Mammal and Herbivore Introduction

Transcription

1 Welcome to Karongwe! Karongwe Game Reserve (KGR) was once made up of separate land owners and individual farms. In 1998 a conservancy was formed to create an 8000 hectare wildlife reserve. Currently there are eight eco-tourism operations. GVI was brought onto Karongwe in May of 2001 to work in conjunction with KERI (Karongwe Ecological Research Institute). Our current partners include the KGR landowners, the reserve manager, the University of Pretoria, the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve, Queens University, Belfast, Mpumalanga Parks Board (MPB), and Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) Research on KGR consists of determining and monitoring predator numbers, monitoring feeding behaviour of large predators, determining the impact predators have on prey densities and populations, monitoring spatial utilisation of predators and monitoring intraspecific and intraguild competition/relationships. Other research will be conducted during your time on KGR however it is dependent on what are partners request during your stay with us. While on Karongwe you may be asked to participate in the Mountain phase of the expedition. Mariepskop is a geographically isolated mountain which is part of the Drakensburg mountain range. Due to its isolation there is a high chance of endemic species. Working with the University of Pretoria, DAFF, and MPB, GVI has been conducting a biodiversity study since July of Mariepskop is about an hour and half from KGR. As the climate is different we request volunteers to bring some extra warm clothes and rain gear throughout the year in order to be comfortable (and dry!) in the mountains. KGR is located near the town of Hoedspruit. It is located within the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve, which represents only 1.4% of the land in South Africa but contains 55% of the total natural life found on the subcontinent. Hoedspruit is a fifty minute drive. Town trips are conducted every Monday and volunteers will have a chance to either go into town themselves and/or have a friend pick up anything they may need. Hoedspruit is small but has all of the basics you will need during your stay. Volunteers will have one day off a week where they can explore the area by renting cars from Hoedspruit or sign up for a trip through GVI. These extra-day trips include entering Kruger National Park, and exploring the Panorama Route. The base on Karongwe is basic. There is a sink and a washing line to wash and hang your clothes. There is a generator which is run approximately four hours a day and a charging station where volunteers can charge the basics. Power and space to charge is limited so we request you only bring what is necessary, please do not bring items such as hair dryers or straighteners as they require too much power and will overload our generator. During generator time you will have the opportunity to use your lap top or the base laptop to access the internet. Base also has our very own Base Dog, named Zuri. She is a weinerhimmer/border collie mix and is very friendly. If you have any concerns about Zuri before you come please contact someone from GVI so we can accommodate you. Mammal and Herbivore Introduction What is a mammal? Mammals have unique features in that they all have hair, females have mammary glands and give birth to live young and they are endothermic (can regulate their own body temperature regardless of the environmental temperature). They also have three ear ossicles (bones in Global Vision International 1

2 middle ear) and their lower jawbone is one structure. Mammals have a four-chambered heart, although this feature is also shared with crocodiles. Types of Mammals 1. Monotremes are primitive, egg laying mammals. Milk is suckled through the skin of the mother (e.g. platypuses and echidnas). There are no monotremes in Africa. 2. Marsupials have an abdominal pouch in which young are reared. The young are born early in their development, travel to the pouch and attach to a nipple where they complete their development (e.g. koala bear and kangaroo). There are no marsupials in Africa. 3. Placentals have an advanced placenta, which means that the young remain in the mother until the embryonic development is complete (e.g. humans). All African mammals are placentals. Communication There are 343 mammal species in South Africa. Visual Visual communication is important for mating displays, parental care, submissiveness, dominance, anti-predator behaviour etc. For example: the black and white markings on animals tails or rumps are follow-me signs for other individuals of the same species. Predators and primates have eyes at the front of their head, which means they have a wide field of binocular vision. This enables them judge distances better, for example, decide whether to jump to the next branch or launch an attack. Herbivores, however, have eyes on the side of their head, which means that they have a narrow field binocular vision. However, they can almost see 270 around them in order to spot danger approaching whilst grazing or browsing. Nocturnal mammals have a reflective layer of crystals at the back of their eyes called a tapetum. This is what reflects in the spotlight at night. Vocal Vocal communication has numerous advantages in that it can be turned on and off quickly and transmitted over large distances. Calls can be used to attract prospective mates, maintain contact within social structures and as contact communication between mother and offspring. Alarm calls can also indicate danger. Vervet monkeys, for example, have different alarm calls for dangers such as an eagle from the sky versus a snake. Olfactory or smell Animals use skin gland secretions, urine or faeces to convey information such as sex, age, social status, reproductive condition, emotional state and/or group membership. Olfactory communication is used mainly for territory boundaries and assessing reproductive condition. Some mammals have a Jacobson s organ that is used to pick up olfactory signals. The flehmen response is the name for the behaviour when a mammal uses the Jacobson s organ to smell. For example, the lion on the previous page is testing a lioness urine for signs of pending oestrus. Global Vision International 2

3 Tactile or touch This type of communication is usually exhibited by social mammals and can take various forms, for example, play behaviour, courtship, grooming or parental care. Mammals are the only animals that play. Social Structure Animals can either be solitary or social, with different types of social structures. The most common are: 1. Monogamous (e.g. klipspringers, steenbok, bat-eared foxes and jackals). These animals pair bond for life. 2. Polygamous, such as the harem system where there is one male that has many females (e.g. lions and many antelope species). 3. Matriarchal (e.g. elephants and hyenas). This system is where a group of females is lead by one individual, who is often the oldest (in the case of elephants) or leadership is passed on from mothers to their daughters (e.g. hyenas). Territories versus home ranges Territories are areas where resources are actively protected and defended against other animals of the same species (i.e. other individuals of the same species are excluded from using these resources). They are generally marked by a variety of methods; including dung middens, roaring, anal pasting and urine spraying. Home ranges are areas of resources that are utilized regularly by animals but are not defended. For example, an elephant herd would have a home range or an area they spend most of their time in because it includes resources that are necessary for their survival or reproduction, but they do not exclude other elephants from using resources in their home range nor do they defend it from other elephants. Home ranges may change seasonally in response to changing supplies of water or food. Herbivore Identification An herbivore is any animal that feeds on green plants, algae or their products including seeds, fruit and nectar. In order to correctly identify kills and take data, we need to be able to accurately identify prey species, their age and sex. Antelope Species where the male antelope have horns while females do not include: impala, kudu, bushbuck, nyala, waterbuck, grey duiker, steenbok and klipspringer. Impala: Global Vision International 3

4 Kudu: Bushbuck:: Nyala: Waterbuck: Global Vision International 4

5 Steenbok: Grey/Common Duiker: Klipspringer: Global Vision International 5

6 Antelope where both sexes have horns include eland, blue wildebeest, red hartebeest and gemsbok. Generally the females have thinner horns, while the males have thicker horns with thicker bases. Blue Wildebeest: Blue wildebeest male Blue wildebeest female Buffalo: Buffalo Bull Buffalo Cow Other herbivores Warthog: Warthog male Warthog young (left) and female (right) Global Vision International 6

7 Plains Zebra: Bushpig: Southern Giraffe: Primates: Chacma Baboon: Vervet Monkey: Global Vision International 7

8 Lesser Galago/Bushbaby: Samango Monkey The Samango monkey is found in the afromontane rainforests on the slopes of Mariepskop mountain Global Vision International 8

9 LION (Panthera leo) Lions are the largest cats in Africa. Males weigh between kg whereas females weigh approximately kg. Lions are unique in that they are the only social cats and live in prides. Males grow a mane. The average lifespan of a wild lion is 14 years; usually females will live longer. Social Structure A typical pride consists of 2-18 females and their cubs. Often this is a lifetime bond and the females are related (e.g. sisters). There is usually a male or a coalition of males associated with the pride. The benefit of males forming coalitions is that they are able to take over a pride at younger ages and hold tenure over prides for longer time periods ensuring that they sire more offspring. Pride males can have territories for up to six years. They tolerate their own cubs, however, they kill cubs when taking over a pride for the first time. This allows the females to come into oestrus earlier and the new males to produce their own offspring earlier than would be possible if they had to wait for the existing offspring to be weaned. There are numerous benefits to being social for females, including the ability to bring down larger prey, communal suckling and communal defence of cubs from other females and in some cases, avoiding pregnancy if they have dependent cubs by chasing males off. Prides have dynamic, fluctuating territories, with neighbouring prides always in competition with each other. The movement of prey also changes boundaries of territories, as does the movement of strange males. Pride members are not always together, especially the males who might spend extended periods of time away from the pride patrolling territory boundaries. Communication Both males and females mark territories. Males scent mark by urine spraying, while both males and females will roar to advertise territoriality and to maintain contact between pride members. Vocal moans between pride members are used as short-range contact calls. Social contact between pride members consists of licking and rubbing. The black tips on lions tails and behind their ears are used by cubs to follow their mothers and by pride members to maintain visual contact when hunting. Oestrus Like many cats, lions are induced ovulators, meaning they will only release eggs from their ovaries if they are inseminated. Oestrus lasts four days and also occurs after females have given birth. A male will use the flehmen response to test a female s urine in order to determine the reproductive status of that female. Lionesses begin to breed at months, while males reach sexual maturity and have their own territories about one year later. Mating Once a female is in oestrus and accepts a male, they mate approximately every 15 minutes for 4-5 days. Copulation is quick, each lasting about 21 seconds, with typical cat aggression at the end. Global Vision International 9

10 Lion Cubs Gestation is 110 days, where after the lioness selects a secluded den site to give birth. Cubs are born very small ( 1.5 kg) and defenceless, with closed eyes. Five cubs on average are born, with both males and females being equal size at birth. High mortality rates in the first few weeks are not uncommon. Cubs are left alone for long periods and stay at the den for 6-8 weeks before joining the pride. At three months cubs will chew meat if they are hungry but don t usually eat meat until they are 5-10 months old. Juveniles and Sub-adults Young lions experience rapid growth from 12 months old. Sexual dimorphism becomes apparent with the development of manes in males and a size difference becoming apparent between the sexes. Sexual mounting starts and they become interested in hunting. At 2½-3 years old they are the size of adult females. Nomadic Phase Females inherit territory (stay with the natal pride) or link up with other prides. Males often form coalitions and wander between territories until they are large or strong enough to challenge dominant males for a territory. Hunting and Scavenging Lions are diurnal and nocturnal hunters. In other words, they can hunt during the day or at night. Most often they are active during the early morning and late afternoon. They kill small to large prey, ranging from warthog to giraffe. Certain prides in Botswana have been recorded specializing in hunting elephants. Lions rely primarily on stalking before launching into a short sprint. Their maximum speed is 80 kph, but this can only be maintained for approximately 100 m. Although the hunting success rate is low, it increases when pride members all hunt together. Lions will scavenge readily on carcasses. Conservation The Red Data Book lists lions status as Vulnerable. Lions can be conserved within enclosed areas. Tracks and Signs Lion tracks are the largest cat track. They have the typical catlike three lobes on the back of the pad and there are no claw marks. They are on average 12.5cm long from tip of the toes to back of the main pad Global Vision International 10

11 CHEETAH (Acinonyx jubatus) Cheetahs are the fastest land mammals and can reach a top speed of 120 kph. Although there is little sexual dimorphism in cheetahs, males are slightly heavier than females, weighing kg, while females weigh kg. Cheetahs have solid black spots with white under parts and also have distinctive tear marks on their faces. They are long legged, slender cats with long tails and small heads. Cheetahs claws are not fully retractable, which gives them grip for fast running and manoeuvring. The approximate lifespan of cheetahs is 12 years. There are no cheetah sub-species. The king cheetah is a mutant gene that coalesces the spots together to form stripes. All cheetahs are genetically similar because of a genetic bottleneck, which the species was exposed to approximately years ago, where the population decreased to less than a few hundred animals. This, however, has not lowered their reproductive performance. Cheetahs are diurnal which means they are usually active during the day. Social Structure Females separate from their mother at approximately 1½ years old, which coincides with their first oestrus cycle. They then have no interaction with other females or males, except to mate. Females are not territorial and can move up to 4 km a day. Offspring stay within their mother s home range. Males often form coalitions that consist of two to four individuals, which are usually brothers. Breeding males have territories and kill other males to defend them. Males can move up to 8 km a day. Communication Cheetahs have black markings behind their ears and a white tip to their tail to act as a follow me sign for cubs. They use a high-pitched chirrup for short-range contact calls and greetings and also purr when contented. Mating Females urinate more often when in oestrus in order to attract males. Mating is seldom seen in the wild and copulation is quick. Cheetahs reach sexual maturity at approximately two years old. Cubs Gestation is days. Females give birth in cover and keep the cubs hidden for the first month. However, they move their cubs frequently, sometimes as often as every second day. Normally there are 3 4 cubs in a litter. When born, the cubs are blind and cannot walk. Cheetahs lose approximately 50% of their young within the first three months. This low cub survival rate is because they are solitary parents (only the female raises the cubs), there is high predation of cubs by other carnivores, there is no den and cheetahs generally have a low hunting success rate. Cubs younger than 12 weeks have a long mantle of grey hair on their back that mimics honey badgers in an attempt to deter predators. Until five and a half months, cubs follow their mother except when the mother hunts. After the mother has successfully killed, cubs are led to the kill. When cubs are six Global Vision International 11

12 months old, their mother starts to bring live lambs or hares etc. for the cubs to practice and hone their own hunting skills. Cheetah sub-adults are seldom successful on bigger prey until they are 15 months old. Diet and Hunting Cheetahs hunt mainly during the day. They can hunt in any area, not just on open plains, although they do have higher success rates when they can use their speed. When hunting, cheetahs can only run at full speed for approximately 300 m before their body temperature gets too high. The classic hunting technique is a high-speed chase, tripping the prey with their front paws or dewclaws. Cheetah s skulls are adapted to maintain a strangle hold on their prey for up to 20 minutes. This includes having enlarged nasal passages for better recovery from the exertion of the hunt. Once the prey is killed, cheetahs need to rest to let their body temperature recover. Cheetahs will typically begin eating from the rear of the prey and then move through to the front. They are the weakest of the large predators and prefer to leave their kills rather than risk being killed or injured when approached by other large predators. As a result, they often loose their kills to other large predators. Once cheetahs have eaten their fill, they will move away from the carcass to digest. Their usual prey is smaller antelope or the young of larger antelope. Cheetahs do not scavenge and are independent of water. Conservation The Red Data Book lists cheetah s conservation status as Vulnerable. Cheetahs are protected in South Africa, and cannot be hunted neither can their skins be sold. Cheetahs can be confined within enclosed areas and are therefore relatively easy to protect within conservation areas. Tracks and Signs Cheetahs tracks are more oval than other cats. They still have the three lobes on their anterior pads but the biggest difference is that their claws are not retracted; therefore, claw marks are often seen. Global Vision International 12

13 LEOPARD (Panthera pardus) Leopards are long, low, stocky cats with wide heads and short powerful jaws. Their limbs are short, thick and strong. Leopards are mainly nocturnal. Apart from size (males can weigh kg whereas females are kg) there is little sexual dimorphism in leopards. The spots on a leopard s coat are arranged in rosettes. Leopards have vibrissae (or stiff whiskers) for quiet navigation on their face and their legs above the paws. Leopards are arguably the most successful felid in that they are very adaptable, versatile and elusive and can survive in many areas where other cats cannot. Although there is discussion about whether sub-species exist within Africa, no sub-species have yet been genetically determined. Social Structure Leopards are solitary and territorial. In general, adults only associate long enough to mate. Territories of females often overlap, but those of males do not. Territorial males have priority access to females, and territorial females have priority access to food. Communication Scent marking is used to both communicate and mark territories. Bushes and trees are urine sprayed and faeces are used on paths that other leopards are likely to use. Males often scrape the ground with their hind legs. Their distance call is a sawing sound and leopards mainly call at dawn and dusk. The white tip of their tail and the black behind their ears is a follow-me sign for cubs. Mating Leopards are sexually mature at 2-4 years. Females normally initiate the mating. The male mounts briefly then leaps off as she turns snarling. Mating takes place every 15 minutes for up to 4-5 days. Leopard males do not help raise their offspring. Cubs Gestation is approximately 105 days, with a typical litter being 1-3 cubs. Cubs only weigh 0.5 kg at birth and are dark-grey/black. The cubs are concealed in dense thickets, koppies (rock outcrops) or caves and are moved by their mother every few days. Their eyes open after 6-10 days, but cubs only venture out of hiding after six weeks. Cubs make their first kills at around 11 months old but only become independent at approximately 22 months old. Diet and Hunting Leopards are opportunistic hunters. They are secretive and elusive, relying on good camouflage. They use a stalk and ambush technique, stalking to between 5-20 m of prey before pouncing; they rarely run after prey. Leopards consume protein in any form, ranging from mice to baby giraffe, however, they eat mainly medium sized antelope (e.g. impala) and the young of larger species (e.g. zebra and wildebeest). Although they readily scavenge and will eat decaying meat, they pluck feathers and fur from kills. Often leopards will drag kills into Global Vision International 13

14 trees or cover kills with vegetation to avoid scavenging by lions and hyenas. Leopards do not need to drink water often, as they get enough water from their food. Conservation The leopard s conservation status is listed by the Red Data Book as Least Concern. However, one needs a permit to hunt leopards. CITIES and destruction permits for problem animals can be obtained in South Africa. They are hard to protect within conservation areas, as they cannot be confined with fences. Tracks and Signs The leopard s tracks are very similar to lion tracks, although they are smaller and typically more circular in appearance. A large male s track will reach around 9cm long. Global Vision International 14

15 HYENAS Hyenas only occur in Africa, where they are widely distributed. There are three species of hyena, however, some consider the aardwolf part of the hyena family too. The spotted hyena is an opportunistic hunter and a scavenger, while the striped hyena mainly scavenges and is distributed only in north and northeast Africa. The brown hyena is only a scavenger and is only found in southern Africa. The aardwolf is insectivorous and is found in south and east Africa. SPOTTED HYENAS (Crocuta crocuta) Spotted hyenas have a massive build in front with sloping hindquarters. Initially hyenas were thought to be hermaphroditic until as late as 1938 as both females and males appeared to possess male genitalia. Hyenas are almost identically in both sexes externally but females have almost typical female mammal anatomy internally. They can be identified by their single set of abdominal mammary glands. Males weigh less than females. Spotted hyenas range in size averaging kg, but have reached over 80 kg. Spotted hyenas can be active in the day but are generally nocturnal. Their lifespan is yrs. Social Structure Spotted hyenas usually live in clans ranging from animals. The clan is lead by a matriarch who is typically the largest and most aggressive female. She has unusually high levels of testosterone in her body. Next in the hierarchy is the matriarch s female offspring, which will dominate her brother and be next in line to be the matriarch. All clan females are dominant over clan males. Clan males also have a hierarchy; firstly the accepted immigrants, then natal males (born into that clan) and then non-accepted peripheral males. Spotted hyenas territories are maintained and defended against other clans. They are marked by anal pastings, defecating and scratch marking using an inter-digital gland. Communication As well as the olfactory marking of territories, spotted hyenas are also extremely vocal and have a repertoire of calls with different functions. A long drawn out whoop is used as a long range contact call. Around carcasses or in interactions with lions they giggle, whoop, scream, growl etc. Clan members also greet each other in a unique way that includes genital licking. Mating Only the most dominant, accepted, immigrant male will have mating rights. All the females in the clan will breed and den together but each mother suckles only her own young. Cubs Gestation is 90 days with litters of 1-2 born with eyes open and with teeth. Siblicide is common especially if both cubs are female. Cubs are dark brown when they are born, only showing spots at about six months old. Weaning starts at nine months old and is only complete when the young are Global Vision International 15

16 months old. They start to go out with adults at 6-9 months. Spotted hyenas will generally not bring food back to the den. Hunting and Scavenging Spotted hyenas are known for their ability to cover long distances during a night. They will maintain a walking speed of 4 km/hr and are capable of a gallop at km/hr for up to 5 km. Their killing method usually involves running down and disembowelling their prey. Their maximum speed is around 60 km/hr. They are opportunistic hunters and scavengers and are able to consume up to 15 kg of meat at a sitting. Spotted hyenas have a complex relationship with lions, where individuals may be hunted down by male lions. However, a group of hyenas can intimidate a lioness separated from her pride. Conservation Status The Red Data Book lists spotted hyena as Near Threatened due to hunting persecution and cultural use for traditional medicine. Tracks and Signs Despite being closer related to cats than dogs, their tracks resemble that of a dog s with only two lobes on the anterior pad and visible claw marks. However, their large toe pads are kidney bean shaped and their walking gait gives their tracks an outwardly skewed appearance. BROWN HYENAS (Hyaena brunnea) Brown hyenas are less well known than spotted hyenas as they are more shy and secretive. They have a medium, shaggy build and only weigh kg, with females being larger than males. Their coat is longer than the spotted hyena s and their ears are more pointed. Their lifespan is up to 16 years. Brown hyena are nocturnal but are often seen at dawn and dusk. Social Structure Live in clans with up to 12 members or as solitary nomadic males. Communication Territories are marked with anal pastings and dung latrines along borders. Brown hyenas are generally silent. Mating Usually only one female breeds in the clan. She will mate with males that are nomadic or are immigrants to the clan. Global Vision International 16

17 Cubs Gestation is 90 days with litters of 1-4 cubs born. Weaning starts at three months old and is complete at 12 months old. This is possible due to the adult s habit of bringing food to the den. Hunting and Scavenging Brown hyenas are strictly scavengers, with a typical daily intake of 2.5 kg. Although they live in clans they forage alone and can walk up to 30 km a night. They rarely interact with lions on a kill, however, they have been known to steal prey from leopards. Conservation Status The Red Data Book lists Brown hyenas as Near Threatened due to persecution by farmers as they are seen as vermin. Diet of Hyenas Hyenas eat everything, including scavenging the faeces of other carnivores, skin, bone, teeth, offal and even their own dead. Spotted hyenas will hunt and eat rodents, birds, small carnivores, reptiles, large to medium ungulates and old or injured lions. Hyenas also consume grass, fruit and vegetable matter. Human rubbish, livestock and humans are also occasionally eaten. In order to eat some of this food, hyenas are equipped with a heavy skull with a pronounced sagittal crest to which massive masseter and temporalis muscles are attached. They have heavy canines and their upper and outer incisors can hold and tear any flesh while the conical premolars are capable of breaking the heaviest bones. They have well designed carnassial teeth for slicing thick hide and gristle. Hyenas are also equipped with an acute sense of smell to find food sources. Tracks and Signs Brown hyena tracks are difficult to tell apart from those left by a spotted Hyena. Occasionally, brown hyena tracks have hair marks surrounding the toes and the difference is size between front and hind feet is often markedly larger. Other hyena evidence includes faecal middens that are used as territorial markers and anal pastings on grass stalks. Spotted hyenas leave one brown pasting whereas brown hyenas leave two pastings one brown and one black. Hyenas faeces often turn white because of the large bone content in their diet. Global Vision International 17

18 LARGE HERBIVORES AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (Loxodonta africana) African elephants are the largest land mammals. Males weigh kg and females kg. Males have a rounded forehead when viewed from the side and generally have thicker tusks. Female have a flattened and pointed foreheads and their tusks are generally more slender. Elephants are very adaptable in their habitat requirements, however, they are water dependant and require about 200l of water a day. Life expectancy is about 65 years and is dependent on their dentition. Elephants only have 6 sets of teeth during a lifetime. Once all the sets of teeth have been used and the last pair is too worn to break up food material, old individuals will die of starvation. The tusks of an elephant are their incisor teeth. Although the only way to accurately determine an elephant s age is by its teeth, there are numerous ways that some idea of their age can be determined in the field. These include shoulder height, the depth of the indentations on the side of their foreheads, the size of the hourglass shape of the head and the length and thickness of their tusks. In older males, the thickness of the base of the trunk can also be used for ageing. Field Age Criteria for Aging African Elephant Thermoregulation Elephants have no sweat glands and, therefore, have other ways to prevent overheating. They have large ears with big veins that they flap to cool to the blood going to the brain. They also engage in mud bathing, swimming, water spraying and dust bathing to cool themselves. Sun protection and protection against ectoparasites are the other reasons they mud and dust bath. Social Structure Females live in breeding herds that consist of related females (sisters or daughters). Males leave their natal herd when they reach adulthood at approximately 15 years of age and may spend most of their time in established bull areas separate from the herds. They form loose associations with other bulls as well as breeding herds. Bulls join herds when in musth to search for females in oestrus. Global Vision International 18

19 Communication Elephants communicate almost constantly. They vocalize mostly on a low frequency called infrasound that is below the hearing of humans. The rumbles we can hear are part of the low frequency communication. Elephants can trumpet loudly when excited. In herds they also use touch and smell to greet and identify individuals. Reproduction Musth Bull elephants go through periods of high testosterone levels called musth. This is indicated by swollen temporal glands and temporal secretion. He has a distinct musth smell resulting from fungal growth due to continuous urine dribbling and wet hind legs. Bulls in musth are generally more aggressive and their behaviour can be very unpredictable. However, oestrus females will prefer to mate with a musth bull. Musth periods can vary in length from a few days to a few months dependant on bulls age. Generally the older and more dominant bulls tend to be in musth for longer periods. Temporal gland secretion level in an elephant bull in musth Temporal gland swelling in an elephant bull in musth Breeding Females come into their first oestrous cycle at about years old. Elephants have a long gestation of about 22 months. Generally they give birth to a single calf that weighs approximately 100 kg at birth. Calves stay close to their mother for their first year and are generally weaned at three years old when the next newborn arrives. Diet Elephants are bulk feeders, consuming about 150 kg of food a day. They eat grass, leaves, branches, bark, roots and fruit, using their trunk and tusks to feed. Tracks and Signs Elephants walk on their toes and have a thick cartilage layer that allows them to walk very softly. Each elephant print is unique, just like a human s fingerprint. Elephant signs in the bush include debarked trees, mud on trees from rubbing and holes dug for water or roots/bulbs. Global Vision International 19

20 Conservation On small, enclosed reserves, population control of elephant is important. Elephants are destructive feeders and high numbers can be detrimental to the environment. Present strategies to decrease this impact include: increasing the conservation area (dropping fences), translocation, culling, hunting, immunocontraception, sterilization, and introduction of older individuals to normalize the age structure of the population. Elephants are considered of Least Concern in South Africa in the Red Data Book, an improvement on the global status in 1996 of Endangered. RHINOS There are five rhino species left in world. In Africa there is the black and white rhino, while in Asia there are the Indian, Javan and Sumatran rhinos. The most endangered rhino is the Javan rhino, with only 60 surviving individuals. WHITE RHINOS (Ceratotherium simium) The white rhino is the second largest land mammal. Males weigh up to 2000 kg and females about 1600 kg. Their lifespan is approximately years. White rhino are grazers, feeding almost exclusively on grass. Social Structure Males are normally solitary, with dominant bulls usually displaying territoriality by their posture, dung middens and urine spraying. Dominant bulls will allow subordinate males into their territory as long as they show submission. Bulls usually only associate with females in order to check their reproductive status. Adult females live in overlapping home ranges that usually encompass six to seven bull territories. Females usually associate in pairs; typically a female with her most recent offspring, although white rhino can be in groups called crashes of up to 13 animals. Reproduction Gestation is 16 months, at the end of which a single calf is born weighing 40 kg. The calves are weaned at one to one and a half years old. Ties between offspring and mother is only broken when the female gives birth again. BLACK RHINOS (Diceros bicornis) Black rhinos are smaller than white rhinos, weighing up to 1000 kg. Their lifespan is generally years. They are browsers, eating leaves and twigs. Social Structure Male black rhinos are solitary and territorial and mark their territory in a similar way to white rhino males. They might even share midden sites with white rhino, with no competition between the two species. Female black rhinos also use dung middens to defecate, but only dominant males urine spray and drag their feet. Global Vision International 20

21 Adult females live in overlapping home ranges. Black rhino are less social than white rhino; groups seldom number more than four animals. Reproduction Gestation in black rhinos lasts 15 months with a single calf born weighing 40 kg. The young are weaned at about one to one and a half years old. Ties between offspring and mother are only broken when the female gives birth again; usually when the calf is two to four years old. Differences between black and white rhinos Black rhino Smaller size Hooked Lip Browser Young behind mother when walking Larger size Square Lip Grazer White rhino Young in front of mother when walking 15 month gestation 16 month gestation Aggressive More solitary Head held high Dung middens twigs with 45 angles Saddle back (2 humps) Less aggressive More social Head lower Dung middens dried grass Three humps on back Rhinos in General Rhinos have very good hearing and an excellent sense of smell, however their eyesight is very poor. They have no front teeth so their lips are used to gather browse and grass, taking the place of incisors. Rhinos often drink twice daily but can go for two to four days without water. While rhinos look heavy, they are extremely agile and have a top speed of 45 km/hr. Tracks and Signs Rhinos have three toes/hooves and are classed in the same order as zebra (uneven toed ungulates). White rhino tracks are larger and more oval with a prounced W at the back of the track. Black rhinos tracks are smaller and more rounded, and the outer toes tend to stick out more. Rhinos are fond of mud wallows and have favourite rubbing posts such as trees, stumps, or termite mounds, which can indicate their favourite spots. Rhino middens are also a good indication there is a territorial bull in the area. Conservation Poaching is still a big concern in southern Africa. Rhinos horn is made of compacted hair and although it has been chemically tested and shown to have no aphrodisiac qualities, it is still highly sought after in the East. Black rhinos are still hunted for Middle Eastern markets as the horn is made into ceremonial knife handles. Presently white rhinos have made a come back from 150 animals in the 1930s to over 10,000 animals at present and are considered of Least Concern. There are two subspecies of black rhino, one (Diceros bicornis minor) which Global Vision International 21

22 is considered Vulnerable, while the other, the desert black rhino is still considered Critically Endangered with only 30 animals remaining in HIPPOS (Hippopotamus amphibious) Male hippos can weigh up to 2000 kg, while females weigh up to 1700 kg. They are grazers and consume up to 13 kg per day, quite a little considering their size. Typically hippos are active and out of water at night. They will walk up to 30 km per night to reach grazing. Hippos have an approximate lifespan of 35 years. Social structure Hippos live in groups called schools of up to 30. These schools consist of females, young males and a single dominant male. Hippos are territorial and territories are marked by dung scattering and urine spraying by the male and do not extend out of the water. Young males are driven out by the dominant bull at about six years old, while the females remain. Reproduction Gestation length is about eight months, which is short considering the size of the adults. Females give birth to single calves weighing 30 kg, which can suckle underwater. Female hippos mature at five years and the males at six to eight years. Mating takes place underwater. Hippos can hold their breath underwater for up to six minutes. General Information Hippos are responsible for many human deaths; they are very aggressive and territorial. They walk on the bottom of watercourses rather than swimming. Hippos sweat contains a red pigment that acts as a sunscreen. Tracks and Signs Hippos leave an unmistakable four-toed, large, round track. They also use paths routinely in and out of water leaving a distinctive trail. Global Vision International 22

23 SMALLER CARNIVORES AND OTHER INTERESTING MAMMALS Carnivora This order contains mostly meat eaters, however, some carnivora are omnivorous and others insectivorous. Almost all have carnassial teeth which are big premolars adapted for slicing meat. Carnivora includes felines (cats such as lion, leopard and cheetah), canines (dogs such as wild dogs, jackals and foxes), hyenas, mustelids (such as badgers and otters) and viverids (such as mongoose, civets and genets). Felines Caracal Red cat with shortish tail Long black tufts on ears Striking black facial marks Largest of the smaller cats stands up to knee high Widespread in southern Africa Wide range of prey species up to smaller antelope Generally solitary Nocturnal African Wild Cat Looks like a tabby cat with long legs Red-russet tufts on top of ears Can crossbreed with domestic cats so the genetic integrity of this species is threatened Take prey species up to size of hares, the young of small antelope and birds as big as guinea fowls Usually active at night Serval Servals are a medium sized spotted cat with distinct short tail, long legs and very large ears for its size. It uses these traits to listen for prey and then acrobatically pounce. Global Vision International 23

24 Canines Black-backed Jackal Black tip to tail Omnivorous, does scavenge Can catch anything up to young antelope Nocturnal usually Long-range contact call is wailing and eerie Very common Territorial in pairs Mate for life Both parents care for pups regurgitate food Side-striped Jackal White tip to tail Pale saddle on back Similar social behaviour as black-backed jackal Generally distributed in more arid regions More rare than black-backed jackal Mustelids Honey Badger Stocky silver/white and black animal (this pattern is a warning to other animals to stay away!) Has a reputation for toughness and tenacity Usually solitary Mostly nocturnal Very long sharp claws used for digging into ground and rotten trees for food and for climbing trees for food and shelter Eats everything from beetle grubs to venomous snakes, raids beehives, scavenges etc. Status: Vunerable as habitat declines Global Vision International 24

25 Viverrids African Civet Hunched posture, black and white spotted/striped Nocturnal, solitary, terrestrial mostly Omnivorous fish, rodents, insects, fruit and frequently grass (one of few animals that can ingest millipedes) Defecates in middens Scent marks with anal gland lasts up to three months Genets There are two species: Large spotted and small spotted genet Strictly nocturnal, usually solitary Omnivorous Mostly small mammals, birds, insects Forage on ground usually, but very agile in trees Large Spotted Genet Also known as the rusty spotted genet Larger more rusty spots Tip of tail is black White on chin Small Spotted Genet Smaller black spots Tip of tail is white Chin is usually dark Global Vision International 25

26 Herpestidae Slender Mongoose Solitary long mongoose Many colour variants but usually grey brown. Black tip on tail Mostly insectivorous with some reptiles and small mammals in diet Active in day Banded Mongoose Greyish mongoose with dark bands on back Mainly insectivorous especially beetles and their grubs Active during the day Live in groups up to 30 Forage together but each mongoose finds its own food The group posts alarm sentries on look out for predators Territorial and can have clashes between groups Several females will breed in the group all group members care for young Dwarf Mongoose Smallest African carnivore Small dark brown mongoose living in groups Active in day, insectivorous Only dominant pair breeds Other Mammals of Interest Other more rare animals we may see on the reserve Aardwolf Thought to be related to hyenas Small jackal sized Nocturnal, solitary Eats almost exclusively harvester termites (up to per night) Teeth are too small to prey on mammals Global Vision International 26

27 Aardvark Unique animal - only one in the world in its order Large males weigh up to 65 kg Eats ants and termites Have massive claws for digging into termite mounds Nocturnal digs burrows for shelter Its disused burrows are used by at least 17 other mammal species plus birds, insects and reptiles Status: Vulnerable Pangolin or Scaly Anteater Covered in unmistakable hard scales Eats mainly ants and some termites Nocturnal, solitary Rolls up to protect head and soft under parts Scales are sought after for traditional medicine Status: Vulnerable Often roll up around electric fences and get killed, susceptible to insecticides African Porcupine Unmistakable Largest rodent in Africa 25 kg Quills are not barbed and cannot shoot out Will back into a threat and some quills are loosely attached in skin so can fall out when they touch skin Lives in groups but only the dominant pair breeds mate for life Nocturnal Dig for roots Springhare Looks like a miniature kangaroo Also a rodent, one metre long nose to tail Black tip to tail Move in long jumps/bounds Grass eater Strictly nocturnal Dig their own burrows up to 46 m long with 2-11 entrances Global Vision International 27

28 Rock Hyrax or Rock Dassie Not a rodent Distantly related to elephants Incisors are tusks Antibodies are similar Internal testicles Leg/foot structure similar Used to be the dominant grazer on the continent before ruminants/antelope Lives in colonies on rock cliffs Feeds on grass, leaves, mosses etc. BIRDS Birds are a major component of the food cycle. They are a food source for a number of animals ranging from snakes to sharks. Some of the roles birds play in the environment include insect population control, pollination of flowers, seed dispersal and they can also be vectors of disease. By being aware of birds in the environment, it can help our research. For example, vultures can indicate the presence of kills or red-billed oxpeckers can alert us of the presence of large animals. Identification of Birds With close to bird species in the southern African subregion (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana and Namibia), it is quite daunting to try and identify one bird. However, certain steps can be followed in order to narrow down the process and make identification easier. Factors used to identify birds GISS General Indication of Size and Shape (developed in World War 2 for fighter pilots to identify enemy aircraft). Use birds that you know the size of such as a chicken, a parrot or dove. Ask yourself is this one smaller or larger? Is the bird more slender or fatter etc? Beak consider the shape as well as colour. Various beak shapes might describe the bird s feeding behaviour (insect feeders versus seed eaters versus nectar feeders). Legs and feet look at length as well as colour. Where is the colour e.g. Egrets these birds are all white but some have black legs with yellow feet and vice versa, while in some the legs are all black. Perching birds have a tendon in their palms that snaps closed around a branch when they land. Terrestrial birds such as the ostrich do not have this ability. There are different foot structures for different types of birds perching, wading, webbed etc. Colour and Markings Where does the coloration occur and what types of markings are there? Speckles, arrow marked, barring etc. Are there any markings around eyes, etc? Behaviour What is the bird doing? Is it on the ground or in a tree? Is it social or gregarious? What is its flight behaviour? Is it noisy? Habitat Where are you? You will not look for an ocean bird in the desert etc. Distribution This is especially useful when trying to distinguish between two similar birds. Check if they both occur in the area. Global Vision International 28

29 SNAKES, SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS A venomous animal is an animal that bites or stings another and injects venom. Poisonous refers to a toxic substance (poison) that is eaten or ingested by an animal. Generally poisons are produced by plants. Most venomous animals can be eaten as the venom is digested by stomach acid. Consequently, the correct term for dangerous snakes, scorpions and spiders is venomous NOT poisonous. Uses of venom Although prey immobilisation is a common use of venom, venom can also be used to digest prey before consuming it. Venom is also useful for protection and defence. Types of venom 1. Cytotoxic venom leads to tissue destruction around the site of the bite and causes localized bleeding. Animals that use cytotoxic venom include adders, violin spiders, sac spiders and six-eyed crab spiders. No scorpions use cytotoxic venom. 2. Neurotoxic venom affects the nervous system and causes paralysis of the muscles. Typically symptoms are nausea and vomiting, with difficulty breathing. Animals that use neurotoxic venom include cobras, mambas, Buthidae and Parabuthus scorpions, black button spider, brown button spiders and the lesser baboon spider. 3. Haemotoxic venom affects the ability of blood to coagulate causing continued, spontaneous bleeding. Animals that use haemotoxic venom include the boomslang and vine snake. SNAKES Snakes are classified by their dental structure. Black fanged snakes These snakes have 1-3 pairs of recurved, grooved fangs situated towards the back of the upper jaw. They tend to have hemotoxic venom if they are venomous. e.g. boomslang (photo) and vine snake Fixed front fanged snakes These snakes have specialized fangs with a tubular structure that allows the injection of venom. Fangs of spitting snakes are modified to spray venom. Most of these snakes use neurotoxic venom. e.g. cobras (photo), rinkhals and mambas Global Vision International 29

30 Hinged front fanged snakes These snakes have a pair of large, functional fangs at the front of the upper jaw. The fangs have a hinge mechanism that allows them to fold flat when they are not in use. Most of these snakes use cytotoxic venom. e.g. adders (photo) Solid toothed non-venomous snakes These snakes have solid, recurved cylindrical and sharply pointed teeth. There is no transport mechanism in these teeth for venom and most of these snakes rely on constriction to immobilize their prey. e.g. African rock python Interesting facts about snakes: Some snakes can fake death as a defence mechanism (e.g. Rinkhals). Venomous snakes can sometimes only strike with a dry bite (e.g. cobras) and choose whether to release the venom when they bite. Newborn venomous snakes are just as venomous as adults. SCORPIONS Thin tailed Scorpions These scorpions are non venomous to humans, however, they still possess weak venom. They are characterized by a slender tail and big pincers. The reason for this is that they need to grip their prey for longer as their venom is weaker and takes a longer time to take effect. Thick tailed Scorpions These scorpions are venomous to humans. They have a thick tail and small pincers. Their powerful venom works faster on their prey. Therefore, there is little need to hold on for long. Venomous Scorpions Parabuthus transvaalicus Parabuthus mossambicensis Global Vision International 30

31 Interesting Fact about Scorpions: Scorpions fluoresce under ultraviolet light; the glow is a result of light reflected by the hyaline layer in their exoskeletons. SPIDERS What makes spiders different from insects? Spiders Insects Legs 8 legs 6 legs Breathing Booklungs Tracheae Digestion Takes place outside Takes place inside body body Poison Present in all but 1 Absent in most family Silk Always present Only present at stage of cocooning Venomous spiders: Neurotoxic venom Brown button Spider (photo) Identified by a red hour-glass on ventral side of abdomen. Black button spider Identified orange-red marking on the dorsal side of the abdomen, however it can be completely black. Small Baboon Spider The only medically important baboon spider species. This spider is normally relaxed and slow moving, but can become aggressive when taunted. If any adult baboon spider is removed from its mature barrow it cannot dig another one. Cytotoxic venom Violin Spider (photo) This spider is free running and ground living. It has a characteristic dark brown or black violin shape marking on the carapace. Global Vision International 31

32 Sac Spider The sac spider is also a free roaming spider. These spiders are responsible for 90% of South African spider bites. Bites are painless but destroy a large amount of tissue. Six-eyed Desert Crab Spider One of the most venomous spiders in the world. These spiders do not use webs; they ambush their prey. They hide by throwing sand over their bodies with their legs. Red Roman Spiders / Solifugae Red Romans are large eight-legged invertebrates that look similar to spiders. They are generally nocturnal and often are attracted to light or fires. These animals are not true spiders and are harmless. They have no fangs, no venom glands and no silk apparatus. They digest food internally, whereas spiders use venom to digest their food externally. IN GENERAL No expedition members are allowed to catch any snakes, spiders or scorpions, even if they are qualified. Please call a staff member to remove them from unwanted places! Identification of these invertebrates is difficult, therefore treat everything as if it is venomous. Don t fear them, but respect them! Global Vision International 32

33 TELEMETRY AND SPOTLIGHTING This section covers the techniques and tools we use to do research. These techniques are tested and expedition members need a 100% pass mark to be allowed to participate in these activities on the reserve. These techniques are important in that, if done properly, they allow us to do our work efficiently and safely. Telemetry There are a number of different types of collars/implants that can be used to monitor the locations and movement of animals. Telemetry (VHF) collars are only tracked via radio waves with telemetry equipment. Cell phone collars use a combination of telemetry, but also download GPS positions on a computer via cell phone towers. These collars have a counter weight so the transmitter remains on the top of the animal. Satellite collars also use both telemetry and download GPS positions to a computer via satellites. These collars are also counter weighted. Radio implants can also be used and can be implanted into stomach linings (cats), in horns (rhinos) or onto tail feathers (birds such as ground hornbills). Telemetry Procedure Set the correct frequency for the collar/implant you are searching for. Always start with a vertical search on frequency (signal or no signal). Vertical means that the aerial looks like an H when scanning. This is the position that can pick up signal the easiest, but is not accurate for determining the signal s direction Then try with a horizontal search on frequency. This is to pick up directional signal. When signal is heard: o Get the general direction of the strongest range of signal o Turn the fine-tune dial slowly off the frequency to determine the actual direction (always turn it towards the negative). The closer you are to the animal, the further you will be able to turn the fine-tune dial and hear signal o Check behind you for back signal o Tell the driver which direction the strongest signal is. Vertical check Horizontal check Mobile tracking Global Vision International 33

34 Set the correct frequency. Turn the fine-tune dial off frequency to determine direction. Stop the driver when signal is at a 90 angle to the road (give direction in chronological clock time e.g. 3 o clock to the vehicle). While driving off road frequently update the driver and first give the direction (in chronological clock time) and then the distance (as it stands on the fine-tune dial). Give the information clearly to the driver, but without being too loud to scare animals off (telemetry person to sit on front back seat of truck). Telemetry person only gives the direction of the animal.the driver will pick the appropriate route to get there. Telemetry tips A vertical signal is a non-directional signal. A horizontal signal is directional. Only turn the fine tune dial when holding the aerial still The signal of a mobile animal comes and goes (the signal beeps are not evenly loud). If one struggles to get direction between a back and front signal, wind the fine turn dial down. If the signal suddenly disappears while tracking, wind the fine turn dial back to the starting frequency. If one is too close to the collar to determine direction (a strong -5 signal) and one still does not have visual, turn the volume down. Telemetry Rules Always check that you are on the correct frequency for the animal you are tracking. Always stand up while doing telemetry except for while mobile tracking and when close to or within sightings (i.e. a -2 frequency). Always hang the telemetry box around your neck while doing telemetry. Remember your head-torch as you may be doing telemetry after dark. Spotlighting The spotlight is ONLY to be used on nocturnal animals, animals that are active at night time. - e.g. lions, leopard, springhare, bush-baby etc. - nocturnal animals eyes generally reflect a reddish colour in the spotlight. Please do not spotlight diurnal animals, that is animals that are active during the day. - e.g. elephant, rhino, any antelope, giraffe, zebra, wildebeest etc. - diurnal animals eyes generally reflect a greenish-white colour in the spotlight. NB. Always check with staff if you are not sure if you can use a spotlight or not. Spotlight Rules No diurnal animals to be spotlighted Do not shine towards oncoming traffic or at buildings Do not shine in the cab, shine over the roof Do not shout when you spot something, just flash your light up and down on the road in front of the driver to indicate you ve spotted something o the driver will stop and reverse o point with your light on what you have seen Never shine the light into others eyes Avoid illuminating others that are on the back of the vehicle. Global Vision International 34

35 Move the light from left to right and back at a regular, but slow pace Beware of flying insects at the light and at your eyes there are safety glasses to wear if you prefer. Do not shine directly in any animals eyes. DATA Generally data is collected in the field daily and recorded by an allocated data person under the supervision of a staff member. This is to ensure that the data is kept as accurate and consistent as possible. There are numerous data sheets which are used in the field. How these need to be filled in will be explained to you in due course. One of the types of data that we collect includes full ratings, which give us an idea of when an animal last ate. Below is an example of a full rating guide to estimate as to whether a carnivore has had a recent meal or not. This estimation can ONLY be made if the animal is standing. Global Vision International 35

36 VEHICLES Vehicle Checks are done twice a day before research drive by the person on vehicle duty. Morning checks are:. Tyre Pressure - Front / Rear 1.6 bar - Spare 1.6 bar Checking the items of the vehicle box and placing it on the vehicle. This box contains: First Aid Kit Spare batteries for telemetry sets and GPS units Spare Telemetry cables Tow rope Emergency Action Plans Vials and sticky labels for faecal and tick samples Suncream Toilet paper Towel Jumper leads Spot light Afternoon checks are: Under the bonnet: Oil Brake Fluid Clutch Fluid Coolant level Powersteering Fluid In the cab: Jack Wheel Spanner Wooden Block Fire extinguisher General: Clean vehicle thoroughly (inside and out) Check Tyre Pressure - Front / Rear 1.6 bar -Spare 1.6 bar Check contents of vehicle box and place on vehicle Nuts secure on each wheel Global Vision International 36

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