IS PREY DEFAUNATION A POTENTIAL CAUSE OF CARNIVORE RANGE LOSS AND EVENTUAL EXTINCTION?

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1 DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES IS PREY DEFAUNATION A POTENTIAL CAUSE OF CARNIVORE RANGE LOSS AND EVENTUAL EXTINCTION? Hanna Svensson Degree project for Master of Science (120 hec) with a major in Biology BIO717, Degree project in Evolutionary and behavioural ecology, 60 hec Second cycle Semester/year: Autumn Spring 2018 Supervisor: Sören Faurby, Department of Biological & Environmental Sciences Examiner: Bengt Oxelman, Department of Biological & Environmental Sciences

2 Table of contents Abstract... 3 Introduction... 3 Aim of the study... 5 Method... 5 Results... 7 Defaunation Body mass relation to prey loss Discussion Prey loss Range overlap Could this be used as a new conservation strategy? Conclusion Acknowledgement Popular science summary References Supplementary information

3 Abstract Defaunation, the loss of animals from ecological communities, have been emphasized as a likely threat to the conservation of carnivores. However, not much is known about the potential threat that defaunation presents to terrestrial carnivores that feed on mammals. Therefore, the aim was to explore this threat and if it s a potential cause of carnivore range loss and extinction. A new diet database was generated in collaboration with Owen Middleton for the terrestrial members of the order Carnivora having mammals as a primary prey item, resulting in diet records collected from 566 published literature sources. For Felids (cat species) an existing diet database was used. To estimate the potential threat to carnivores from the loss of their prey, overlap range maps of predator and their primary and secondary prey species were created. These were compared to maps where prey species classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN were removed. Two carnivores experienced a 100% loss of their primary prey range, Striped Hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) and Sechuran Fox (Lycalopex sechurae). The Brown bear (Ursus arctos) with 48% loss and the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) with 46% loss experienced the second highest loss. It s important to remember that these ranges only display the mammalian prey species of the carnivores and not the entire diet. The Striped Hyaenas diet consists of 88,76% of mammals compared to the 60,90% of the Sechuran Fox and 93,13% of the Dhole s diet. For the omnivorous Brown bear only 38,51% of its diet is mammalian and it is therefore not as affected by the primary prey range loss as strict carnivores. Defaunation of primary prey will probably result in carnivore range loss and can be a cause for future extinctions. Sammanfattning Defaunation, förlusten av djur från ekologiska samhällen har betonats som ett troligt hot mot bevarandet av rovdjur. Men inte mycket är känt om det potentiella hot som defaunation utgör för marklevande rovdjur som livnär sig på däggdjur. Därför var syftet att undersöka detta hot och om det är en potentiell orsak till minskat utbredningsområde och utrotning av rovdjur. I samarbete med Owen Middleton skapades en ny dietdatabas för de landlevande medlemmarna i ordningen Carnivora som har däggdjur som primärt bytesdjur, vilket resulterade i dietregistreringar hämtade ifrån 566 publicerade litteraturkällor. För kattdjur användes en befintlig dietdatabas. För att uppskatta det potentiella hotet mot rovdjur från förlusten av sitt bytesdjur, skapades överlappskartor för rovdjur och deras primära och sekundära bytesdjursarter. Dessa jämfördes med kartor där bytesdjur som är klassificerade som sårbara eller värre av IUCN togs bort. Två rovdjur hade en 100% förlust av utbredningsområde för deras primära bytesdjur, Randig hyena (Hyaena hyaena) och Sechuran räv (Lycalopex sechurae). Brunbjörn (Ursus arctos) med en förlust av 48% och Dhol (Cuon alpinus) med 46% hade den näst högsta förlusten. Det är viktigt att komma ihåg att dessa utbredningsområden endast visar delen av däggdjur i rovdjurens diet och inte hela dieten. Randig hyenas diet består till 88,76% av däggdjur jämfört med Sechuran rävs 60,90% och Dhols 93,13%. Den allätande Brunbjörnens diet består endast till 38,51% av däggdjur och är därför inte lika påverkad av minskade utbredningsområden hos dess primära bytesdjur som strikta rovdjur är. Defaunation av primärt bytesdjur kommer troligen att leda till minskning av rovdjurens utbredningsområden och kan orsaka framtida utrotningar. Introduction Right now, we re living in an ongoing global mass extinction (Barnosky et al., 2011) with biodiversity severely threatened by human activity, most of which are linked to mankind s expanding ecological footprint, invading natural habitats for food production and living space, driving climate change and polluting the world s oceans and rivers. Secondary threats come from 3

4 alien invasive species introductions (Mooney and Cleland, 2001; Johnson, 2006) and any other alterations to functional ecosystems. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) have assessed the status for all species where data were available. The IUCN Red List is widely recognized as the most comprehensive, objective global approach for evaluating the conservation status of plant and animal species. (IUCN, 2017). Mammal decline is a global issue with almost one-quarter of the species (22.2 %) globally threatened or extinct, representing 1,219 species (Figure 1) (IUCN, 2018). Ceballos et al. (2017) found that of 177 mammals all species had lost 30% or more of their geographic ranges and more than 40% of the species have experienced severe population declines (>80% range loss). Figure 1. Proportion of mammal species in different threat categories, graph from IUCN (2018) The geographic range of species are often composed of numerous local populations interacting. Range loss occurs when local populations disappear from their natural habitat, leading to species becoming extirpated or locally extinct. Concentrating on range loss and the extirpation of these local populations can help guide and prioritize conservation efforts before population size drop to critical levels (Caughley, 1994). Even though a species is still common globally, studying range loss can identify where ecosystems are losing local populations of that species (Ceballos and Ehrlich, 2002) and thereby help find tools to prevent further loss before the species become 4

5 globally threatened. Increases in species extinction risk are typically linked to the loss of individual populations and associated declines in geographical range (Ceballos and Ehrlich, 2002). Recently several carnivores have experienced substantial population declines, geographic range reductions, and fragmentation of their habitats (Morrison et al., 2007; Ceballos et al., 2015). 61% of large carnivore species ( 15 kg) are listed by the IUCN as near threatened, vulnerable or worse and are at risk of local or global extinction (Ripple et al., 2014). The conservation of large carnivores is important for maintaining the structure and function of diverse ecosystems (Ripple et al., 2014). If one or several parts of the ecosystem is affected or changed the consequences could be catastrophic. Understanding the importance of predator prey interactions for species diversity and community composition is a central theme in ecology. Sandom et al. (2013) discovered strong associations between predator and prey richness in a bottom-up direction at global and regional scales, predator richness was highly linked to prey richness. Krantz (1970) claim that prey diversity loss may partly account for the extinction of large carnivores. Healthy ecosystems depend on predators and conservation focused on these species as well as their prey has the potential to benefit a wide range of animals (Ripple et al., 2014). Ripple and Van Valkenburgh (2010) hypothesized that large carnivores, combined with humans hunting, are driving the decline of prey availability and prey richness through top-down pressure. This increase in top-down trophic pressure results in the decline of large carnivores and alters the herbivore community dynamics with further, potentially, cascading implications through the ecosystem (Estes et al., 2011). Prey loss threatens predator survival with cascading effects on the ecosystem and its effectiveness as predator loss leads to less interactions with remaining prey species (Ripple and Beschta, 2007; Manning et al., 2009; Oriol Cotterill et al., 2015). Although prey loss is potentially an important threat to large carnivores not much effort has been made to assess the importance of prey defaunation as a threat to large carnivores (Ripple et al., 2014). Research emphasizing the effects of climate change, and other environmental factors on species richness (Field et al., 2009) as well as human impacts on biodiversity (Sanderson et al., 2002) is fairly common. Prey species threats are scarcely examined, yet, constitutes a potentially huge risk for the long-term persistence of carnivores (Sandom et al., 2017). Sandom et al. (2018) concluded that for large felids to have a secure future, the current decline in prey species must be prevented and ultimately reversed. Threatened and functionally extinct prey species can in the foreseeable future lead to the loss of at least one big cat species and potentially entire felid communities (Sandom et al., 2018). Aim of the study Explore the threat that defaunation presents to carnivores and if the loss of prey species is a potential cause of carnivore extinction and range loss. Method A new diet database was generated for the extant 116 terrestrial members of the order Carnivora (IUCN ) having mammals as a primary prey item. Mammals in the order Carnivora are often referred to as carnivores. This can be confusing, however, since in both popular and scientific usage "carnivore" also means simply "meat-eating" and can refer to all species eating meat. For clarity, the order Carnivora was the only one included in this database and are hereafter referred to as carnivores. 5

6 All papers returned from a Web of Science search with the name from one of the 116 carnivores combined with AND diet was reviewed for information about their diet. This resulted in carnivore diet data being collected from 566 papers. The dataset includes data on (1) species and taxonomic groups (genera, family, order) which have been recorded as prey; (2) a quantitative record of dietary importance of each recorded prey; (3) sample size; (4) where the record was made; (5) what type of sample; (6) the data collection method that was used; and (7) reference (supplementary Table 1). For all 116 carnivores studied a total of diet records was collected. Prey data were recorded at species resolution when possible. Where species level diet data were not available, the highest taxonomic resolution available was used (genus, family, or order). Where common names were used, they were matched to the IUCN species lists where possible. Failing that, an internet search was made in an attempt to assign the common name to a species or taxonomic group. Quantitative (frequency of occurrence, proportion of occurrence, or proportion of biomass consumed) diet data were recorded for each diet item reported. Diet data were collected by Hanna Svensson and Owen Middleton, university of Sussex. To ensure identical collection, a quality control of 10% overlap of data (60%-60%) was used. All data handling was performed in R. An estimate of total diet data quality for each carnivore was calculated as the total number of samples across all sites. A was considered to have Very High data quality if it scored 10,000 or more, High if it scored between 1,000 and 10,000, Poor if it scored less than 1,000 and Very Poor where no quantitative data was recorded. 29 carnivores were recorded to have Very High quality data, 15 as High, 18 as Poor and 54 carnivores were recorded to have Very Poor data. To include as many carnivores as possible the species listed as Very Poor were given diet data from all carnivore species within the same genera when data was available. Of the total diet records collected, were mammal species, of these, 625 mammal species were listed as being carnivore prey at a species level. The remaining mammal records were on 134 genus level, 116 family level and 107 order level. Only species recorded on a species level were extracted and analyzed for this study. To estimate the relative importance of each mammalian prey species in each carnivore s range a secondary database was created for the extracted data. In the secondary database, two strategies were used to assign prey to their categories depending on the quality of the carnivore s diet data. For carnivores with Very High data quality, the mean of quantitative diet data was used for each prey species recorded. For carnivores with Poor and High data quality the maximum quantitative score was used. The relatively large number of sites for Very High data quality increases the probability of secondary prey-species being recorded as a primary prey-species. To deal with this, and because the larger number of dietary records allow it, the mean of the quantitative diet was used to assign dietary importance. This approach would be desirable for all carnivores to ensure the primary prey is a selective category of the most important prey-species; however, because of the limited diet data available for the other carnivores it was assume that the diet data available for them are representative of the carnivore s typical primary prey. All mammal species recorded on a species level within each carnivore s range were assigned to one of three dietary importance categories: primary prey (1); secondary prey (2); occasional prey (3). Prey species dietary importance were classified from their quantitative data, where primary prey were species that appeared in 20% of the diet samples from each literature source, secondary prey appeared in 5% and <20% of the diet samples, and occasional prey appeared in <5% of the diet samples (Kissling et al., 2014). Only primary and secondary mammalian prey on a species level were included in the analysis. Diet data for Felids (cats) was taken from Sandom et al. (2017) and included in the analysis. 6

7 Range maps were created from raster layers taken from Faurby S (raw data from IUCN version ) for all of the carnivores. The carnivores overlap with each of its primary prey species were combined into one total prey range. Based on these maps a new set of range maps were created with the exclusion of primary prey classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN. This was repeated for all carnivores with their secondary prey species. From the range maps the area percentages of the overlapping regions were analyzed. Results Table 1 show the proportion of different food types for the carnivores, felids not included in this table because this information was not available in the database from (Sandom et al., 2017). Even though food type data weren t available the author stated that the diet database compiled for the 32 extant felids only included species that primarily prey on mammals (thus excluding Pardofelis badia, Pardofelis marmorata, Prionailurus planiceps and Prionailurus viverrinus), as identified by Kissling et al. (2014). Species that highly depend on mammals for their diet is the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) and the Red wolf (Canis rufus) with the mammalian portion of their diets reaching over 90% each. One carnivore, the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), relies entirely on mammals with the recorded food items consisting exclusively of mammalian species. Table 1. The proportion of different food types for all carnivores (felids not included). Mammals: vertebrates within the class Mammalia, Plant: a living organism such as trees, bushes and grass, Bird: a warm-blooded egg-laying vertebrate with wings and feathers, Fish: a limbless cold-blooded vertebrate with gills and fins, Invertebrate: an animal lacking a backbone, Other: foodtype unspecified by sorce, Reptile/Amphibian: a tetrapod in the class Reptilia/ a ectothermic, tetrapod of the class Amphibia, Anthropogenic: trash and livestock binomal Mammal Plant Bird Fish Invertebrate Other Reptile/ Anthropogenic Total Amphibian Atilax paludinosus (29,0%) 4 (3,0%) 26 (19,5%) Cheetah (19,5%) (8,2%) (9,0%) (11,2%) Bassariscus astutus 1 (20,0%) (20,0%) - 1 (20,0%) Ringtail (20,0%) (20,0%) Canis aureus (7,0%) - 35 (5,8%) 2 (0,3%) Golden Jackal (60,2%) (8,7%) (15,0%) (1,8%) Canis latrans (7,5%) - 36 (3,0%) 21 (1,8%) Coyote (69,9%) (9,4%) (7,2%) (0,8%) Canis lupus (1,7%) - 13 (1,0%) 13 (1,0%) Gray Wolf (82,1%) (8,4%) (5,1%) (0,3%) Canis mesomelas (5,7%) - 41 (4,6%) 13 (1,4%) Black-backed Jackal (68,0%) (11,3%) (7,3%) (1,3%) Canis rufus (6,9%) Red Wolf (90,6%) (2,3%) Canis simensis Ethiopian Wolf (83,3%) (8,3%) (8,3%) Chrysocyon brachyurus (7,8%) - 31 (8,3%) 4 (1,0%) Maned Wolf (62,8%) (11,0%) (8,3%) (0,5%) Civettictis civetta 2 (16,6%) (16,6%) 2 (16,6%) 2 (16,6%) African Civet (16,6%) (16,6%) Crocuta crocuta (1,3%) 14 (6,3%) Spotted Hyaena (88,1%) (0,4%) (3,1%) (0,4%) Cryptoprocta ferox (6,3%) - 8 (17,0%) Fossa (61,7%) (8,5%) (6,3%) Cuon alpinus (0,8%) 5 (1,3%) Dhole (93,1%) (1,0%) (3,5%) Cynictis penicillata 9 (15,2%) (66,1%) - 5 (8,4%) Yellow (6,7%) (3,3%) Galictis cuja (8,4%) - 11 (13,2%) Lesser Grison (59,0%) (4,8%) (10,8%) (3,6%) Galictis vittata (8,4%) - 11 (13,2%) Greater Grison (59,0%) (4,8%) (10,8%) (3,6%) 7

8 binomal Mammal Plant Bird Fish Invertebrate Other Reptile/ Anthropogenic Total Amphibian Genetta abyssinica (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) Ethiopian Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta angolensis (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) Miombo Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta bourloni (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) Bourlon's Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta cristata (10,7%) - 6 (21,4%) Crested Genet (42,8%) (14,2%) (10,7%) Genetta Genetta (11,1%) 26 (2,3%) 106 (9,3%) 20 (1,7%) Common Genet (54,6%) (8,7%) (10,7%) (1,1%) Genetta johnstoni (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) Johnston's Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta maculate (9,0%) - 2 (4,5%) Large-spotted Genet (54,5%) (13,6%) (18,1%) Genetta pardina (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) Pardine Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta poensis (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) King Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta servalina (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) Servaline Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta thierryi (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) Hausa Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Genetta tigrine (5,9%) - 5 (5,9%) 2 (2,3%) 84 - Cape Genet (66,6%) (9,5%) (5,9%) (3,5%) Genetta victoriae (11,8%) - 73 (10,0%) 6 (0,8%) Giant Genet (56,3%) (8,9%) (10,8%) (1,2%) Gulo gulo (1,9%) - 4 (1,9%) Wolverine (86,1%) (0,4%) (9,5%) Herpestes (28,1%) - 31 (25,6%) 3 (2,4%) 121 auropunctatus (24,7%) (9,9%) (9,0%) - Small Indian Herpestes brachyurus - Short-tailed Herpestes flavescens - Kaokoveld Slender Herpestes fuscus - Brown Herpestes javanicus - Javan Herpestes ochraceus - Somali Slender Herpestes semitorquatus - Collared Herpestes urva - Crab-eating Herpestes vitticollis - Stripe-necked Hyaena hyaena - Striped Hyaena Lycalopex culpaeus - Culpeo Lycalopex fulvipes - Darwin's Fox Lycalopex griseus - Chilla Lycalopex gymnocercus - Pampas Fox Lycalopex sechurae - Sechuran Fox 52 (28,4%) 52 (28,4%) 52 (28,4%) 26 (30,2%) 52 (28,4%) 52 (28,4%) 14 (32,5%) 52 (28,4%) 79 (88,7%) 138 (71,1%) 201 (60,9%) 44 (55,0%) 17 (33,3%) 201 (60,9%) 23 (12,5%) 23 (12,5%) 15 (8,2%) 15 (8,2%) (12,5%) (8,2%) 11 6 (12,7%) (6,9%) (12,5%) (8,2%) 23 (12,5%) 15 (8,2%) 7 4 (16,2%) (9,3%) (12,5%) (8,2%) 4 (2,1%) 4 (2,1%) 8 56 (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) 183 (2,1%) - 35 (40,7%) 4 (4,6%) 4 (4,6%) (2,1%) 4 (2,1%) 4 (9,3%) 4 (2,1%) 56 (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) (11,6%) 1 (2,3%) 8 (18,6%) (30,6%) 5 (2,7%) 27 (14,7%) 1 (0,5%) (4,4%) 3 (3,3%) - 2 (2,2%) 1 (1,1%) (3,0%) 1 (0,5%) 9 (4,6%) 8 (4,1%) 194 (5,1%) (11,3%) (7,2%) 1(0,3%) 25 (7,5%) 8 (2,4%) 330 (7,8%) (13,6%) (12,5%) - 6 (7,5%) - 80 (6,2%) (18,7%) (13,7%) - 10 (19,6%) - 51 (19,6%) (13,7%) (7,2%) 1(0,3%) 25 (7,5%) 8 (2,4%) 330 (7,8%) (13,6%)

9 binomal Mammal Plant Bird Fish Invertebrate Other Reptile/ Amphibian Anthropogenic Total Lycalopex vetulus 2 (40,0%) (20,0%) Hoary Fox (20,0%) (20,0%) Lycaon pictus African Wild Dog (100,0%) Martes Americana (5,3%) 5 (1,0%) 5 (1,0%) 1 (0,2%) American Marten (72,8%) (6,5%) (9,6%) (3,4%) Martes flavigula (14,0%) 2 (1,5%) 20 (15,6%) Yellow-throated Marten (50,7%) (7,8%) (10,1%) Martes foina (9,9%) 20 (2,3%) 55 (6,4%) 37 (4,3%) Beech Marten (52,6%) (12,3%) (11,3%) (0,7%) Martes martes (9,6%) 51 (2,5%) 158 (8,0%) Pine Marten (57,6%) (9,8%) (11,9%) (0,3%) Martes pennant (5,4%) 8 (2,7%) 13 (4,4%) Fisher (69,1%) (8,9%) (8,5%) (0,6%) Martes zibellina (1,6%) - 2 (1,6%) Sable (75,0%) (8,0%) (9,6%) (4,0%) Meles leucurus 8 (12,7%) (25,4%) - 10 (15,8%) Asian Badger (25,4%) (12,7%) (7,9%) Mellivora capensis (4,5%) - 1 (4,5%) Honey Badger (81,8%) (9,0%) Africana (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) Amazon Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) altaica (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) Altai Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) erminea (11,3%) - 8 (4,1%) Stoat (68,0%) (3,0%) (11,8%) (1,5%) eversmanii (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) Steppe Polecat (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) felipei (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) Colombian Weasel (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) frenata 9 (34,6%) (11,5%) - 3 (11,5%) 2 (7,6%) 26 - Long-tailed Weasel (23,0%) (11,5%) itatsi (33,3%) - 8 (11,5%) 2 (2,9%) 69 - Japanese Weasel kathiah - Yellow-bellied Weasel lutreola - European Mink lutreolina - Indonesian Mountain Weasel nigripes - Black-footed Ferret nivalis - Least Weasel nudipes - Malay Weasel putorius - Western Polecat russelliana - Sichuan Weasel sibirica - Siberian Weasel strigidorsa - Stripe-backed Weasel subpalmata - Egyptian Weasel tonkinensis - Tonkin Weasel Neovison vison - American Mink Parahyaena brunnea - Brown Hyaena (14,4%) 429 (50,0%) 147 (33,1%) 429 (50,0%) (20,2%) 37 (4,3%) 4 (0,9%) 37 (4,3%) (2,9%) 111 (12,9%) (14,4%) 37 (4,3%) (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) (19,8%) 7 (1,5%) 86 (19,4%) 3 (0,6%) 443 (12,8%) (11,5%) (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 (12,9%) (4,3%) (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) (7,2%) 3 (1,6%) 9 (5,0%) 2 (1,1%) 180 (70,5%) (5,0%) (9,4%) (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) (13,1%) - 31 (15,6%) (48,9%) (4,0%) (14,1%) (4,0%) (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) 8 (22,2%) (27,7%) - 11 (30,5%) - 36 (19,4%) (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) (15,7%) 3 (0,3%) 98 (11,4%) 7 (0,8%) 857 (50,0%) (4,3%) (12,9%) (4,3%) (19,1%) 23 (1,8%) 193 (15,7%) (32,4%) (2,2%) (15,2%) (13,1%) (4,4%) 3 (2,6%) 3 (2,6%) 2 (1,7%) 112 (83,0%) (3,5%) (1,7%)

10 binomal Mammal Plant Bird Fish Invertebrate Other Reptile/ Amphibian Anthropogenic Total Procyon lotor (22,0%) - 3 (3,0%) Northern Raccoon (42,0%) (9,0%) (16,0%) (8,0%) Speothos venaticus 9 (52,9%) (11,7%) - 2 (11,7%) Bush Dog (11,7%) (11,7%) Spilogale angustifrons 5 (27,7%) (27,7%) - 5 (27,7%) Southern Spotted (5,5%) (11,1%) Skunk Spilogale gracilis - Western Spotted Skunk Spilogale pygmaea - Pygmy Spotted Skunk Taxidea taxus - American Badger Urocyon cinereoargenteus - Grey Fox Urocyon littoralis - Island Fox Ursus arctos - Brown Bear Ursus maritimus - Polar Bear Vulpes corsac - Corsac Fox Vulpes ferrilata - Tibetan Fox Vulpes lagopus - Arctic Fox Vulpes macrotis - Kit Fox Vulpes pallida - Pale Fox Vulpes rueppellii - Rüppell's Fox Vulpes velox - Swift Fox Vulpes vulpes - Red Fox Vulpes zerda - Fennec Fox 4 (28,5%) 1 (7,1%) 11 (20,3%) 40 (66,6%) 81 (62,3%) 1 (7,1%) - 4 (28,5%) - 4(28,5%) (20,3%) - 11 (20,3%) 10 (18,5%) 11 (20,3%) (15,0%) - 6 (10,0%) - 60 (1,6%) (6,6%) (10,0%) - 6 (4,6%) 5 (3,8%) 130 (9,2%) (10,0%) (43,1%) - 4 (7,8%) 1 (1,9%) 51 (25,4%) (15,6%) (5,8%) (12,2%) 88 (8,2%) 3 (0,2%) 103 (9,6%) 1062 (38,5%) (29,3%) (1,0%) (0,5%) (2,0%) (86,7%) (2,0%) (8,3%) (0,6%) (12,1%) - 8 (12,1%) 5 (7,5%) 66 (33,3%) (22,7%) (12,1%) (16,0%) - 1 (4,0%) - 25 (56,0%) (12,0%) (12,0%) 4 (21,0%) (10,5%) 2 (10,5%) - 2 (10,5%) 19 (10,5%) (26,3%) (10,5%) 148 1(0,4%) (12,3%) - 21 (9,2%) 4 (1,7%) 226 (65,4%) (10,6%) (9,5%) (5,5%) 98 (2,3%) 4123 (57,9%) (11,0%) (9,9%) (0,8%) (2,6%) (9,5%) (5,5%) 98 (2,3%) 4123 (57,9%) (11,0%) (9,9%) (0,8%) (2,6%) (10,0%) - 3 (1,5%) (73,8%) (6,5%) (8,0%) (8,9%) (5,4%) 89 (2,4%) 3661 (58,0%) (11,3%) (9,8%) (0,9%) (2,9%) (17,3%) - 12 (17,3%) - 69 (17,3%) (17,3%) (17,3%) Defaunation Mammals are the focus of this study and the range maps from IUCN are for species and not groups, therefor prey recorded above species level (i.e. genus, family and order) were excluded from the analysis. Diets consists of three building blocks primary prey (>20%), secondary prey (5-20%) and occasional prey (<5%) (Kissling et al., 2014). For this analysis occasional prey were excluded. Of the 498 mammal species recorded on a species level as primary prey of carnivores, 11% were classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN (Table 2). For secondary prey, 8% of the 787 mammals recorded on a species level were classified as vulnerable or worse by the IUCN (Table 2). 10

11 Table 2. s and all of its primary and secondary prey species with their classification by IUCN (DD=Data deficient, LC=Least concern, NT=Near threatened, VU=Vulnerable, EN=Endangered, CR=Critically endangered) Atilax paludinosus - Cheetah Canis aureus - Golden Jackal Canis latrans - Coyote Aepyceros melampus Primary LC Antidorcas marsupialis Primary LC Capra aegagrus Primary VU Eudorcas thomsonii Primary NT Gazella subgutturosa Primary VU Kobus ellipsiprymnus Primary LC Kobus vardonii Primary NT Lepus capensis Primary LC Litocranius walleri Primary NT Madoqua kirkii Primary LC Nanger granti Primary LC Ovis orientalis Primary VU Phacochoerus africanus Primary LC Raphicerus campestris Primary LC Sylvicapra grimmia Primary LC Tragelaphus imberbis Primary NT Tragelaphus strepsiceros Primary LC Alcelaphus buselaphus Secondary LC Kobus kob Secondary LC Ourebia ourebi Secondary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Tragelaphus oryx Secondary LC Microtus arvalis Primary LC Sus scrofa Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Arvicola amphibius Secondary LC Axis axis Secondary LC Boselaphus tragocamelus Secondary LC Lepus capensis Secondary LC Marmota caudata Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Secondary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Secondary NT Paguma larvata Secondary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Tatera indica Secondary LC Aplodontia rufa Primary LC Cervus elaphus Primary LC Lepus americanus Primary LC Microtus pennsylvanicus Primary LC Sigmodon mascotensis Primary LC Sylvilagus cunicularius Primary LC Thomomys umbrinus Primary LC Alces alces Secondary LC Baiomys musculus Secondary LC Castor fiber Secondary LC Cervus canadensis Secondary LC Cratogeomys merriami Secondary LC Erethizon dorsatum Secondary LC Heteromys pictus Secondary LC Ictidomys Secondary LC tridecemlineatus Lepus californicus Secondary LC Marmota monax Secondary LC Marmota olympus Secondary LC Canis lupus - Gray Wolf Canis mesomelas - Blackbacked Jackal Canis rufus - Red Wolf Microtus montanus Secondary LC Odocoileus hemionus Secondary LC Odocoileus virginianus Secondary LC Ondatra zibethicus Secondary LC Peromyscus perfulvus Secondary LC Sigmodon hispidus Secondary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Urocitellus columbianus Secondary LC Urocitellus townsendii Secondary VU Zapus trinotatus Secondary LC Alces alces Primary LC Bison bison Primary NT Capra sibirica Primary LC Capreolus capreolus Primary LC Cervus canadensis Primary LC Cervus elaphus Primary LC Equus ferus Primary EN Glis glis Primary LC Marmota baibacina Primary LC Marmota himalayana Primary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Ovis ammon Primary NT Pseudois nayaur Primary LC Sus scrofa Primary LC Alticola roylei Secondary NT Apodemus rusiges Secondary LC Capra ibex Secondary LC Castor canadensis Secondary LC Castor fiber Secondary LC Lepus arcticus Secondary LC Lepus capensis Secondary LC Lepus timidus Secondary LC Marmota caudata Secondary LC Marmota sibirica Secondary EN Martes martes Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Ondatra zibethicus Secondary LC Ovibos moschatus Secondary LC Paguma larvata Secondary LC Rupicapra rupicapra Secondary LC Vulpes vulpes Secondary LC Antidorcas marsupialis Primary LC Pedetes capensis Primary LC Gerbilliscus brantsii Secondary LC Mus minutoides Secondary LC Raphicerus campestris Secondary LC Redunca arundinum Secondary LC Sylvicapra grimmia Secondary LC Tragelaphus angasii Secondary LC Tragelaphus strepsiceros Secondary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Sus scrofa Primary LC Ondatra zibethicus Secondary LC 11

12 Canis simensis - Ethiopian Wolf Caracal aurata - African Golden Cat Caracal caracal - Caracal Chrysocyon brachyurus - Maned Wolf Crocuta crocuta - Spotted Hyaena Cryptoprocta ferox - Fossa Procyon lotor Secondary LC Arvicanthis abyssinicus Primary LC Lophuromys Primary LC flavopunctatus Otomys typus Primary LC Tachyoryctes splendens Primary LC Arvicanthis blicki Secondary NT Lepus starcki Secondary LC Stenocephalemys griseicauda Secondary LC Mylomys dybowskii Primary LC Philantomba monticola Primary LC Smutsia gigantea Primary VU Sylvicapra grimmia Primary LC Neotragus batesi Secondary LC Rhynchocyon cirnei Secondary NT Lepus tolai Primary LC Otomys irroratus Primary LC Otomys unisulcatus Primary LC Pelea capreolus Primary LC Procavia capensis Primary LC Redunca fulvorufula Primary LC Rhabdomys pumilio Primary LC Aepyceros melampus Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Pronolagus rupestris Secondary LC Tragelaphus scriptus Secondary LC Clyomys laticeps Primary LC Calomys tener Secondary LC Necromys lasiurus Secondary LC Kobus kob Primary LC Kobus vardonii Primary NT Loxodonta africana Primary VU Aepyceros melampus Secondary LC Alcelaphus buselaphus Secondary LC Connochaetes taurinus Secondary LC Damaliscus lunatus Secondary LC Equus africanus Secondary CR Equus ferus Secondary EN Equus quagga Secondary NT Eudorcas thomsonii Secondary NT Giraffa camelopardalis Secondary VU Hippotragus niger Secondary LC Kobus ellipsiprymnus Secondary LC Ourebia ourebi Secondary LC Raphicerus campestris Secondary LC Sylvicapra grimmia Secondary LC Syncerus caffer Secondary LC Tragelaphus scriptus Secondary LC Lepilemur ruficaudatus Primary VU Mirza coquereli Primary EN Cuon alpinus - Dhole Cynictis penicillata - Yellow Felis margarita - Sand Cat Felis nigripes - Black-footed Cat Felis silvestris - Wild Cat Galictis cuja - Lesser Grison Phaner furcifer Primary VU Tenrec ecaudatus Primary LC Cheirogaleus medius Secondary LC Hypogeomys antimena Secondary EN Microcebus berthae Secondary EN Microcebus murinus Secondary LC Propithecus verreauxi Secondary EN Axis axis Primary LC Capricornis sumatraensis Primary VU Hemitragus jemlahicus Primary NT Rusa unicolor Primary VU Lepus nigricollis Secondary LC Muntiacus muntjak Secondary LC Naemorhedus goral Secondary NT Pseudois nayaur Secondary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Otomys unisulcatus Primary LC Rhabdomys pumilio Primary LC Mus minutoides Secondary LC Cricetulus migratorius Primary LC Dipus sagitta Primary LC Lepus capensis Primary LC Meriones meridianus Primary LC Rhombomys opimus Primary LC Lepus tolai Secondary LC Malacothrix typica Primary LC Mus minutoides Primary LC Dendromus melanotis Secondary LC Gerbilliscus leucogaster Secondary LC Gerbillurus paeba Secondary LC Lepus capensis Secondary LC Apodemus agrarius Primary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Arvicola amphibius Primary LC Gerbilliscus brantsii Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus arvalis Primary LC Microtus cabrerae Primary NT Microtus Primary LC duodecimcostatus Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Rattus norvegicus Primary LC Capra pyrenaica Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Mus minutoides Secondary LC Mus spretus Secondary LC Sorex granarius Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Holochilus brasiliensis Primary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC 2

13 Galictis vittata - Greater Grison Genetta abyssinica - Ethiopian Genet Genetta angolensis - Miombo Genet Microcavia australis Primary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Scapteromys tumidus Primary LC Akodon azarae Secondary LC Ctenomys haigi Secondary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Eligmodontia typus Secondary LC Phyllotis darwini Secondary LC Phyllotis xanthopygus Secondary LC Reithrodon auritus Secondary LC Holochilus brasiliensis Primary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC Microcavia australis Primary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Scapteromys tumidus Primary LC Akodon azarae Secondary LC Ctenomys haigi Secondary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Eligmodontia typus Secondary LC Phyllotis darwini Secondary LC Phyllotis xanthopygus Secondary LC Reithrodon auritus Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Genetta bourloni - Bourlon's Genet Genetta cristata - Crested Genet Genetta Genetta Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Primary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC 3

14 - Common Genet Genetta johnstoni - Johnston's Genet Genetta maculate - Largespotted Genet Genetta pardina - Pardine Genet Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Mus musculus Secondary LC Mus spretus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Sorex minutus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Genetta poensis - King Genet Genetta servalina - Servaline Genet Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC 4

15 Genetta thierryi - Hausa Genet Genetta tigrine - Cape Genet Genetta victoriae - Giant Genet Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Primary LC Mastomys coucha Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Apodemus flavicollis Primary LC Gulo gulo - Wolverine Herpestes brachyurus - Short-tailed Herpestes flavescens - Kaokoveld Slender Herpestes fuscus - Brown Herpestes javanicus - Javan Apodemus sylvaticus Primary LC Glis glis Primary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Mus spretus Primary LC Sciurus vulgaris Primary LC Sorex granarius Primary LC Sorex minutus Primary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Crocidura nigeriae Secondary LC Crocidura russula Secondary LC Genetta tigrina Secondary LC Hybomys univittatus Secondary LC Lemniscomys striatus Secondary LC Lophuromys sikapusi Secondary LC Mastomys natalensis Secondary LC Mus musculoides Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Neomys anomalus Secondary LC Praomys tullbergi Secondary LC Rattus rattus Secondary LC Suncus etruscus Secondary LC Talpa europaea Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Alces alces Primary LC Castor canadensis Primary LC Erethizon dorsatum Primary LC Glaucomys sabrinus Primary LC Lepus timidus Primary LC Marmota caligata Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Primary VU Gulo gulo Secondary LC Lepus americanus Secondary LC Oreamnos americanus Secondary LC Urocitellus parryii Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC 5

16 Herpestes ochraceus - Somali Slender Herpestes semitorquatus - Collared Herpestes vitticollis - Stripenecked Hyaena hyaena - Striped Hyaena Leopardus colocolo - Pampas Cat Leopardus geoffroyi - Geoffroy's Cat Leopardus guigna - Guiña Leopardus jacobita - Andean Cat Leopardus pardalis - Ocelot Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Mus musculus Primary LC Rattus rattus Primary LC Nesokia indica Secondary LC Capra aegagrus Primary VU Axis axis Secondary LC Bubalus arnee Secondary EN Camelus dromedarius Secondary EP Funambulus palmarum Secondary LC Lepus nigricollis Secondary LC Rusa unicolor Secondary VU Viverricula indica Secondary LC Lagidium viscacia Primary LC Akodon molinae Primary LC Calomys musculinus Primary LC Ctenomys azarae Primary VU Holochilus brasiliensis Primary LC Lagostomus maximus Primary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC Eligmodontia typus Secondary LC Myocastor coypus Secondary LC Abrothrix longipilis Primary LC Abrothrix olivaceus Primary LC Dromiciops gliroides Secondary NT Geoxus valdivianus Secondary LC Irenomys tarsalis Secondary LC Loxodontomys micropus Secondary LC Phyllotis darwini Secondary LC Lagidium viscacia Primary LC Alouatta guariba Primary LC Bradypus variegatus Primary LC Clyomys laticeps Primary LC Heteromys pictus Primary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Leopardus tigrinus - Northern Tiger Cat Leopardus wiedii - Margay Leptailurus serval - Serval Lycalopex culpaeus - Culpeo Lycalopex fulvipes - Darwin's Fox Sigmodon alstoni Primary LC Zygodontomys Primary LC brevicauda Brachyteles hypoxanthus Secondary CR Cebus capucinus Secondary LC Choloepus hoffmanni Secondary LC Dasypus novemcinctus Secondary LC Mazama americana Secondary DD Mazama temama Secondary DD Tamandua tetradactyla Secondary LC Oligoryzomys flavescens Primary LC Sooretamys angouya Primary LC Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC Cavia fulgida Primary LC Cuniculus paca Primary LC Didelphis marsupialis Primary LC Galea spixii Primary LC Gracilinanus microtarsus Primary LC Heteromys anomalus Primary LC Mazama americana Primary DD Ototylomys phyllotis Primary LC Sciurus deppei Primary LC Sciurus granatensis Primary LC Sylvilagus brasiliensis Primary LC Zygodontomys brevicauda Primary LC Mastomys natalensis Primary LC Myosorex varius Primary LC Otomys angoniensis Primary LC Otomys irroratus Primary LC Rhabdomys pumilio Primary LC Mus minutoides Secondary LC Abrocoma bennettii Primary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC Mazama rufina Primary VU Microcavia australis Primary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Caenolestes fuliginosus Secondary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Cuniculus paca Secondary LC Lagidium viscacia Secondary LC Octodon degus Secondary LC Phyllotis darwini Secondary LC Pudu mephistophiles Secondary VU Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT Abrocoma bennettii Primary LC Mazama rufina Primary VU Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Caenolestes fuliginosus Secondary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Cuniculus paca Secondary LC Lagidium viscacia Secondary LC 6

17 Lycalopex griseus - Chilla Lycalopex sechurae - Sechuran Fox Lycaon pictus - African Wild Dog Lynx canadensis - Canada Lynx Lynx lynx - Eurasian Lynx Lynx pardinus - Iberian Lynx Lynx rufus - Bobcat Lepus europaeus Secondary LC Microcavia australis Secondary LC Octodon degus Secondary LC Pudu mephistophiles Secondary VU Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT Microcavia australis Primary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Eligmodontia typus Secondary LC Lepus europaeus Secondary LC Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT Abrocoma bennettii Primary LC Mazama rufina Primary VU Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Caenolestes fuliginosus Secondary LC Ctenomys magellanicus Secondary VU Cuniculus paca Secondary LC Lagidium viscacia Secondary LC Lepus europaeus Secondary LC Microcavia australis Secondary LC Octodon degus Secondary LC Pudu mephistophiles Secondary VU Sylvilagus brasiliensis Secondary LC Zaedyus pichiy Secondary NT Aepyceros melampus Primary LC Tragelaphus angasii Primary LC Tragelaphus scriptus Primary LC Tragelaphus strepsiceros Primary LC Cephalophus natalensis Secondary LC Connochaetes taurinus Secondary LC Kobus ellipsiprymnus Secondary LC Phacochoerus africanus Secondary LC Lepus americanus Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Secondary VU Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Secondary LC Capreolus capreolus Primary LC Castor fiber Primary LC Cervus elaphus Primary LC Lepus europaeus Primary LC Lepus timidus Primary LC Ovis ammon Primary NT Pseudois nayaur Primary LC Rangifer tarandus Primary VU Rupicapra rupicapra Primary LC Glis glis Secondary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Primary NT Cervus elaphus Secondary LC Aplodontia rufa Primary LC Lepus americanus Primary LC Lepus californicus Primary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Martes Americana - American Marten Martes flavigula - Yellowthroated Marten Martes foina - Beech Marten Martes martes - Pine Marten Martes pennant - Fisher Sylvilagus cunicularius Primary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Primary LC Sylvilagus palustris Primary LC Microtus pennsylvanicus Primary LC Odocoileus hemionus Primary LC Odocoileus virginianus Primary LC Lepus americanus Secondary LC Microtus xanthognathus Secondary LC Myodes gapperi Secondary LC Odocoileus hemionus Secondary LC Otospermophilus Secondary LC beecheyi Peromyscus maniculatus Secondary LC Scapanus latimanus Secondary LC Sciurus vulgaris Secondary LC Sorex cinereus Secondary LC Tamiasciurus douglasii Secondary LC Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Secondary LC Leopoldamys edwardsi Secondary LC Niviventer confucianus Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Microtus lusitanicus Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Arvicola sapidus Secondary VU Capra aegagrus Secondary VU Crocidura russula Secondary LC Lepus capensis Secondary LC Microtus savii Secondary LC Oryctolagus cuniculus Secondary NT Sorex granarius Secondary LC Sorex minutus Secondary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Talpa occidentalis Secondary LC Microtus agrestis Primary LC Apodemus sylvaticus Secondary LC Lepus timidus Secondary LC Mus musculus Secondary LC Myocastor coypus Secondary LC Myodes glareolus Secondary LC Sciurus carolinensis Secondary LC Sorex coronatus Secondary LC Sus scrofa Secondary LC Sylvilagus floridanus Secondary LC Didelphis virginiana Secondary LC Erethizon dorsatum Secondary LC Microtus pennsylvanicus Secondary LC Odocoileus virginianus Secondary LC Procyon lotor Secondary LC Sciurus carolinensis Secondary LC Tamiasciurus douglasii Secondary LC Thomomys bottae Secondary LC Martes Microtus oeconomus Primary LC 7