-blooded, snakes don t have to eat as often as other animals. If necessary, most snakes can get away with eating just a few times per year. Meat-Eating Strategies: All snakes are meat eaters that feed on a variety of prey, including other snakes, lizards, birds, worms, mammals, amphibians, and fish. Snakes, such as boas, pythons, and rat snakes, kill their prey by constriction squeezing so tightly that the victim can t breathe and eventually suffocates. Others, such as garter snakes and water snakes, rely on jaws and curved teeth to keep hold of their struggling prey. And poisonous snakes such as rattlesnakes, cottonmouths, and cobras use venom to subdue their prey. The venom is located in sacs connected to sharp fangs. When some poisonous snakes, such as rattlesnakes, bite their prey they jab their fangs into the prey s skin, or muscle. This forces the venom to flow from the sacs through the fangs and into the animal s body. Poisonous snakes, such as coral snakes, have shorter fangs, and their venom is injected only after several bites or as they hang on to chew their prey. Reproduction, Snake-Style: Most snakes lay eggs, but some give birth to live young, just as some lizards do. And like most reptiles, snakes don t care for the young after hatching. Some snakes, such as pythons, incubate their eggs by coiling their bodies around the eggs until they hatch. A few snakes, such as the king cobra use mud, leaves, and other materials to build a nest. CLOSE-UP ON CROCODILIAN Crocodiles, alligators, caimans, and gavials the major types of crocodilian are all semi-aquatic predators that live in warm areas around the world. They all have the distinctive crocodilian look: a large toothy snout, a compressed powerful tail, and a tough, leathery hide. As a group, crocodilians have been around for over 200 million years, having evolved from the same The restored skull of Deinosuchus, featuring (left to right) B. Brown, R. T. Bird and E. M. Schlaikjer [ref: How the terror crocodile grew so big by Erickson and Brochu, Nature 398, (18 March 1999)] group of reptiles that eventually gave rise to dinosaurs. The largest crocodilian of all time, Deinosuchus, was over 50 feet (15 m) long a monster compared to crocodilians today. Adapted to Water: Special adaptations help crododilians hunt for food, which, depending on their species and age, could include insects, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Here are just a few of their aquatic feeding tricks: eyes and nostrils set high on their head that allow them to see and breathe while the rest of their body is submerged in the water, out of sight. They have a third eye lid, called the

71 71 nictitating membrane, that protects their eyes under water, nostrils and ears that close when they dive. They also possess a valve at the back of their mouth that closes when they dive, allowing them to catch prey without swallowing water. Lastly, they have a compressed tail that helps propel them through the water and webbed feet that help them walk on mud and sand. Mounds of Heat: Like most reptiles, crocodilians are egg-layers. Their eggs look something like chicken eggs, although they are not as brittle. Some species dig shallow pits in the sand and bury their eggs. Others hide their eggs in nests of decaying vegetation and mud. Some croc mothers also protect their nests, staying around until the nests hatch. WHAT IS A TUATARA? Most people have never heard of a tuatara, a lizard-like reptile that lived on about 30 small islands off the coast of New Zealand. Tuataras are the only survivors of an entire order of reptiles that evolved about 220 million years ago about the time of the first dinosaurs. What else is special about the tuataras? For one thing, these nocturnal borrowers have a third eye on top of their head, which is connected to their brain and which scientists think is sensitive to light. (Several lizards also have this eye. ) Tuatara eggs also have the longest incubation time of all the reptiles, taking about 15 months to hatch. Many of these reptiles have incredibly long life spans, living more than a century. H A B I T A T T R A I T S E X A M P L E S R E P R O D U C T I O N TURTLES LIZARDS SNAKES CROCODILES TUATARA

72 72 TURTLE SELF TESTS Turtle Self-Tests: