BULLETIN of the Chicago Herpetological Society

Transcription

1 BULLETIN of the Chicago Herpetological Society Volume 27, Number 2 February 1992 The harlequin treefrog, Rhacophoruspardalis, is relatively widespread in Southeast Asia, inhabiting the Malayan peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo and the Philippines. It is one of several frogs able to glide short distances in the forest canopy. It is also remarkable in its ability to use diverse habitats, including roadside vegetation. The harlequin treefrog Inhabits the Danum Valley of southwestern Sabah in northern Borneo, an area that is discussed in this issue. Drawing by Dan Erickson.

2 BULLETIN OF THE CHICAGO HERPETOLOGICAL SOCIETY Volume 27, Number 2 February 1992 Fifty Days ofamphibian and Reptile CoUerting in Sabah: A Personal Adventure with the Fauna of Borneo... John C. Murphy 25 Chelonian Communique Jill Horwich 38 HerPET-POURRI Ellin Beltz 40 Herp Watch, David Lawrence 42 Herpetology The Tympanum David Lawrence; Joan F. Moore; John Rossi, D.V.M.; Michael J. Balsai 47 Advertisements 50 Chicago Herpetological Society Statement of Income and Expense 53 Unofficial Minutes of the CHS Board Meeting, January 10,1992., 54 News and Announcements,..., 56 EDITORS Michael A. Dloogatch Joan F. Moore John C. Murphy Copy editor: Jill Horwich CHS OFFICERS 1992 Jack Schoenfelder, President John C. Murphy, Vice-President Ralph Shepstone, Treasurer Stacy Miller, Recording Seaetary Jill Horwich, Corresponding Secretary Michael A. Dloogatch, Publications Secretary Steve Spitzer, Membership Secretary Ron Humbert, Sergeant-At-Arms Ben Entwisle, Member-At-Large Tony Janowski, Member-At-Large Brian Jones, Member-At-Large Claus Sutor, Member-At-Large The Chicago Herpetological Society is a nonprofit organization incorporated under the laws of the state of Illinois. Its purposes are education, conservation and the advancement of herpetology. Meetings are announced in this publication, and are normally held at 7:30 P.M., the last Wednesday of each month. Membership in the CHS includes a subscription to the Bulletin. Annual dues are: Individual Membership, $17.50; Family Membership, $20.00; Sustaining Membership, $25.00; Contributing Membership, SlOO.OO; Institutional Membership, $ Remittance must be made in U.S. funds. Subscribers outside the U.S. must add $12.00 for postage. Send membership dues or address changes to: Chicago Herpetological Society, Membership Secretary, 2001 N. Clark Street, Chicago, IL Publications are sent to U.S. members via third class bulk mail; the post office does not forward such mail, even if a special request is made to forward magazines. Manuscripts should be submitted in duplicate, typewritten and double spaced. Alternatively, submission of manuscripts in the form of IBM PC-compatible or Macintosh format diskettes is encouraged. Manuscripts and letters concerning editorial business should be sent to: Chicago Herpetological Society, Publications Secretary, 2001 N. Clark Street, Chicago, IL Back issues are limited but are available from the Publications Secretary for $2.50 per issue postpaid. The BULLETIN of the Chicago Herpetological Society (ISSN ) is published monthly by the Chicago Herpetological Society. Copyright 1991.

3 Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 27(2):25-37, Fifty Days ofamphibian and Reptile Collecting in Sabah: A Personal Adventure with the Fauna of Borneo John C. Murphy 403 N. Division Street Plainfield, IL Borneo is the third largest island in the world, assuming that we consider Austraha a continent. It has an area of more than square kilometers. Politically, Borneo is divided among three independent nations: Malaysia (the states of Sarawak and Sabah), Indonesia (the provinces of West, Central, South and East Kalimantan), and the small Sultanate of Brunei. Most of the island is composed of geologically young sedimentary rocks, but there are old volcanic rocks and scattered igneous mountains in Sabah and Kalimantan. Large river systems are prominent features of the landscape; also significant is the lack of bodies of still water. Evergreen rainforest dominated by dipterocarps, i.e., trees in the family Dipterocarpaceae, once covered most of the island. Many of the dipterocarps have commercial importance; over the past 25 years their harvesting has resulted in extensive and rapid changes to the environment. Selective logging removed most of the large, commercially desirable trees and destroyed many others in the process. More recently, secondary forests that were selectively logged decades ago are being clear-cut. It was these disappearing forests that ultimately got me to Borneo. My first opportunity to see the Bornean countryside came on the ride from Lahad Datu to the Danum Valley Field Center (Figure 1). Although I had been in Sabah for almost a week, most of my time was spent in Kota Kinabalu (KK) at the Sabah Campus of the University of Keebangsan Malaysia, conducting an inventory of equipment and traveling around no le l:4 116 lie Figure 1. Map of the island of Borneo. The location of the Danum Valley Field Center is marked by an X. town to purchase supplies. I had just taken a crowded Malaysia Air commuter flight from KK to Lahad Datu. The small Lahad Datu airport was crowded and the distinctive odors of grease and curry filled the air. Several of us climbed into the Field Center's extended passenger van, and within a few minutes were passing through plantations on the outskirts of Lahad Datu. Hans, a Swedish geologist and geographer, lectured me about the economic botany of Sabah while we stopped at a vegetable stand. Paul, Freddie and Frederic, my employees for the next two months, were asleep in the back seat. My concern at the moment was how to communicate with these three young Dusun men. Only Paul had shown an interest in speaking to me in English. The trio spoke their tribal language and Bahasa Malay. I spoke only a few words of the latter. My success would depend heavily on the three and on my ability to follow them through the forest recording data on the amphibians and reptiles they collected. Theo DeVries, a Dutch ecologist who had been studying leaf-litter arthropods at Danum for the past two years, and the driver Isabcllo were in the front seat. The scenery reminded me of places I had seen in the Neotropics, but the roadside fauna indicated I was in the Old World. A short-tailed macaque sauntered across the road and a large water monitor lizard slid into the underbrush as we passed. Before the three-hour trip was over, all of us were ankle deep in mud, piling rocks and branches under the wheels of the van to free it from a mud hole, a mud hole I was going to come to know on a personal basis in the weeks ahead. The purpose of the trip was to conduct part of a study comparing the amphibian and reptile communities of primary rainforest with those of secondary rainforest. The study was funded by the National Geographic Society through a grant to Robert F. Inger of the Field Museum of Natural History (FMNH). Bob Inger and Harold Voris, also of the FMNH, had visited Danum in 1986 and 1987, accompanied by Sharon Emerson of the University of Utah, and done some preliminary collecting. Our plan was that Harold would spend two weeks helping me set up and teaching me the routine in preparation for me to run the crew throughout the seven-week survey. He would then return to KK to work on a sea snake project, while I completed the rainforest work. Ron Humbert was going to join me for my last two weeks at Danum, the return trip to KK and the trip home. While I had flown to Lahad Datu with Paul, Freddie and Frederic, and taken the Field Center's van to the station, Harold and Rob Steubing were driving the FMNH's Isuzu Trooper across Sabah. Rob is an American zoologist teaching at the University of Keebangsan in KK. His main interest

4 26 is in birds and mammals, but he has helped Bob Inger accumulate data and specimens, get through bureaucratic red tape needed for field work, and acted as caretaker for the museum's four-wheel drive vehicle. Rob didn't know how long it would take to drive across Sabah. The distance is only about 200 air miles, but the roads are poorly maintained and it was the start of the wet season. If daily rains were to waterlog the dirt/gravel roads, delays would be certain. Harold and Rob planned to meet me at Danum and fly out of Lahad Datu, leaving me with the Trooper which Ron and I would eventually drive back to KK. All of the equipment, including my clothes had been loaded into the Trooper. I had only my camera bag and a cany-on when I arrived at Danum. Twenty-four hours after my arrival, Rob and Harold arrived. Living conditions at Danum were very comfortable for the tropics. The guest house we occupied was built into a hillside overlooking the Segama River, which flows eastward into the Sulu Sea at Lahad Datu. The five bedrooms had screened windows, ceiling fans run by an electric generator from eight in the morning until eleven at night, and private showers. There was a living room/library/dining room area and a kitchen; and outside, under an attached roof was a laundry. The guesthouse also had a large population of very vocal chicchacs, Hemidactylus frenatus, that usually made their presence known after dark. The floor was elevated about a meter and the rooms were accessible by a covered wooden walkway that was open on one side. At night bats patrolled the lighted walkway for insects. It was not uncommon to feel a bat brush your shoulder or face as it foraged along the walkway. Mornings in Danum are spectacular. Because the valley is only six degrees north of the equator the sun rises about six in the morning and sets about six in the evening every day of the year. The pre-sunrise noise is mostly bird calls, but gibbons quickly add their unforgettable, reverberating cries. The cacophony includes the simultaneous calling of six species of hornbills; sleeping in is impossible. Evenings are much quieter, but at sunset a particular species of cicada calls with a sound reminiscent of the most obnoxious alarm clock I ever owned. Frogs also call in the evening, but their voices are much more subtle and difficult to distinguish in the background noise of the Bornean forest. Sharon Emerson and Claudia Collier were the only other Americans at the Field Center. Sharon was working on why Rana biythi, a bullfrog-sized, edible anuran does not advertise its presence with vocalizations as do its relatives. Claudia, the director of a small zoo in Santa Ana, California, was on leave, and assisting Sharon with her field work. They had arrived before us and would be leaving about the same time we did. We were glad for the company; they were always around for conversation when things slowed down. The night Harold and Rob arrived was spent unpacking, setting up the lab and planning. Rob had only two days before he had to return to KK. The next morning we were up and out in the field early. We set up a half-kilometer transect along a stream that drained a secondary forest. In the process we collected our first herps: a large aquatic skink, Trvpidophoms brooki and a torrent frog, Siaumis latopalmatus. Considering that the Sapat Kalisun was a secondary forest stream, its vegetation seemed to be in excellent condition. Its boulderstudded gravel bottom, torrents and waterfalls made walking and climbing difficuh along some parts of the transect, but as long as we moved slowly and watched our footing we were relatively safe. Paul, Freddie and Frederick did not seem to be bothered by the footing or the slippery rocks and they moved as comfortably up and down the stream as did the Slaurois. Danum was chosen as part of this study because it sits at the boundary of extensive secondary forest and a large tract of almost untouched primary rainforest. I say almost rather than completely untouched because it contains a network of trails maintained by Field Center personnel as well as some experimental plots at the perimeter from which vegetation had been removed. But most of the 450-squar6-kilometer primary forest area is undisturbed by man, and no tribal people currently live within its borders. Unfortunately, this piece of pristine tropical real estate is only protected from logging until 1995, when it will be reviewed for possible logging concessions. It currently harbors an excellent population of orangutans, and probably at least a few veiy rare Sumatran rhinoceroses. The opportunity to see these and other tropical forest mammals was almost as exciting as the possibility of encountering king cobras and reticulated pythons. Both of these snake species are known to inhabit the Danum Valley around the Field Center. The First Night in the Forest Our first night's work was on a trail through primary forest close to the field station. During a two-and-a-half-hour walk through the forest we collected 37 herps, observed a mouse deer (a miniature deer that is more the size of a big rabbit than a mouse), and got an excellent view of a tarsier (a highly arboreal, acrobatic prosimian with huge eyes and a long tail). Now, when I say that we collected 37 specimens of herps, I mean that Paul, Freddie and Frederic collected the animals. Rob spotted a few, but Harold and I mostly stood around when we were not taking notes, and peered at the vegetation illuminated in our headlamps. After the first week, I was glad that my presence in Borneo was not dependent on my ability to single-handedly collect large numbers of animals. As we walked up and down streams and through forest, Harold and I were looking at the same vegetation, rocks and terrain as were Paul, Freddie and Frederic, but they were seeing many more herps than we. We attributed this blindness to our age; after all these three guys were more than 25 years younger and did not wear glasses. Also, they may have had a much better search image than either of us. However, by the end of the trip I was able to follow my three collectors down a stream and occasionally find animals they had missed. Thinking about the concept of a search image, I remembered reading that it could work as either an advantage or a constraint. It is advantageous in that it allows a predator to concentrate on one prey, thereby reducing its recognition time. On the other hand the predator may miss many potential meals or in this case specimens by focusing its atien-

5 27 tion on one or a few kinds of prey. Whatever combination of factors produced the successful hike that first night, I was impressed. Among the animals we found that first night was a medium-sized, slow-moving gecko with a prehensile tail. I was reasonably certain it was a cat gecko, Aeluroscalobotes felinus. These geckos are named for their retractile, catlike claws. As it turned out, my identification was corrert, and it was to be the only specimen of that species we colleaed on this trip. A frog call that consisted of one musical note often seemed to be coming from every direction. Rob took a parang (a large knife) and cut open a hole in a small sapling. Water ran out of the hole closely followed by a small microhylid, Melaphrynella sundana. We collected three snakes: two Oligodon everetti and a blunt-headed snai\-edxet,aplopeltum [=Haplopeltura] boa. All three were found in the vegetation, a meter or more above the ground. The next day during a photography session I was restraining one of the Oligodon when it raised its labial scales, made an intricate move with its mouth and rubbed its teeth into my skin. This would not have been so surprising but I was holding it securely behind the head. Oligodon are sometimes called kukri snakes because their teeth resemble the blade of a type of knife known as a kukri. Immediately off the trail was a small swamp. Rob led the way into what appeared to be a wall of dense vegetation which quickly opened up. The substrate consisted of three inches of water and a foot or more of mud. Insects were attracted to our headlamps, and with each breath we drew dozens of little arthropods into our nostrils. As we scanned the water's surface, we observed the eyeshine of numerous frogs. Within a few minutes we collected several ranid frogs, mostly Occidozyga laevis and Raita ingeri, the latter being very difficult to distinguish from Rana biythi. R. biythi, however, does not occur in swamps; it is a stream frog. The swamp was an unpleasant place. In addition to the bugs there were spiny palms. These large sharp-spined plants drop their leaves into the water. Consequently, reaching for a frog is likely to resuh in a spine under a fingernail or in a knuckle. In the vegetation around the swamp we also found the treefrog Rhacophorus appendiculatus. In fact, this was the only place we found this species. This rough-skinned httle treefrog has flaps of skin along the edges of its limbs, and the species shows some interesting sexually dimorphic characteristics. The Routine For the first week or so we were busy laying out stream and forest transects. We marked off fifteen-meter intervals and described a variety of environmental parameters at each station. We numbered the stations and marked each one with an orange flag in an obvious place. We marked two secondary forest streams. The Sapat Kalisun was a few kilometers from the Field Center, just past the mudhole I had met on the first day. We would park the Trooper on the road and hike a kilometer or so to the stream, through an area that had been clearcut. The forest surrounding the stream had been selectively logged. The "cabin stream" was about 30 km from the Field Center, in an area that had been selectively logged a few decades earlier. We also needed two secondary forest trails; we cut these ourselves near the Sapat Kalisun. One was numbered with a 500 series, the other with 550 series. The 550 trail quickly became known as the "trail from hell." The first part went straight up to a ridge that contained an excellent quality, seleaively logged forest. After we had used this trail several times, it became possible to boot-ski downhill on the mud of course you had to get to the top first. At the end of the 500 trail was a logging road, and when we reached this point we often checked roadside puddles and fallen trees for creatures and were quite successful in finding species that could survive in forest-edge habitats. The primary forest streams were within walking distance of the Field Center. The Palum Tambun was almost adjacent to the Field Center. This stream contained some deep pools, and there were places in which we would be over our armpits in water. One day the water rose four feet in four hours. Where our transect on this stream ended, Sharon's Rana biythi study site started. Wading through the streams in ankle- or knee-deep water was not a problem, but as I was in the middle of a pool up to my neck, I found thoughts of large crocodilians entering my stream of consciousness and demanding my immediate attention. The comments made by Charles Hose, an early twentieth century naturaust in Borneo, came to mind, "I once saw a crocodile seize a good-sized pig and disappear with it under water. Perhaps two minutes later, half the pig floated to the surface. In these circumstances it is hardly to be wondered at that swimming in the open river is not popular among Europeans, even in the heat of the day." He also describes a large crocodile entering an inhabited house built over the water. "I was once camping in a little village when one of the chief men of the place came to me in some concern, and with a story of damage caused by one of these brutes. It appeared that, attracted possibly by the chickens, a crocodile had swum up during the night and had broken through the floor of the house, Hearing a noise, the owner of the house said that he struck a light and saw the huge beast sticking half-way through the floor and with its immense jaws open," These images did not disappear despite reassurances from Harold and Sharon that crocodiles did not occur in the immediate vicinity. If the 550 trail was the trail from hell, then the stream labeled W6S5 (named for map coordinates) was the stream from hell. It required about a mile hike through primary rainforest to get there from the Field Center. Once there, there was a half kilometer transect, and when you climbed out of the stream it was more than a mile hike to the Field Center. The stream bed was strewn with large boulders, which backed up the water into deep pools and formed torrents that came crashing through openings. It made for a rough hike, and the risk of slipping and falling was high. One night we returned from this stream in a torrential, frog-strangling downpour. For primary forest transects we used established trails and markers in the forest near the Field Center. It was possible to walk out of the room and be in primary rainforest in five minutes or less. Ready access to this forest while living in

6 28 reasonably comfortable conditions was a major contribution toward our success. Past ecperience had taught me that it is difficult to do field work when you must continually worry about food, clean clothes and reasonable sanitation. We awakened daily at 6:00 A.M., ate breakfast, and were in the field by 8:00 A.M. We worked until 11 or 11:30, and returned to the Field Center for lunch. In the morning we sampled the forest leaf-litter herpetofauna using quadrats; four-sided, 10 square meter, roped-off study areas that we carefully searched for animals by sorting through the leaf litter. We also raked through the leaf litter that had built up in tree buttresses. Other mornings were spent electroshocking for tadpoles on the streams. We used a gas-powered motor that ran a generator. It was mounted on a backpack frame and weighed about 70 pounds. It had to be carried to each primary forest site. Collecting tadpoles at Danum was not very productive when compared to collecting tadpoles at temperate latitudes. Most Bornean frogs apparently have an aseasonal reproductive pattern, so that females in a population lay their eggs at different times of the year, as they accumulate enough fat reserves to produce the ova. This means that you don't find tadpoles in the large schools that occur in temperate regions in the spring. Fishes always outnumbered tads in our samples, and like the tads they were spectacular in their adaptations to the fast-moving waters of the streams. Tadpole collecting was also interesting because some Bornean frogs have not yet had their tadpoles described, and some tadpoles have not yet been matched with an adult stage. After lunch we worked on coding the data collected that morning and the previous night so it would be ready for entry into a computer upon our return. Mid- to late-afternoon we would photograph any specimens that were saved from preservation the night before. One building at Danum was set up for a lab; large tables and sinks were available, and there was even a small, air conditioned room housing a microcomputer. Most of the photography was done in the lab, but afternoon was the hottest part of the day and not conducive to the careful, patience-demanding work of focusing a camera and controlling and posing animals. Dinner for us was at 5:00 P.M., and by 6:30 P.M. we were either walking a stream or a forest transect. Working at night in a rainforest provides opportunities to observe animals that few people in the temperate regions ever see outside of a zoo. It also provides the opportunity to severely injure yourself. The first night we worked the Pulum Tambun, both my boots locked between rocks in the stream bed and I fell over backwards. The only reason I didn't break a bone or crack my skull was dumb luck. In fact, on stream transects it was difficult to get through an evening without falling at least once. These nocturnal forays were usually very productive, the best yield we had being 56 herps in one evening. It was common to get 25 to 35 animals in an evening's work. TTiese would usually represent 7 to 9 species; mostly frogs, but sometimes a snake and a few lizards. We would usually return to the lab by 9:00 P.M. to euthanize, label and preserve the specimens. For the first few weeks, while Harold was present, we collected liver and muscle tissue samples from each specimen. These were stored in a tank of liquid nitrogen that Harold would bring back to the museum. This tissue could then be used for a variety of biochemical tests that would help reveal the relationships among species. The power went off at 11:00 P.M., so there was usually just enough time to clean up before the lights went out. Leeches, Ants and the Leaf-Litter Herpetofauna Wet areas of Southeast Asia and India harbor mosquitoes that transmit a variety of diseases, including malaria. And they have their share of bees, wasps and other stinging insects. However, terrestrial leeches are particularly abundant and, like vampires, are especially fond of mammalian blood. During this trip we collected more than 500 frogs, none of which harbored leeches. Nor did we find leeches on any of the 250 squamates we collected. This seemed unusual because I had collected frogs and turtles in the U.S. and the Neotropics that were hosts to leeches. We did however, frequently find leeches on various parts of our own anatomies. Harold had prepared me for the leeches; we had discussions about wearing leech stockings every time we went into the forest, day or night. And Harold took particular pleasure in telling me how you can apply a mosquito repellent containing DEBT to a leech and it will curl up and literally melt before your eyes. I was always concerned about using mosquito repellents containing DEET on my skin once I discovered that they can also melt plastic. Leech stockings look like elongated snake bags with ties. You slip them on over your regular sweat socks, tie them just above the calf, and then put on your hiking boots. This reduces the chances that one of the bloodsuckers will find its way into your pants. Leeches have evolved some high-tech sensory structures to help them locate mammals. These sensory structures detect heat, and perhaps some chemical secreted by mammals, such as butyric acid. The leech makes its way to the heat source using inchworm-like locomotion. Leeches were attracted to the trails At times we could stand in the middle of the trail and watch a half dozen of them homing in on our body heat. When we were literally crawling through the leaf litter, working on quadrats or raking out leaves from tree buttresses, we rarely saw leeches, but as we walked down the trail they were abundant. It was not uncommon to have to stop and pull leeches off of each other. At the Field Center there was a bench to sit on while removing boots next to it were two razor knives in plastic sheaths and a sign that read "leech cutters." About three days into the trip we were setting up a stream transect when I glanced over at Frederic. He was standing in ankle-deep water holding a tape measure. The crotch of his pants was blood-soaked. The sight sent a wave of panic through my body until I realized that it was probably just a leech bite. In fact, Paul, Freddie and Frederic had not been wearing leech stockings, One of the worms had attached itself to Frederic's scrotum and once engorged with blood dropped off, leaving the blood flowing freely from the open wound. Leeches produce both an anesthetic to numb the bite and an anticoagulant to keep the blood from clotting. Once

7 29 they release from the bite site, the anticoagulant keeps the blood flowing, and a small wound can release a considerable volume of blood. Another annoyance was the abundance of ants. Bornean ants come in every conceivable size and shape. The largest are called elephant ants; these approach an inch-and-a-half in length. At first I thought them to be solitary: as we combed the leaf litter for herps one of these ant giants would occasionally be uncovered. However, while surveying quadrats in the secondary forest we found a small tree that was covered with hundreds of them. On another occasion I felt a burning pain shoot through my finger and into my hand. On the tip of a finger was a small ant that had apparently just attacked me. Ants are so numerous that they may have a negative impact on the herpetofauna. We examined about 70 quadrats during our stay at Danum and they produced about 70 herps, about one specimen per quadrat. This number is relatively small. Similar work in the New World tropics would produce three or four herps per quadrat. Why the difference in abundance? The New World tropics have two highly speciated taxa, anoline lizards and the leptodactylid frog genus Eleutherodactylus, many of which have adapted to the leaf litter. Eleutherodactylus contains at least 400 species of frogs that have direct development, many of which live on the forest floor. There is no Old World counterpart to the anoline lizards. But Philautus is a genus of rhacophorid frogs with direct development. However, this genus does not appear to be as abundant in species as Eleutherodactylus. Other leaf-litter frogs also occur in Danum. The small ranid, guardian frogs, Rana finchi and R, palavanensis lay their eggs at terrestrial sites in moist leaf litter. When the eggs hatch the males transport the tadpoles to a stream, a reproductive mode convergent with that of the Neotropical dendrobatids. There were also several leaf-litter-dwelling microhylids at Danum: Calluella smithi, Kalophrynus pleurostigma, K subterrestris, Microhyla berdmorei and the minuscule Chaperinafusca. This latter species was collected in only one location the flooded pitfall traps at the end of our drift fences. We had installed two drift fences with funnel traps and pitfall traps at a primary forest site not far from the Field Center. The success of the devices was poor and after several weeks the traps had only produced two species of Sphenomorphus skinks. After a particularly heavy rain the pitfall cans had flooded. As I was attempting to drain them I noticed a tiny frog jumping away. I collected it along with some other specimens from the cans. Small clutches of frog eggs adhered to the sides of the cans after they were drained. Apparently the Chaperina were attracted to the flooded cans as egg-laying sites. These microhylids possess a sharply pointed flap of skin on each heel. It sticks straight up, but is not rigid enough to be used as a weapon. At least some of the forest floor microhylids are specialized ant-eaters. Certainly, the New World forests also have ants, but in Old World rainforests these numerous scavenger-predators may contribute to keeping the diversity of leaf-litter herpetofauna low. On one occasion we found a snake of the genus Calamaria that was in the leaf litter and being devoured by ants. It was dead when we found it, so it is uncertain whether the ants were acting as predators or scavengers. Bob Inger has proposed that the Southeast Asian leaflitter herpetofauna is depauperate because of the masting of the dipterocarps. The highly synchronized fruiting of these trees may lower the abundance of insects because of the highly seasonal, and extremely patchy nature of the food supply. This, in turn, could be expected to lower predator abundance, thus insectivorous herps may be unable to maintain large populations and multispecied communities. Gliders A unique and somewhat puzzling aspect of the Bornean fauna is the large number of vertebrate species possessing the capacity to glide or parachute from one part of the canopy to another. There are 14 known species of flying squirrels (Petauristinae), several of which have a head-body length in excess of 40 cm. There are flying snakes (Chrysopelea and Dendrelaphis); flying frogs (Rhacophorus nigropalmatus and R. pardalis); and flying lizards (the agamid genus Draco, plus several geckos). We collected some of the aerial amphibians and reptiles, but we never did get a good look at them in action. There is a large footbridge over the Segama River that connects the Field Center with the primary forest. At dusk it was possible to sit in the middle of that footbridge and watch some of the larger flying squirrels climb a tall, dead tree on one side of the river and glide to the opposite side. The flights were astounding and the squirrels never seemed to loose much altitude. On the last night of field work, as we crossed that bridge, a bridge that we had crossed dozens of times, Paul, Freddie and Frederic suddenly ran back. Paul had seen a gecko jump from a piling and managed to catch it. At the time the only gliding geckos I knew about were in the genus Ptychozoon and I assumed this one to be one of those, but in fact it was Cosymbotes craspedotus. This little graywhite lizard has a solid flap of skin around the edge of its tail, webbing between its toes and flaps of skin on the lateral portion of the body, all to increase its surface area so that its body can act as an airfoil. There is a large diversity of Draco in Southeast Asia. Unfortunately we collected only one specimen of Draco maximus. It had come down out of the canopy and was sitting on a tree trunk. It is likely that the only reason these "winged" lizards descend to the ground is to deposit their eggs. We did however, find some Draco in quite an unexpected place: the Sunday morning market in KK. On the way out of Borneo we spent a few hours Sunday morning browsing through the market on the street in front of our hotel. It ran for several blocks. Clothing, housewares, musical instruments and food were all for sale. Two of the more unusual items were skinned fruit bats ready to be taken home for the barbecue and dried Draco on a stick. As I was examining a dried Draco impaled on a stick with its ribs outstretched to support the lateral winglike folds, and wondering what anyone would do with such a thing, the salesman, an elderly Chinese gentleman, picked one up and fanned himself with it. Aaron Bauer

8 30 has recently informed me that these dried Draco are used as a traditional treatment for kidney problems. The gliding life style is aqiressed in other tropical rainforests in other parts of the world. But why should so many species exist in Southeast Asia? A possible reason is the structure of the dipterocarps. These trees have tall, nonbranching trunks. This structure is not conducive to supporting the woody vines, or lianas, that are so abundant in some Neotropical forests. Woody vines would serve as trails through the canopy for small animals. In a forest where these trails don't exist in large numbers there may be some selection for species that can glide or parachute from one location to another so that they don't have to descend to the ground to move from the crown of one tree to another. Wallows The lack of standing water in Borneo has forced many of the frogs to use streams for reproduction, but some have adapted to temporary bodies of water that form in forest depressions. Pigs and rhinos may enlarge these depressions or dig their own to use as wallows. Today rhinos are rare, but the bearded pig, Sus barbatus, is quite common. We glimpsed two of these animals one day near the Sapat Kalisun. They may form large herds that travel through the forest in search of food. Dipterocarps synchronize their reproduction, all producing their fruits at the same time, so that some seeds will escape predation. Thus, seed and fruit eaters must search the forest for groups of trees that are ready to flower, set seeds and fruit. As the pigs move through an area they use the available wallows. Therefore the wallows are infrequently visited, and are available for frog reproduction. There were several of these wallows located along, or in close proximity to, our transects and we would check them for frogs, tadpoles and the foam nests made by rhacophorid frogs. I was particularly interested in seeing Wallace's flying frog, Rhacophorus nigropalmatus. Alfred R. Wallace, coauthored the first paper on natural selection with Charles Darwin and traveled extensively in the tropics collecting insects and other animals for museums. He related the following: "One of the most curious and interesting reptiles which I met with in Borneo was a large tree-frog, which was brought to me by one of the Chinese workmen. He assured me that he had seen it come down, in a slanting direction, from a high tree, as if it flew. On examining it, I found the toes very long and fully webbed to their very extremity, so that when expanded they offered a surface much larger than that of the body. The fore legs were also bordered by a membrane, and the body was capable of considerable inflation. The back and limbs were of a very deep shining green color, the under surface and the inner toes yellow, while the webs were black, rayed with yellow. The body was about four inches long while the webs of each hind foot, when fully expanded, covered a surface of four square inches, and the webs off all the feet together about twelve square inches. As the extremities of the toes have dilated discs for adhesion, showing the creature to be a true tree-frog, it is difficult to imagine that this immense membrane of the toes can be for the purpose of swimming only, and the account of the Chinaman, that it flew down from the tree, becomes more credible. This is I believe, the first instance known of a 'flying frog,' and it is very interesting to Darwinians as showing, that the variability of the toes which have been already modified for purposes of swimming and adhesive climbing, have been taken advantage of to enable an allied species to pass through the air like the flying lizard." Wallace's flying frog lays its eggs in pig wallows, as do Rana luctuosa, some Microhyla, Rhacophorus dulitensis, and possibly Occidozyga laevis and O. baluensis. Despite assurances from Harold, Rob and Sharon that I would have plenty of opportunities to see this spectacular anuran, we collected only one specimen in secondary forest near the Sapat Kalisun. It was sitting about four meters off the ground when Paul managed to knock it off its perch. During a photography session the next day, this frog turned from its uniform green to a mottling of different shades of green, apparently from being under stress. But it cooperated and did not attempt to escape with long leaps as did many other species. Elephants and Snakes Once I had the skill to make accurate field identifications of frogs, we did not collect them at the primary forest and stream study sites. This allowed us simply to record the species and collect the microhabitat data we needed. During about the fourth week into the study we were working a primary forest trail and had just found a large specimen of the pelobatid, Megophrys nasuta, also known as the homed frog. This large, distinctive species is extremely cryptic. Its remarkable ability to blend in with the leaf litter makes it all but invisible. The only way to see this frog at night is to pick up its eyeshine in the headlamp beam. We had just released it when there was an incredible roar in the distance, a sound I had not previously heard. In addition to Paul, Freddie, Frederic and myself, two of Rob Steubings' students, Hamed and Rasheed, were with us. They were both in their early twenties and had grown up on the Malayan peninsula; both were zoology majors. After the roar, I had a mutiny on my hands; all five of them wanted to return to the Field Center. It was about 8:00 P.M. and we had gone a little more than a kilometer. But I was not happy about the idea of returning without employing the slow, deliberate hunting technique we had used to get to our current position. The roar was clearly some distance away and there seemed to be no immediate danger from any beast, real or imagined. The discussion among the five seemed to focus on the probability that the sound came from a sun bear. Since I had no field experience with any species of bear, who was I to argue? The next morning we drove to the Sapat Kalisun and there was no question as to the source of the roar. Elephant droppings littered the road. They had come quite close to the Field Center the previous night and had pulled down large clumps of roadside vegetation as they fed. Bornean elephants are something of a mystery. They are restricted to northeastern Sabah and Eastern Kalimantan. This region has fertile soil with mineral deposits, is relatively flat, and has a low density of people to hunt the elephants. No fossil remains have been found and there are no indigenous tribal names for the species. These facts suggest that it may have been introduced to the island in historic times,

9 31 possibly by the Sultan of Sulu. Our closest elephant encounter occurred on the Sapat Kalisun at night. Rain was threatening, but I decided to work the stream in an effort to get a transect completed before a major downpour made field work impossible. On the return trip downstream I saw Paul kneeling on the stream bank looking into the vegetation. There was a considerable rumbling in the forest and a strong odor assaulted my nostrils. It was the unforgettable odor of elephant, an odor that every zoo-goer knows. Paul had a huge grin on his face and pointing into the vegetation muttered, "Elephant." Sabah elephants have frequent run-ins with farmers. They enter gardens and fields, and damage crops; they occasionally push down buildings; and they show a general dislike for manmade objects. The secondary forest stream we called the "cabin stream" (in recognition of a small cabin built on its bank) was a site used by several Danum researchers. Frank Lambert, a British ornithologist, was conducting a study similar to ours. He was examining bird communities in primary and secondary forests. He used the cabin on occasion for extended periods of time, and the Danum-Lahad Datu shuttle would drop off his mail in a box mounted under a tin roof. This mailbox was located next to the road, about 50 yards downstream from the cabin. Our last visit to the cabin stream was for a night transect. As we approached the point where we normally parked the car, it was obvious to us that something was different. The mail drop was not visible. We'd driven past the section of stream where we normally parked before we realized the maildrop was gone. In fact it had been flattened and elephant footprints surrounded it on the muddy stream bank. One of the greatest disappointments of the trip was not seeing any really large snakes. The largest snake we observed was on a night transea on the cabin stream. Paul was working upstream about 50 feet from me. As I looked upstream, I saw the beam of his headlamp bouncing toward me. In his excitement he had some difficulty telling me that he wanted my thick leather gloves. We returned to his original position, and gliding across the stream in front of us was a large mangrove snake, Boiga dendmphila. It was at least six feet long and Paul was anxious to grab it, but hesitant to do so without gloves. I was mildly amused by this situation since I had seen him pick up a small Wagler's pit viper, Tropidolaemus \ Trimeresunis] wagleri bare handed a few weeks earlier. At that time we had had a serious discussion about taking risks that could lead to injury or death. Within moments of receiving my gloves, he had the snake in hand and in a bag. Despite the fact that we were actively searching for snakes, spending at least five hours in the field daily, and recruiting help from the people at the Field Station, we collected only 50 snakes in 50 days of work. These 50 snakes represented 19 species, and most of them were small fossorial forms or the young of moderate-sized species. The most common form was Pseudorabdion collaris, a tiny, black snake with a pointed nose and, surprisingly, no collar; at least none of the specimens we collected had a collar. All of these were collected by sorting through leaf litter in quadrats or tree buttresses. Snakes are hard to find in tropical rainforests; cryptic coloration, secretive habits and perhaps low population densities decrease the opportunities for encounters with humans. Even Robert Shelford noticed the difficulty of finding snakes in Borneo, "During a seven years' residence in Borneo not half a dozen came under my notice." In addition to the Boiga dendmphila, we collected one of its congeners, Boiga jaspidea, sometimes called the jasper cat snake. This is a smaller, more slender cat snake with a complex pattern of spots and bands. When handled it would coil and rear backward, threatening to strike. I have seen photos of this snake threatening by inflating its neck in a dramatic display, but the specimen we collected did not exhibit this behavior. Back at the museum I had an opportunity to examine all of the snakes collected at Danum over the years, and quite to my surprise the Danum forest contains four species of Boiga. In addition to the two species previously mentioned, the white-spotted cat snake, Boiga drapiezii, and the dark-headed cat snake, Boiga nigriceps, have also been collected at Danum. These two species are of interest for several reasons: both have been reported to lay their eggs in the nests of arboreal termites, and B. nigriceps is known to be capable of causing serious medical problems for humans with its venom. Juvenile B. nigriceps are quite different from the adults, and the first specimens I saw had been mislabeled. It took several hours of looking at keys and species descriptions before I realized that they were juvenile 5. nigriceps. Both species of mock vipers, Psammodynastes pictus and P. pulverutentus, occur at Danum. The latter has a huge distribution which includes the entire Indo-Chinese area from Nepal to southern China, south into the Malayan peninsula, while the former, the painted mock viper, is restricted to the Malayan peninsula, Singapore, Borneo, and some other nearby areas of Indonesia. Both species demonstrate sexual dimorphism: males tend to have a mid-dorsal stripe with cross bars extending from it toward the venter, while the females lack a distinctive pattern and may be almost uniform in color. Harry Greene has recently suggested that the mock viper's teeth are specialized for handling hard-bodied prey, particularly skinks. And Michael Tweedie has reported P. pictus catching prawns from a branch overhanging a stream. One specimen of P. pictus we collected was discovered by Claudia Collier. We were collecting tadpoles on a primary forest stream one morning when Claudia found a neonate on a rock in the middle of the fast-moving water. This species may be somewhat specialized for a stream-edge habitat and for feeding upon crustaceans. Carefully searching the leaf litter by raking through quadrats produced two species of small colubrids in the genus Liopeltis (which means smooth skin). L. baliodeira, the spotted smooth-skin snake or orange-bellied snake, and L. longicauda, the striped smooth-skin snake, make their living hunting spiders and other invertebrates on the forest floor. The leaf litter also yielded three species of reed snakes in the genus Calamaria, and a sunbeam snake, Xenopeltis unicolor. We found other interesting snakes in the vegetation or on the trails. The unusual looking blunt-headed tree-snake,

10 32 Aplopeltura boa, mimics lichen-covered woody stems. Its brown coloration and the unusual tracture of its scales combined with its ability to remain motionless hke a stem make it difficult to see. In his book on the snakes of Thailand, E. H. Taylor reports one falling to the ground and remaining motionless in a semirigid condition as part of its effort at camouflage. We also encountered four specimens of the Oriental whip snake, or vine snake, Ahaetulla prasina, a green snake writh a narrow, pointed head and yellow, ventrolateral stripes. This is another species that demonstrates an unusual defense posture. When captured these snakes never attempted to bite. They would however, extend their blue tongues for long periods of time. One of the whip snake specimens with which we returned was just the tail and the posterior half of the snake's body. It had been captured by a serpent eagle just as two Danum visitors were hiking along the trail. The bird flew off with the front half of the snake, and the guests delivered the other half to us. While working on a quadrat one morning, I startled from its hiding place a striped bronzeback, Dendrelaphis caudolineatus. The snake immediately began climbing a very large tree by working its keeled, notched ventral scutes into the crevices of the bark. Paul, Freddie and Frederic pursued the snake with a volley of sticks, and rocks but failed to knock it off the face of the tree. Many of us have seen North American Elaphe climb a tree, but Dendrelaphis does so with much more speed and agility. One specimen of the elegant bronzeback, D. formosus, has been collected at Danum this may be the most beautiful snake in the world. Anyone doubting this observation should take a look at the photograph in Lim and Lee (1989, page 53). The red-tailed racers, Gonyosoma oxycephala, at Danum have blue-grey tails instead of red tails, and are not as bright green as they are elsewhere. Two specimens we observed had olive-green dorsa. The odd-scaled snake, Xenodermus javanicus, has been found at Danum. Unfortunately I have not collected the species, but others have. If the elegant bronzeback is the most beautiful snake in the world, Xenodermus is the strangest, at least for a colubrid. The common name is derived from the peculiar pattern of scales on the dorsum. The three mid-dorsal rows are relatively normal looking, strongly keeled scales. The scales in the next lateral series are tiny granular structures embedded in the skin. There is one more row of relatively normal, keeled scales on each side of the vertebral column, and then more tiny, granular scales which become progressively larger toward the ventrals. The species reaches about 0.6 m in total length, is an overall brown color, and is known to lay eggs and feed on frogs. However, the feature that immediately grabbed my attention as I peered at a small specimen under the microscope was the flared scales around each nostril. This snake has funnel-shaped nostril openings. Assuming that this unusual struaure is an adaptation for something, I would be very interested to know its function. Of the 35 species of snakes collected by FMNH collectors from Danum, only four are front-fanged, venomous snakes: two pit vipers, Tropidolaemus [ = Trimeresurus] wagleri and Trimeresurus sumatranus, and two elapids, the equatorial spitting cobra, Naja sumatrana [=Naja naja sumatrana], and the king cobra, Ophiophagus hannah. During my visit to Danum we obtained only two specimens of T. wagleri. Paul found a juvenile right outside the Field Center laboratory, and a crew of workmen found a second specimen along a road. They collected it and set it along the roadside so that we would see it as we passed by. The Last Days As we neared the end of our stay at Danum I still had not seen an orangutan, despite the fact that almost everyone else at the Field Station had seen one or more of the red apes. I blamed this ill fortune on my three workers. As we would enter the forest for the morning's work, these guys would move as fast as possible toward our destination, singing all the way. In factjhe most English I could ever elicit from Frederic at one time were the lyrics to old rock and rou songs. "Do-ah didee didee dum didee do" was his favorite, but I am not sure this passes for English. Ron Humbert joined me for the last ten days at Danum and had numerous opportunities to observe the Dusun trio in action. The first morning Ron worked with us, we were doing quadrat and buttress leaf-litter work in a section of secondary forest. As we walked along the trail looking for quadrat locations, we passed a large tree that was raised off the ground by prop roots. A few nights before we had observed a very large Gekko on the trunk of this very tree. The lizard had escaped our capture by entering a hole in the trunk. Casual observations of trees that had been cut by loggers had shown me that many of these huge rainforest trees have hollow centers. Paul stopped at the tree and indicated a desire to "smoke the tree," an idea that had fascinated me ever since I read a description of tree smoking by Gerald Durrell in Three Tickets to Adventure. The principle is simple, start a fire at the base of a hollow tree, the smoke rises, fills the cavity and drives out all sorts of interesting creatures. Before I had a chance to have some second thoughts about this^rocedure, a substantial amount of organic matter was rapidly being oxidized inside the tree and smoke was pouring out the crevice, about 30 ft up the side of the tree. The tree made a great chimney. One small problem remained. How were we going to get the animals that emerged from that tree hole 30 ft up? Paul, of course had this problem solved. He began climbing a smaller neighboring tree. As he climbed, I began telling him not fall because I did not want to have to explain to his mother how he broke his neck trying to capture a giant gecko. Ron and I stood a short distance down the trail where we could observe the tree hole from which the lizard was expected to emerge. About fifteen minutes after the smoke started pouring out of the tree, a small gecko of an unknown species ran out of the hole, and a few minutes later a much larger gecko emerged. As we shouted its position to Paul who was perched precariously near the top of the smaller tree, his hands fell about two feet short of the big lizard. It was out of reach and soon made a quick escape into the canopy of the large tree. As Ron and I extinguished the fire, he assured mc that his expectations for the trip had already

11 33 been fulfilled. Our time at Danum had run out. The drift fences and traps had been shut down. The specimens had been packed and our personal belongings were in open suitcases. Freddie and Frederic had left on the shuttle bus for Lahad Datu; Ron, Paul and I were going to drive to Sandakan and then back to KK. The last few weeks had been drier than expected, which meant that the roads should be in good shape. Theo DeVris showed up at our door in the middle of the afternoon before we were to leave and told us of a large male orangutan on the west trail. We quickly unpacked our boots and leech stockings and headed for the ape. Because of the lack of light in the forest, neither of us bothered with a camera. Within 15 minutes we were within 6 m of the ape. He was in a small tree feeding on greenish fruits. Theo and Claudia had made the hike with us. As we circled the area for the best view the Pongo showed no interest, but after we had been there for a time he showed his agitation by attempting to urinate on us. He was trapped in the small tree; the only way he could escape from that tree was to come to the ground and walk across the forest floor. Eventually he decided that he would not tolerate our presence any longer and as he descended all of our hearts started to beat a little more rapidly. While I did not feel threatened or in any danger, nevertheless this was one large animal. As we backed away, so did the orang. The next morning we left Danum. The roads in Sabah are poor by American standards and for much of the drive we could not exceed 5 miles per hour. Holes, ruts and washboards seemed to loosen every joint and tooth in our bodies. The two-day trip gave us an opportunity to see Sabah from the ground. Both Ron and I had flown to Lahad Datu, so our experience with Sabah had been at Danum and from the air. The scenery was quite depressing. We could have been driving across the midwestem U.S. in many places. Oil palm plantations have replaced much of the tropical rainforest. Along the roadside, piles of logs from rainforest trees were commonplace, and we were rarely out of sight of other cars for more than a few minutes. Borneo is no longer a wilderness, at least not in Sabah. Danum Valley and a few other locations are the last large expanses of primary forest remaining in Sabah. The good news is that if areas of secondary forest are allowed to regrow, with some nearby patches of primary rainforest most or at least many of the rainforest flora and fauna may survive the massive deforestation. We worked in some excellent secondary forest, and without the quantitative data gathered for the study being done by Inger and Voris, a best guess is that old secondary forest probably has a herpetofauna that is almost as diverse as primary rainforest. However, there is no doubt humans have done some serious environmental damage to the island of Borneo. The drive across Sabah did not add much to our list of Borneo herps. A road killed Naja sumatrana and several DOR and AOR Varanus salvatorwere all that we saw. Back in KK we checked into a comfortable hotel, contacted Rob Steubing and started to complete the paperwork to ship the specimens back to Chicago. Our last encounter with Southeast Asian herps came when Rob awakened Ron and I at some absurd hour one morning because it was low tide. We drove down the coast, parked the car and walked across a mud flat to a rock pile crowned with a thick growth of ferns. As we searched the salt-resistant vegetation, we found a shed skin our first clue that our quarry was nearby. Soon Rob pulled a five-foot female banded sea krait, Laticauda colubrina from the ferns. By the time Ron and I got to his location, he had one in each hand. These sea snakes feed in the ocean but carry out most of the rest of their lives on land. Rob handed one of the snakes to Ron and we started climbing dovm the rocks to a flat area where we could photograph the snakes. Ron slipped and fell forward, throwing the snake away from his body as he did so. Luckily he did not land on the snake. His leg was bleeding and badly bruised. We finished photographing the snakes, and returned to KK. Three days later we were home. References Hose, C The field book of a jungle-wallah, being a description of shore, river and forest life in Sarawak. Singapore: Oxford University Press. [1985 reprint.] Inger, R. F The systematics and zoogeography of the Amphibia of Borneo. Fieldiana: Zoology 52: (Reprinted in 1990 by Lun Hing Trading Company, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia] Tadpoles of the forested regions of Borneo. Fieldiana Zoology N.S. No. 26. Lim, F., and M. Lee Fascinating snakes of Southeast Asia, an introduction. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Tropical Press. Payne, J., C. M. Francis and K. Phillips A field guide to the mammals of Borneo. Sabah, Malaysia: The Sabah Society with Worid Wildlife Fund Malaysia. Shelford, R. W. C A naturalist in Borneo. Singapore: Oxford University Press. [1985 reprint] Taylor, E. H The serpents of Thailand and adjacent waters. University of Kansas Science Bulletin 45(9): Tweedie, M. W. F The snakes of Malaya. 3rd Edition. Singapore: Singapore National Printers. Wallace, A. R (1969 reprint). The Malay Archipelago. New York: Dover Publications. Whitmore, T. C Tropical rain forests of the far east. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

12 34 Figure 2. The Danum Valley Field Center (DVFC) in southwestem Sabah. The main guest house is on the left, the laboratory building is in the center and the Segama River is at the lower right of the photo. Figure 3. This suspension footbridge across the Segama River connects the DVFC with a large tract of primary dipterocarp rainforest to the left of the bridge. Figure 4. A tract of secondary rainforest in back of an area that was recently clear-cut. Despite the obvious damage to the habitat, we frequently heard gibbons calling from the patch of forest in the background. Figure 5. Puddles along logging roads attracted several species of rhacophorid treefrogs that deposit their eggs in foam nests. The foam nests may prc-adapt these species to survive in the more open, drier environments created by logging. Figure 6. A side pool along a densely vegetated secondary forest stream. This habitat is used by rhacophorid and ranid frogs. Harold K. Voris of the FMNH is on the left and Paul is on the right. Figure 7. I.eptobrachium montanum, the large-eyed litter frog. We collected this relatively common species in the forest leaf litter as well as along stream margins.

13 35 I Figure 11. Rhacophorus appendiculatus, the frilled tree frog, was collected only around a swamp in primary rainforest. The individu- al above is a female, Figure 10. Rhacophorus gauni, the short-nosed treefrog, inhabits primary forest stream margins. The distinctive horn-like projections above the eyes and the flaps on the heels are composed of soft tissue. Figure 12. Rhacophorus nigropalmatus, Wallace's flying frog. attains a snout-vent length of 100 mm and is bright green in color, with yellow and black webbing between the toes. Figure 13. Nyctixalus pictus, the white-spotted treefrog, is a small canopy-dwelling species which deposits its eggs in tree holes, 3i

14 36 Figure 15. Rana palavanensis, the smooth guardian frog, uses terrestrial egg-laying sites. The male parent attends the eggs; when the tadpoles hatch, the male transports the larvae to pools. Figure 16. Slaurois lalopalmatus, the rockskipper, is a powerful swiminer and jumper closely associated with fast-moving water. Figure 17. Calluella smithi, a leaf-litter microhylid found in the Danum Valley. Figure 18. Aeluroscalobotes felinus, the cat gecko, has retractile claws and a prehensile tail. The one above was taken from the vegetation about two meters above the ground. Figure 19. Cosymbotes craspedotus, a flying gecko, was collected on a piling of the suspension bridge shown in Figure 3. Note the heavy webbing between the fingers for increased air resistance.

15 Figure 20. Gonocephalus liogaster, a large agamid lizard that sleeps on branches in understory shrubs. Figure 21. Phoxophrys nigrilabis, a small agamid lizard that sleeps on branches over streams. Figure 22. Draco maximus, a flying lizard of the Danum Valley. This specimen was collected at night from a tree trunk. Figure 23. Ahaetulla prasina, the oriental whip snake, is a specialized arboreal colubrid that extends its tongue in a defensive display. Figure 25. Tropidolaemus wagleri, Wagler's pit viper, is rarely en- countered at Danum. However, we found one just outside the laboratory at the Field Center, and a second one in roadside vegetation. Figure 24. Liopeltis longicauda, the striped smooth-skin snake, hunts invertebrates in the leaf litter.

16 Bull. Chicago Herp Soc. 27(2):38-39, The world's rarest and most endangered tortoise hves in an ever-diminishing scrub habitat near the bamboo forests of Madagascar. Closely related to the radiated tortoise, the Malagasy prow-breasted tortoise (Geochelone yniphora) or plowshare tortoise is so named for the characteristic protrusion of the plastron between the tortoise's front legs and under its head. The protrusion is used by males to joust each other in competition for available mates, and in courtship. On its native Madagascar, the tortoise is known as angonoka and is the unfortunate victim of local folklore. Villagers keep angonokas in the mistaken belief that this practice will prevent poultry disease. Others keep them as pets because adult angonokas can.grow to two feet in length and weigh up to 30 pounds, large enough to carry small children on their backs. These animals have considerably shortened life-spans in captivity, so villagers continually deplete wild populations for their supplies of captive tortoises. Predation is another threat to the plowshare tortoise. Eggs and hatchlings are readily eaten by indigenous species such as the Madagascar boa, kite, crow and crested wood ibis. But the most damaging predator by far is an introduced species, the African bush pig, which not only takes eggs and hatchlings, but wall readily consume fairly large juveniles as well. Because of the Islamic prohibition against consumption of pork, the bush pigs have proliferated on the island to the point at which they are a serious threat to the angonoka's survival. As is the case for most, if not all, endangered species, the plowshare's greatest threat is habitat destruction. Local populations practice slash-and-burn methods for growing rice and manioc crops and to provide grazing for zebu cattle herds. Because of a rapid increase in population, people are often forced to use the same areas repeatedly, not giving forests and surrounding areas a chance to recover. Additionally, grasslands are often burned during the island's dry season, causing extensive fires. Those tortoises that aren't roasted Chelonian Communique by Jill Horwich alive and don't die of asphyxiation are forced to migrate to new areas of suitable habitat, which are not often easily found. Estimates of the number of angonokas remaining in the wild vary from as few as 20 to as many as 400. Even the most optimistic estimate doesn't present a hopeful outlook for the plowshare's survival. The good news is that we can help by contributing to Wildlife Preservation Trust International, Inc. WPTI is a non-profit organization "dedicated to the preservation of endangered species through captive breeding. The Trust supports propagation programs, reintroduction research, education and professional training programs." Project Angonoka was founded in 1986 by the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, WPTI's parent organization, and initially funded by the Herpetological Conservation Trust and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature. In 1987 WPTI contributed $2700 toward an assessment of Madagascar's herpetofauna. WPTI's contribution to the project had grown to $10,000 by 1989 and continues to grow annually. The project comprises three areas of concentration. First is the captive breeding program, which began in 1986 with eight tortoises transported to the Forestry Station in Ampijoroa from another Station on the island's humid east coast. Ampijoroa is approximately 150 km outside the species' range, but has the hot, dry climate to which the plowshare tortoise is adapted. The breeding program is supervised by Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust Field Officer Don Reid. Despite some setbacks early in the breeding efforts, Reid has been able to improve the hatchlings' success rate dramatically. He's determined the egg incubation period to be from 189 to 214 days. When the eggs are ready to hatch, the ground must be moist enough for the tortoises to dig their way to the surface. If the rains haven't begun, the ground is baked dry and the hatchlings can't break the surface. Reid provides the moisture needed for the tortoises to emerge. Additionally, he uses electronic monitoring equipment to A hatchling angonoka, no bigger than a hatchling box turtle, emerges from its underground nest. A beautiful adult plowshare tortoise.

17 39 PSOJST IQOnOKA The Project Angonoka T-shirt, available through WPTI. keep track of nest activity. In 1989 Reid's Malagasy assistant, Germain Rakotobearison was sent to Jersey, U.K., for trainittg in tortoise husbandry. Reid and Rakotobearison now manage the successful breeding program together. In 1991, ten tortoises were hatched at Ampijoroa, bringing the total number of young to 31. Another important part of the program is education of the local populace. This goal is pursued in a variety of ways. A poster was designed, featuring the angonoka and providing information about its conservation in three languages: Malaga^, French and EngUsh. As a result, ten adult tortoises were donated to the breeding facility by people who'd been keeping them as pets, bringing the total number of adults to 17, although two of the new females haven't reached breeding age yet. The poster was distributed in local schools and was so successful that the same technique was used to educate the pubuc about another endangered species of Madagascar, the lemur. Guided tours of the Forestry Station at Ampijoroa are available to schools and other interested groups. Research is being conducted into ways to assist villagers in combating poultry disease so that they don't rely on the angonoka. Local university students are recruited to study the tortoise, both in captivity and in the wild. They observe food requirements, breeding and habitat needs. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the third phase of the project will be the establishment of a protected reserve in the wild for the tortoises. Investigations are currently underway to find a suitable site for the reserve. Young tortoises should be ready for release into a protected habitat in approximately six years. Madagascar natives now have a stake in securing a future for these most endangered of chelonians. If you'd like to help WPTI in its efforts to support the angonokas of Madagascar, as well as many other endangered species such as the thick-billed parrot of the North American southwest and the golden lion tamarin of Brazil, write the Trust at 3400 West Girard Avenue, Philadelphia PA Individual memberships start at $25 and Project Angonoka T-shirts are available for $15. The tortoises will thank you. Author's note: photographs courtesy of Don Reid, Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. ASIA AFRICA NORTH & SOUTH AMERICA Large Worldwide Selection IN-STOCK! Specializing in Reptiles & Amphibians Expert Husbandry Advice to Customers Inventory Selected, Cared For & Shipped with the Highest Standards Books & Reference Materials GULF COAST REPTILES CALL (813) FAX (813) McGregor Blvd. Fort Myers, FL 33919

18 Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 27(2):40-41, Quote of the Month "I like the looks of frogs, and their outlook, and especially the way they get together in wet places on warm lughts and sing about sex." - Archie Carr [from a cartoon on the door in the offices of a government department in Florida] Giant holdup for construction Thamnophis gigas (aka Thamnophis couchi gigas), the giant garter snake endemic to California, was formerly found as far south as Bakersfield and north into the Sacramento Valley. Now, its range is limited to 11 isolated valley areas including the Grasslands district near Los Bafios in Merced County. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service will accept public comments on the proposal to list the giant garter snake as an endangered species until February 25,1992. They may schedule public hearings after the written comment period. Do not let the cut-off date stop you from writing your local Fish and Wildlife office with a request that they forward it for you. It is extremely important to let both the local and national offices know that herp people are interested in what Fish and Wildlife does. The proposed endangered listing may stop major construction projects in California's Central Valley, including the following: a housing project for 140,000 residents on 13,000 acres of land currently used to grow rice in southern Sutter County; 19,000 acres of proposed development near Sacramento Metropolitan Airport; stream channelizing; road improvements; 11 unspecified residential developments in Laguna Creek-Elk Grove; new cities proposed for San Joaquin County; and federal flood control projects under way in Merced County. The giant garter snake was listed as a threatened species by the California Department of Fish and Game in Its decline can be attributed to the Central Valley's loss of wetlands. Originally covering 4 million acres, wetlands now occupy about 250,000 acres, of which only about 88,000 acres meet Thamnophis gigas habitat requirements. Federal officials say the largest remaining swath of snake habitat, which is in the large flood basin near the confluence of the American and Sacramento rivers, could be wiped out if the Army Corps of Engineers proceeds with ambitious flood control plans. [Sacramento Bee, January 3, 1992, by Michael Doyle, contributed by Bruce Hannem.] Goal = no net loss of habitat Floridians will have 45 days to comment on a preliminary environmental report on a Sumter County site for a new Federal prison. At risk are gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus) and eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon corais couperi). Don Wood, the endangered-species coordinator for the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, said there are four options for building on land occupied by threatened and special-concern species: 1) not building; 2) building around the animals; 3) building on the habitat after relocation of the animals; 4) building on the animals' habitat after killing them. Options three and four require special state permits. [Leesburg [FL] Daily Commercial, contributed by Bill Burnett] HerPET-POURM by Ellin Beltz Next, treat humans rattily? Charles Richey, a U.S. District Judge, has ordered the Agriculture Department to reconsider its 20-year-old policy exempting rats, mice and birds from rules requiring humane conditions for experimental animals. The department claims adding birds, rats and mice to its regulations would double or triple the inspection workload. Does anyone know the status of reptiles and amphibians in Department of Agriculture rules? [Chicago Tribune, January 9, 1992.] India versus turtle poachers The Indian Coast Guard has launched an unprecedented operation against poaching of the endangered olive ridley sea turtle off Orissa, on India's east coast. Four boats, two aircraft and 160 personnel are guarding the seas to crack down on poachers. About 500,000 female olive ridleys arrive every year, from late November to January, to lay about 50 million eggs on the 35-kilometer stretch of Gahirmatha beach in the Cutack district of Orissa. The turtle meat is processed at Calcutta and shipped to Japan and the West primarily Italy. Last year the Coast Guard apprehended 17 trawlers poaching and an undetermined number of egg collectors. [Indian Express, March 11, 1991, contributed by the Madras Crocodile Bank, Tamil Nadu, India] Scaly wish comes true Make-a-Wish Foundation, which provides terminally ill children with special events they long for, recently arranged a meeting between a 5-year-old Davis, California, boy suffering from leukemia and a 24-year-old alligator, the pet of a Carson, California, resident. The child had become interested in reptiles by watching nature programs on television. Make-a- Wish said this was one of their most unusual requests; typically children want to go to Disneyland or meet celebrities. \Los Angeles Times, December 29,1991, contributed by Greg Naclerio] Recession and glut lower skin prices Alligator farmers and ranchers have worked hard to bring gators back from the brink of extinction, hoping their efforts would be rewarded by high prices for captive raised skins. But the recession, an oversupply, and a perception that the animal is endangered have reduced sales. Prices are down to about $12 per foot from $24 per foot a year ago. Fanners are holding skins off the market. Annual production is about 300,000 skins, 28% of which are tanned in the U.S., with the balance finished overseas. [Chicago Tribune, December 15, 1991] Exotic animals hottest pet fad Gordon Gallup, a psychologist at the State University of New York who studies human attitudes toward animals said, "More and more people are sick of common pets. They want something different." Animal dealers are filling that need with hundreds of animal species that are highly inappropriate as pets. Unwanted pets clog shelters or are released into

19 41 streams and fields where they do not belong. Parrots and macaws from Central America are naturalizing in south Texas; various reptiles are breeding like natives in southern Rorida and other parts of the country. Kinkajous, capuchins, oscars, wallabys, conures, potbellied pigs, spider monkeys and caimans are among the exotic animals turning up in animal shelters. Wallace Swett, the manager of a nonprofit sanctuary for unwanted pet primates near San Antonio, Texas, said, "People who want to get close to these animals should just buy some binoculars and watch the Nature Channel." Illegal smuggling is also on the rise. Seven hundred baby boa constrictors were found in one illegal shipment. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's senior resident agent at Kennedy International Airport said, "[venomous species are] becoming popular in some social circles." Another FWS agent, Robert Onda, summed up the trend toward exotic pets, "It all comes down to uniqueness: I have one and you don't." [Wall Street Journal, December 2,1991, contributed by P. L. Beltz; Animal Transportation Association, Volume 14, Number 3, August 1991, contributed by Barbara Daddario, New York Turtle and Tortoise Society] Chicago Turtle Club news For those interested in turtles, a S5 payment to Jan Spitzer, 1939 West Lunt, Chicago, IL 60626, will get you on the mailing list of the Chicago Turtle Club. They hold monthly meetings at the Emmerson Park Fieldhouse and publish a semiregular newsletter. About 30 Turtle Club members are up for renewal (if you're one, please send your 5 bucks) and the treasury is down to about $100. Your renewal or new membership will be greatly appreciated. [Chicago Turtle Club Newsletter, Fall, 1991] Thanks to everyone who contributed this month. It was heartening to come home from vacation to a mailbox full of clippings and contributions from members who like to read this column. Remember, this column uses only material found by the writer or sent in by the readers. If you see clippings you think would be interesting to our readers, please send them to: Ellin Beltz, 1647 North Clyboum Avenue, Chicago, IL Be sure to include the date and publication along with your name so I can give you credit for being sharp of mind and quick with scissors. Curious bits from old books, strange herp postcards and other odd items are also appreciated. W THE GOURMETI ^ RODENT RATS AND MICE FOR YOUR HERPS PINKIES THRU ADULTS: LIVE OR FROZEN. CONTACT: BILL BRANT 3496 STATE ROAD 346-A ARCHER FT (904) FAX (904) SCOTT J. MICHAELS, DVM P.O. Box 657 Island Lalce, Illinois G CAPTIVE-BRED SNAKES SEND S.A.S.E. FOR 1992 PRICE LIST CmCAGOLAND'S LARGEST WHOLESALE & RETAIL BUY-SELL-TRADE

20 Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 27(2):42-43, 1992 Sea turtles sucked into the void. Vacuum-like dredges used along the eastern seaboard may be responsible for the deaths of hundreds of sea turtles each year. Researchers for a National Academy of Sciences study estimated that up to 500 loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, and up to 50 Kemp's ridley sea turtles, Lepidochelys kempt, are killed annually by these dredges at ports between North Carolina and Port Canaveral, Florida. Federal officials of The National Marine Fisheries Service recently ruled that the dredges cannot be used in Port Canaveral, and can be used only during the winter months in other ports between North Carolina and Port Canaveral. Other types of dredges that move much slower and make more noise give the sea turtles a chance to escape. [Otimdo Sentinel, December 13,1991] Snake wrangling for rupees. Conservation is an easy doctrine to preach as long as it isn't detrimental to your lifestyle. Far too often we fail to take into account the consequences of conservation in other countries. It's easy to be righteous on a full stomach. When humans are forced to choose between themselves and other species, humans usually get the nod. In instances like this alternatives must be made available if both species are to survive. It can be done, as the next few paragraphs will illustrate. The Irula tribe of southern India, a tribe of hunter-gatherers, has lived on the scrub plains of southern India for thousands of years. Irulas have always held snakes in high regard; their religion is based in part on ancient serpent-worshipping cults. Deities known as nagas were represented by cobras in Irula lore. In the 1800s as British colonialism spread inland, upland forests were cut down and the traditional big game hunted by the Irulas disappeared. The Irulas turned to hunting small game, rodents, reptiles, and insects for food. According to an article in Wildlife Conservation, (January/February 1992) the Irula also began selling snakeskins to the British for export. The trade in snakeskins flourished in the latter part of the nineteenth century and reached its peak in the mid-1960s, at which time an estimated 10 million skins a year were being consumed by the industry. HerpWatch by David Lawrence Then came the 1970s and the beginning of an international environmental conscience. A meeting was held by 88 nations in Washington, D.C., in 1973 where the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was formulated. The Convention was designed to regulate trade in wild animals and plants so that species were not overexploited. Listing of CITES species began in The Endangered Species Art, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1973, imposed restrirtions on the collecting of endangered species in the U.S. and prohibited interstate and foreign commerce in foreign and native endangered species. These new regulations forced India to start shutting down the reptile skin trade and by 1976 the legal snakeskin trade there was finished. Over too was the economic independence that the skin trade had brought the Irulas. If their unique cuuure was to be preserved something had to be done. Fortunately the Irulas had a friend in Romulus Whitaker, an American-born herpetologist who had worked in India for many years. Whitaker began dealing with the Irulas in the late 1960s. They supplied him with snakes for his venom-extraction business in Bombay. Later Whitaker gave up the venomextrartion business and opened the Madras Snake Park. The Irulas supplied Whitaker's snakes. While with the Snake Park, Whitaker became aware of the plight facing several species of Indian snakes and helped formulate government protection for these species. He also realized that the Irulas, India's professional snake catchers, were dependent on the snakeskin trade for their livelihood. He sought an alternative means for the Irulas to utilize their unique talent and support themselves. Whitaker suggested that the Irulas form a cooperative and do their own venom extraaion instead of supplying the government with snakes for venom extraction. The Irula Snake Catchers Industrial Cooperative was formed in Whitaker assists the Irulas with marketing, but the coop has been wholly owned and operated by the tribe since In the last ten years the Irulas have nearly cornered the market on snake venom used in the manufarture of antivenin in India. More than 10,000 people die every year in India from snakebite alone! The Irula snake co-op doesn't bite the hand that feeds it. Instead of killing and skinning the snakes used in the program, the Irulas release them after a series of venom extractions. Their venom-extraction center is located on the grounds of the Madras Crocodile Bank, a Whitaker-owned breeding and research facility. The tribesmen bring their catches into the center where they are paid a fee for each specimen, some species bringing more than others. The venom of four different groups of snakes are used in antivenin production in India. Kraits {Btmgarus species) bring the most money; next come the saw-scaled viper {Echis carinatus), the Asiatic cobra {Naja naja ssp.) and the Russell's viper (Vipera russelli). The snakes at the co-op have venom extracted from them once a week for three weeks. At the end of three weeks the snakes are marked (probably some sort of scale clipping) and released on reserve forest land. The snakes are marked to prevent recapture for venom extraction. The snakes aren't killed, the Irulas receive pay for their talent, and India is supplied with antivenin for their serious snakebite problem. The irony of this process doesn't escape me conservation of venomous species is not without its hazards. Brazilian turtles butchered. Ten short years ago the slaughter of sea turtles along Brazil's 4,600-mile South Atlantic coastline was a rallying cause for defenders of endangered species in developing countries. The conservation of sea turtles in Brazil was limited to having them on file at the Brazilian Institute for Forestry Development. Their names were listed only in Latin and they were misspelled. So says oceanographer Guy Guagni dei Marcovaldi in a story in the December 22, 1991, Daily Commercial, (Leesburg, Florida). The villagers of Praia do Forte, located 50 miles north of Salvador, eagerly awaited the annual arrival of egg-laying sea

21 43 turtles to Brazil's densest concentration of sea turtle nesting sites. According to Marcovaldi all the villagers would go out to collect the sea turtle eggs and kill the turtles. They would eat the eggs, eat the turtles, and sell their shells. Almost all the sea turtles that visited the Brazilian coast were killed. Now the five species of sea turtles that nest on Brazilian beaches can come ashore in relative safety. Their eggs are still being collected during the laying season from September through March, but they aren't being eaten. They are being incubated. Workers, mostly fishermen, scour 620 miles of Brazil's top nesting beaches each morning in search of sea turtle eggs. The eggs are placed in insulated boxes and carted by dune buggy to one of Brazil's 18 coastal hatcheries. Last season 230,000 baby sea turtles were hatched and released. In February of 1992, Brazilians will celebrate the one millionth sea turtle hatched in the 11th year of Project Tamar, short for tartarugas marinhas, or sea turtles in Portuguese. 'Tamar is a model for developing countries in sea-turtle protection," said Dr. Karen A. Bjorndal, an American zoologist who direrts the Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research at the University of Florida at Gainesville. The funds for Project Tamar are provided by a revitalized Brazilian environmental agency and local corporate sponsors. Even Brazil's number one soap opera actress is lending a hand. Cnstiana Oliveira's poses in T-shirts depicting sea turtles have made the cause fashionable. Marcovaldi and his wife, Maria Angela, a fellow oceanographer who is the president of Tamar, conducted a two-year survey to determine the primary nesting sites for sea turtles on Brazil's shoreline. Based on their results, the $800,000 annual budget of Tamar is used to concentrate on patrolling the 13% of Brazil's shoreline that accounts for 90% of the sea turtle nests. Former poachers staff the 18 coastal hatcheries; they know where the turtles come to shore to nest. One tagged turtle came back to nest under the exact same palm tree after a two year absence. Tamar educates fishing communities concerning the dangers of extinction. Tamar workers hand out free turtle T-shirts and posters and offer free jeep rides to villagers in an effort to foster goodwill. At seven of the coastal hatcheries visited by tourists Tamar hires the locals to work as salespeople and sells locally made souvenirs. Village children get to dress up as sea turtles in "turtle carnivals", visit hatcheries, and observe ceremonial releasings where the sea turtle hatchlings race across the sand into the ocean. Sea turtle conservation videos are shovm in the villages. Tamar has invested a great deal of money, time, and effort in educating the people of Brazil and the efforts seem to be paying off. The once bloody Brazilian shoreline now provides safe haven for the loggerhead, the leatherback, the hawksbill, the Kemp's ridley, and the olive ridley. Too much of a good thing. Some efforts to save sea turtles may actually be doing them more harm than good. Scientists from the Virginia Institute of Marine Science (VIMS) recently released surprising information regarding some headstarted turtles, showing that eight young Atlantic loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, raised in aquariums and released into the ocean in September, 1991, appear lost and confused. The turtles didn't adhere to standard migration patterns; they scattered instead of migrating south with thousands of wild loggerheads. The eight young turtles have also stayed close to the surface instead of near the bottom where wild loggerheads feed. John Keinath, a research assistant at VIMS, feels the turtles erratic behavior may cost them their lives. The eight loggerheads were raised from hatchlings in aquariums at VIMS, at the Virginia Marine Science Museum in Virginia Beach and at the Columbus Zoo (Ohio). The turtles were raised in captivity until they were two years old. The animals should be 10 to 15 miles off the coast of North or South Carolina in December and paddling south following the warm water and the food supply. Most of the aquarium turtles headed in other directions. Unfortunately, the batteries have quit in the tiny radio transmitters glued to their shells, which were supposed to enable the scientists to track them by satellite. Several of the turtles headed north and east. One turtle got out into the Gulf Stream and was onethird of the way to Europe when his transmitter died. Keinath said that the turtles may be following their instincts, two years too late. Hatchling loggerheads often paddle toward the Gulf Stream where they seek shelter in clumps of golden sargassum weed adrift in the warm current. The weed provides them with food as well as shelter. As the loggerheads mature their dietary needs change and they begin to feed on the crabs, snails, and mussels on the sea floor. Keinath and his associates think the young loggerheads may adjust to normal behavior patterns in a few months, if they live that long. Based upon their findings the researchers suspect that raising sea turtles in captivity for later release into the wild may not be a good idea after all. [Roanoke Times & World News, December 16,1991] The Church of the Lord Jesus an update. I reported on the handling of venomous snakes as a test of Christian faith in the March 1991 issue of this, Bulletin. As you may recall, this practice has been outlawed in every state in the union except West Virginia. Maybe it's time to outlaw it in West Virginia. The congregation of the Church of the Lord Jesus, located in Jolo, West Virginia, has had another member called home. Granted, it's the first one called home in 29 years due to this practice, but it's the kinda call you can't ignore. A reporter described this scene {Roanoke Times & World News, December 17,1991). "Some of you are wonderin'," says the Rev. Bob Elkins softly, "why someone else didn't get bit and die." The question dangles uneasily in the air. A folding chair creaks. Every seat in the Church of the Lord Jesus, and every bit of standing room, is occupied for this unforgettable funeral. "Well, maybe the other feller wasn't worthy to die for the Word!" A chorus of lusty amens. Ray Johnson, age 52, of Galax, Virginia, died Monday December 9, 1991, 13 hours after he was bitten during Sunday services by a 3-foot timber rattlesnake in the Church of the Lord Jesus. Ray leaves behind a wife and five children. I rest my case. Amen. I'd like to thank the following individuals for their continued contributions to this column: Mary Anderson, Steve Barten, Sally Brewer, William L. Burnett, Mike Dloogatch, Esther Lewis, Joan Moore, and Don Wheeler.

22 Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 27(2):44-46, Herpetology 1992 In this column the editorial staff presents short abstracts of herpetological articles we have found of interest. This is not an attempt to summarize all of the research papers being published. It is an attempt to increase the reader's awareness of what professional herpetologists have been doing and publishing. The editors assume full responsibility for any errors or misleading statements regarding the results of the abstracted research. JCM CANADIAN PAINTED TURTLE SUBSPECIES D. M. Gordon [1990, The Canadian Field-Naturalist 104(3): ] examines painted turtles, Chrysemys picta, from nine locations in southwestern Quebec and eastern Ontario. The specimens were analyzed for the degree of seam disalignment in carapace scutes, pleural border widths, and size of the plastron figure (characters used to distinguish subspecies C. p. marginata and C. p. picta). Attributes associated with the eastern subspecies C. p. picta were found in populations from southwestern Quebec. It has been previously suggested that Chrysetnys populations in the Canadian Maritimes should be considered as a mixed assemblage of the two subspecies. The results of this study support this view and suggest that the hybrid populations extend as far west as the Quebec-Ontario border. NESTING BEHAVIOR OF FEMALE PINE SNAKES J. Burger and R. T. Zappalorti [1991, J. Herpetol. 25(2): ] describe nesting behavior in the pine snake, Pituophis m. melanoleucus in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. The authors note that P. melanoleucus, a wide ranging species, has been reported to lay its eggs in mammal burrows elsewhere in the range. However females in the Pine Barrens population excavate their own nests. This may be due to a lack of burrowing mammals in the area. The females excavate a tunnel and nest chamber for egg laying. Females initially make slight depressions in the sand (pre-test hole, 22%), then construct small test holes (16%), and finally excavate long tunnels leading to nest burrows (62%). Test holes and nests did not differ in most external characteristics (dump pile size, entrance size), although they did differ in soil moisture at the end of the tunnel, mean tunnel length and the number of turns. Mean clutch size was 9.5 (range 4-16) and was related to female SVL. FOOD HABITS OF THE VIPERINE SNAKE IN SPAIN J. M. Pleguezuelos and M. Moreno [1989, Rev. Esp. Herp. 3(2): ] report on the spring diet of Nattix maura in the southeastern Iberian Peninsula. One hundred fifty-four specimens of N. maura from museum collections were examined, and ten kinds of prey were found. According to diet frequency they are: earthworms, fishes (the most important prey by weight), frogs, leeches, arthropods, reptiles, and mammals. No difference in diet between the sexes was found. Adults took a wider range of prey by size than did juveniles. Of the ten kinds of prey taken, eight are aquatic or found associated with water. However the large number of earthworms taken suggests N. maura hunts away from water. [Text in Spanish] NEW SPECIES OF SNAKE IN THE GENUS SIBYNOMORPHUS G. Orces and A. Almendariz [1989, Politecnica (Quito, Ecuador) 14(2):60-66] describe S. oligozonatus and S. petersi from the Pacific side of the Ecuadorian Andes. Both species were found at an altitude above 2200 m in a dry, temperate shrub land that has been transformed into agricuhural land. S. petersi reaches an SVL of 660 mm. It is similar to S. vagrans but has a higher number of ventrals and subcaudals, as well as some differences in coloration. S. oligozonatus is also similar to S. vagrans but differs in subcaudals and head scalation. It is described on the basis of one specimen with an SVL of273 mm. [Text in Spanish] CAN HARVESTING SEA TURTLE EGGS BENEFIT THE TURTLE POPULATION? I. Wehrtmann [1990, Natur Museum (Frankfurt) 120(12): ] discusses the impact of harvesting olive ridley eggs in Costa Rica. The author notes that people living along the shore have traditionally collected turtle eggs for their own consumption, and to sell in markets. A 1948 law prohibited turtle egg collection but was not observed. In 1987 the Costa Rican government made it legal to collect turtle eggs in the vicinity of the village of Ostional on the country's Pacific coast. Egg collecting is legal on 8 krn of beach, but the olive ridley lays its eggs en masse (an arribada) on a stretch of beach about 880 m long close to the village. During the rainy season the stretch of beach is reduced to m. The arribadas generally occur once a month, and are most frequent during the rainy season. The human population at Ostional is about 1300 people (50 families) who farm, fish and collect turtle eggs. The author compares the number of turtles nesting in Santa Rosa Park where turtles and eggs are strictly protected, and in Ostional where they are collected, and reports that the numbers for Ostional are higher. The hatching rate is 7.9% in Ostional compared to 2.2% in Santa Rosa (Nancita), in spite of the fact that 7-15% of the eggs were collected for commercial use. Apparently natural predators are at lower densities at the Ostional Village beach because it is near the village and humans reduce the number of eggs making it less attractive to natural predators. Also, nesting activities destroy previously made nests at Santa Rosa; the broken and decomposing eggs attract predators and compound the damage done to nests. Broken eggs also increase growth of microorganisms in the sand which are capable of damaging eggs. Thus, in 1987 the village of Ostional had its first supervised turtle egg collection during an arribada, and an estimated 1.5% of the eggs were harvested. [Text in German]

23 45 A VENOMOUS TRIASSIC REPTILE H.-D. Sues [1991, Nature 351: ] describes very distinctive reptile teeth from the early part of the Late Triassic from the Newark Supergroup of Virginia. The teeth have a deeply infolded median groove on both the labial and lingual surfaces of blade-like crowns. These teeth have a close structural similarity to those of living Heloderma and poisonous fangs in extant venomous snakes. On this basis the author suggests they were used for venom conduction. And he notes that this is the earliest known instance of using teeth for venom conduction. Features indicative of an oral venom delivery apparatus have been previously reported in a single fossil amniote other than squamates. The therocephalian therapsid Euchambersia from the Upper Permian of South Africa has a deep lateral recess on the maxilla which opens onto the palate behind the large canine. Grooves leading to the base of this tooth apparently transmitted products from a gland housed in the maxillary recess to a sulcus along the labial margin of the canine. The mostly disassociated but excellently preserved bones and teeth occur in a calcareous mudstone with root traces and coalified plant debris. The new species with venom-conducting teeth is named Uatchitodon kroehleri. The genus is named after Uatchit, the ancient cobra goddess of Lower Egypt. The epithet is after P. A. BCroehler, who found the holotype and several other specimens. EVERGLADES SNAKE ACTTVITY G. H. Dalrymple et al. [1991, Copeia (2): ] find 20 species of snakes in the Long Pine Key region of Everglades National Park. Data on 1782 snakes were collected from 1984 through Peak activity occurred during the wet season from May to October. An analysis of the nine most common species is given in detail. The overall pattern was bimodal; captures peaked in early summer and fall. Coluber constrictor, Diadophis punctatus, Opheodrys aestivus and Thamnophis sauritus were most common in early summer (May-July). Sistrurus miliarius was most common in fall (October). Elaphe guttata, E. obsoleta, Storeria dekayi and T. sirtalis had two or more peaks of activity. Species samples were broken into aduh males, females and nonadults (juveniles plus young of the year). Males were more common in the samples of C. constrictor, E. guttata, E. obsoleta and Sistrurus miliarius. Females were more common in D. punctatus, O. aestivus, Storeria dekayi and T. sirtalis. Both sexes were equally common in T. sauritus. Juveniles and young of the year were especially common in the fall in E. obsoleta, Storeria dekayi, T. sirtalis and Sistrurus miliarius, and comributed significantly to a second peak in numbers. Individuals of many species were encountered at varying frequencies over all 12 months in a year. Since activity patterns and/or relative abundances for the subgroups were different in most species, the authors conclude that activity curves for snake species that do not include data on sex and age may be of limited value for study of phenology and reproductive ecology. Data on hatching and birth dates are presented and when taken with activity data reveal only moderate alteration of typical temperate zone patterns of reproduction and activity in this subtropical region. A NONAGGRESSIVE SEA SNAKE M-C Tu and Y. Su [1991, Bull. Inst. Zool. Academia Sinica 30(l):55-58] recorded the behavior of 48 free-ranging Laticauda semifasciata in the waters around Orchid Island (off the southeastern coast of Taiwan) during a year. None of the snakes confronted underwater made an attack. Eight snakes (17%) swam up to the authors and tongue flicked, and they sometimes made physical contact but did not attempt to bite. Four snakes (8%) swam toward the authors from a long distance but stopped at about 5 meters, tongue flicked, and swam away. Thirty-five snakes (73%) paid no attention to the authors and were not disturbed by the divers even though they were in close proximity to the snakes. One snake (2%) was about 8 m away and fled before it could be approached. Nineteen snakes were held, at first loosely and then with more restraint. Five (26%) attacked (= turning their head and opening mouth in an attempt to bite) when they were held gently, 12 (63%) attacked when they were held tightly, and two made no attack. The attacks were delayed and slow responses to being held. Ten of the 48 snake encounters were during the breeding season and no unusual aggressive behavior was observed. However, the authors caution that this species has very virulent venom. ESD IN REPTILES AND THE SEXUAL DIMORPHISM HYPOTHESIS F. J. Janzen and G. L. Paukstis [1991, Evolution 45(2): ] examine environmental sex determination (ESD) for adaptive value. Using the model put forth by Chamov and Bull that outlined circumstances under which selection should favor ESD, the authors suggest that posthatching growth may be a potential candidate for a fitness trait in reptiles with ESD, because it may correlate with both incubation temperature and offspring sex. If the benefits of adult body size differ between the sexes, the sex that benefits most from being large should be produced at the particular incubation temperature that will yield a large adult. Thus a test of the adaptive significance of sex-determining mechanisms in reptiles is to demonstrate that the pattern of sexual dimorphism in adult body size is correlated with the occurrence of ESD or genetic sex determination in a given taxon. The authors first examine crocodilians; all eight species examined to date show ESD and have large-male sexual dimorphism. However, five of the eight have Type A differentiation where females are produced at intermediate temperatures and males are produced at high temperatures, while the other three species show Type C differentiation where females are produced at low and high temperatures and males at intermediate temperatures. This is contrary to the sexual dimorphism hypothesis. Turtles and lizards use a variety of sex-determination mechanisms and provide a better opportunity to test the sexual dimorphism hypothesis. The authors then examine these taxa with G- tests, after taking into account possible phylogenetic constraints and find that these results are also inconsistent with the sexual dimorphism hypothesis. They conclude that while the sexual dimorphism hypothesis is unsupported, the opportunities for research in this area are encouraging.

24 VENEZUELAN SKUNK FROG: A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF DENDROBATID C. W. Myers et al. [1991, American Museum Novitates 3002: 1-33] describe Ammobates noctumus, a new genus and species of dendrobatid frog discovered in subparamo cloud forest at the extreme northern end of the Venezuelan Andes. Its skin produces a volatile defensive compound with a mercaptanlike odor (mercaptans are organosulfur compounds with an offensive odor at low concentrations; the authors note that the noxious compound produced by this frog has defied analysis). The odor is released only when the frog is handled, and carmot be smelled when it is confined in a closed container. The skin of this species apparently lacks alkaloids found in other members of the family, but it will secrete a thick, sticky mucus. It is the largest species in the family (females reach 62 mm SVL), 24 to 37 percent larger than the largest toxic dendrobatids, and 41 percent larger than the largest Colostethus. UnUke other dendrobatids it is nocturnal and highly aquatic. All were found very close to small rivulets in very dense vegetation. They apparently prefer to walk instead of jump or leap. Aromobates noctumus seems to be the most primitive living dendrobatid and it is postulated to comprise a sister group to all other living members of the Dendrobatidae. MALE CARPET PYTHON SPERMATOGENESIS G. Kuchling [1991, Rec. West. Aust, Mus. 15(1): ] examined the testes, vasa deferentia and kidneys of museum specimens of Morelia spilota imbricata from southwestern Australia and found a prenuptial spermatogenetic pattern. During summer the germinal epithelium is quiescent; multiplication of spermatogonia begins in late summer/autumn; spermatocytogenesis and spermiogenesis progress quickly, the culmination phase of spermiogenesis and spermiation occurring in November. Only during this time of the year is the sexual segment of the kidney hypertrophied; during summer, autumn and winter it is completely regressed, corresponding to the period of sexual quiescence. The male reproductive cycle of the carpet python in southwestern Australia corresponds to patterns found in some snakes of other families in the temperate and subtropical zones. A NEW TOAD FROM THE PERUVIAN ANDES W. E. Duellman and O. Ochoa M. [Copeia 1991(1): ] describe Bufo corynetes from the west slope of Abra Malaga, 50 km northwest of OUantaytambo, Provincia Urubamba, Departamento Cuzco, Peru, at elevations of 3780 and 4361 m. The 35 mm toad is characterized by paravertebral and dorsolateral rows of large, elevated glands. Breeding males have spinous, ball-like thumbs and patches of spines on the chest. All were collected beneath stones at two localities. The 4316 m locality is about 500 m above the treeline, with vegetation described as wet puna (clumped grasses, lichens, deep growths of mosses, and scattered bushes. The lower site was cut-over cloud forest. The specific name is derived from the Greek noun korynetes, used in apposition and meaning bearer of a club or mace. The name refers to the macelike, spiny thumb in breeding males. EVOLUTION OF FROG EGG-LAYING BEHAVIOR IN THE AMAZON W. E. Magnusson and J.-M. Hero [1991, Oecologia 86: ] report that terrestrial oviposition with free-living aquatic larvae is a common reproductive mode used by amphibians within the central Amazonian rainforest. The authors investigated the factors presently associated with diversity of microhabitats (waterbodies) that may be maintaining the diversity of reproductive modes. In particular, desiccation, predation by fish, competition with other frogs and water quality were examined in 11 waterbodies as possible forces leading to the evolution of tenestrial oviposition. Predation experiments demonstrated that fish generally do not eat frog eggs, and that predacious tadpoles and dytiscid beetle larvae are voracious predators of frog eggs. The percentage of species with terrestrial oviposition was only weakly correlated with the occurrence of pond drying, ph, and oxygen concentration, suggesting that frogs in this tropical community are able to use the range of water quality available for egg development. There was a tendency for terrestrial oviposition to be associated with the number of species of tadpoles using the waterbody, but the authors consider this to be spurious as there was no obvious competitive mechanism that could result in this relationship. The percentage of species with terrestrial oviposition was significantly positively related to an index of egg predation pressure, and negatively related to an index of fish biomass. Egg predation pressure was also negatively related to the index of fish biomass. These results allow the authors to discount as improbable the hypothesis that predation by fish on frog eggs was an important selective pressure leading to terrestrial egg-laying in this community. The strong positive relationship between terrestrial egg-laying and the index of egg predation pressure indicates that these predators have exerted, and are exerting, a significant seleaive pressure for terrestrial egg-laying. The strong negative relationship between the occurrence of fish and the egg predators suggests the surprising conclusion that the presence of fish actually protects aquatic frog eggs from predation in the Amazon rainforest, and allows aquatic egg-laying to dominate only in those waterbodies with moderate to high densities of fish. The results suggest that terrestrial oviposition is a "fixed predator avoidance" trait. THE MYSTERY OF THE SQUEAKING LIZARD-SOLVED P. E. Ouboter [1990, Amphibia-Reptilia 11: ] notes that the lizard Podarcis sicula salfii makes a squeaking sound and reports that such a noise was mentioned in the description of Lacerta mumlis coetulea (now Podarcis sicula coerulea) from the Faraglioni Rocks (Capri, Italy) by Eimer in Researchers working with P. sicula coerulea never heard a sound from this lizard and doubted Elmer's report. P. s. salfii lives on the small rock Vivaro di Nerano, 12 km east of the Faraglioni Rocks. The author recorded a squeak and made a sonograph. The sound lasted for about 0.07 seconds with a frequency between 200 and 220 Hz. The noise was made when the lizards were handled, and when freeranging lizards were startled. The noise was made by members of both sexes.

25 Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 27(2):47-49, The Ty Last month's Tympanum included a letter from Dr Brian P. Backner, President of the International Herpetological Symposium. Writing on behalf of the Board of Directors of the IHS, Dr Backner objected to parts of David Lawrence's review [HerpWatch, Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 26(11): ] of last summer's IHS meeting in Seattle. Specifically, Dr Backner objected to David's statement that "Off-color jokes, slides of nude women, and men, homophobic displays, and sexual innuendos do not have a place at these meetings..." Dr Backner strongly contended that no such behavior took place at the Seattle meeting and requested a retraction. The following two replies to Dr Bachter's letter are from columnist David Lawrence and editor Joan Moore. My review of the 1991 IHS meeting in Seattle actually occupied two full pages spread out over three months' worth of columns (July, August and November). And it was overwhelmingly favorable regarding the quality of the lectures. However, I thought it was clear that the obnoxious behaviors to which I objected have occurred over many years at the IHS. It was apparently not clear, so let me state unequivocally that you are correct on one point: I saw no slides of nudes at this year's conference. Regarding my other statements I retract nothing. David Lawrence, 4504 Glenn Ridge Road, Roanoke VA When I first attended what was then called the Reptile Symposium on Captive Propagation and Husbandry in 1982 in Washington, D.C., I had a backup plan. Since I'd lived in that area before moving to Chicago five years previously, I figured if the meeting was a bust I could always bail out and visit old friends. My interest in herps was amateur and of only a few years' duration, and I really wasn't sure what to expect at this august-sounding event held that year at the National Zoo. Well, august it wasn't, and I was hooked. For a few days I visited with a group of people who shared my joy and interest in reptiles and amphibians. It was an experience similar to that provided by participation in regional herpetological societies, but more concentrated. 1 was to miss only two of the ten peripatetic symposia held between 1982 and Unfortunately, there was one aspect of these meetings that I could have gladly done without the sexually suggestive slides and commentary with which some male speakers peppered their talks. TTie standard fare would be a photo of a scantilyclad woman, often with an amphibian or reptile located on a strategic part of her anatomy, accompanied by a few "humorous" remarks by the speaker and scattered catcalls and whistles from the audience. Did the speaker wish to illustrate typical Phelsuma habitat? You should understand that it was the coconut tree he meant us to observe, certainly not the bare-breasted native woman standing beneath it. This wasn't an aberration; it was part of the corporate culture, so to speak. Indeed, some years the organizers devoted time on the schedule so that we might have an entire presentation of sexually-oriented material. The problem was, it was never identified on the program as such. As I recall, a favorite time panum was just after banquets (for which we had paid extra and to which we were often taken in buses, essentially a captive audience). Here we were treated to up to 30 minutes worth of slides depiaing women in various stages of undress; a zoo curator in bed; men with ball pythons protruding from their unzipped trouser flies; an animal dealer sitting naked on the toilet. I'm sure you get the picture. The person choreographing this scene had a little story to tell about each slide which often prompted a smutty rejoinder from one or another of his cronies in the audience. Then came 1987 and the Uth International Herpetological Symposium (as it was now being called) in Chicago. Immediately after this event, a blizzard of correspondence began. It was initiated by a zoo curator and directed at the organizer of the Symposium but grew to include other correspondents, mostly curators. Some threatened to withdraw their institutional support. The two main issues of contention were animal dealing at symposia and the public financial accountability of the for-profit organizer. But most of the writers also made somewhat vague references to what one called "lapses of good taste," In this regard, two names were mentioned: Dick Ross and Quentin Bloxam. Neither these issues, nor any of the others discussed by the letter writers were being raised for the first time. Conference attendees frequently had informal discussions about such matters, but no formal mechanism existed to redress complaints. Thus I was happy to see this exchange, and assumed that it would soon break into print in various regional society newsletters. After all, the distribution lists for some of the writers at the bottom of their letters comprised no fewer than seventeen names. Regrettably, however, it remained a putatively private correspondence albeit widely circulated. Nevertheless, I assume it was not a fluke that in 1988 the original organizer departed, turning the symposium over to others. Among the more welcome alterations they made was the elimination of the coarse nudie slide show as a public event. Now let's go to the 1991 IHS in Seattle. One of the draws for many of the attendees was the appearance of cartoonist Gary Larson as a banquet speaker. Naturally, we paid a premium for this event, but I doubt any of us felt cheated. I know I didn't. At least until Larson finished and Dick Ross entered stage left to begin a 20-minute unannounced skit. It took the form of a supposedly comical awards ceremony which provoked in me a definite sense of deja vu with the following presentations: A giant screw complete with dialogue with the recipient about where to put it, who would be present to watch, and who would help insert it. The Golden Hemipenis, also known as the Magna Cum Hemipenis, which the recipient worked very hard to earn. (Yes, we get it. Ha, ha.] And an award called the Richard Ross Occasional, "more affectionately known as The Dick." [Yes, we get that, too]

26 48 That brand of humor must have been infectious, since the person conducting the auction immediately afterward, led off with the offer of Bob Applegate's "little black book" with moronic embellishments about listings showing IV^-star ratings and the AIDS hotline number. And who but Quentin Bloxam, speaking at the IHS for the first time since the '87 Chicago debacle, would be the object of multiple mentions regarding women, motel rooms, and allnight revelry. The punch line of one little stoiy related from the stage was that the banging noise was the sound of the women trying to leave his room. [Oh. Well in that case ] And didn't that provide a marvelous opening for a particularly witty and relevant beginning to his talk on the Madagascan herpetofauna "I'd just like to point out that as the women left the room that was the time that Dick [Ross] tried to get in my bed." Enough. Am I shocked? Of course not. Have things improved since the nadir of 1987? Certainly. So why don't I feel more grateful? I do regret not having voiced my feelings on this matter years ago in a public forum such as the Bulletin. At least back then I could have mustered a giant ration of anger. At the moment I feel mainly a depressed weariness that in need to explain why I find the foregoing public displays offensive. Meanwhile, do I expect you to change your attitudes? No, I have no illusions left on that score. But 1 don't think it's unrealistic to expect you to change your behavior. Listen. I'm reasonably certain that the men who are active in running the Chicago Herpetological Society have normal testosterone levels. Yet, somehow, month after month, we have informative programs (yes, we even manage to have fun, too) without making dicks, screws, or motel room exploits a part of the center stage repertoire. The wonder is that the IHS seems unable to have a meeting without this phallic exhibitionism. I have a simple suggestion. Just stop it. What do you say? JFM I have been proud to be a CHS member over the last several years and my wife and I have recently made a number of contributions to the Bulletin, however a recent excerpt from a letter which I wrote to Mr. Wayne Hill (and reprinted in its entirety in our local society letter) appeared in the Bulletin without my permission [HerPET-POURRI, Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 26(12): ], but it was an excerpt taken out of context, which changed the meaning somewhat considerably In the future, all of our newsletters will contain the phrase, "No articles in this newsletter are to be reprinted without the expressed written permission of the authors or the officers of the JHS" to guard against this kind of thing. It is a real shame to have to do this because we normally encourage reproduction of the contents of our newsletter. I will remain a staunch supporter of the CHS and all Herp Societies. I wish to maintain a good relationship between our societies as well and look forward to speaking to your group this year. I bear no malice against any editor or editors, and in faa was not totally opposed to some comment being printed about the expo, but I really do wish to be contacted first in the future. Captive breeding and shows like the breeder's expo are both relatively new. They both will improve with age, and represent the future of many species of reptiles and amphibians. The entirety of my letter would have reflected my strong support for the expo, and the fantastic, overwhelming success of the captive breeding effort, even though there were still a few "breeders" who cheated, and were "caught" by myself and other veterinarians. Thank you for your time. John Rossi, D.V.M., MA., 5610 Blanding Boulevard, Jacksonville FL While I agree with the reviewers (Michael Peck and Dolores Fernandez) of Komodo: The Living Dragon, that this book is an interesting read, I would point out that the book does suffer from an unfortunate and egregious error. This concerns the authors' unique, but very definitely incorrect presentation of the origin and phytogeny of these lizards. On page 64 of this book, these authors state (emphasis inserted): "Mosasaurs became extina around the time that dinosaurs died out, but their descendants re-developed legs and returned to land, gradually evolving into the Varanidae (varanids are the monitor family)." This is completely wrong for several reasons. First, there were definite terrestrial varanid lizards that can be traced back to the Mesozoic (Estes, 1983a & b; Carroll, 1988; Homer, 1987; Pregill et al., 1986; Romer, 1956,1966; Gilmore, 1928, 1943). This fact alone could justify the dismissal of the above evolutionary scenario proposed by the Lutzes. Russell, in his famed monograph about mosasaurs (1967) elaborates upon 22 characters that can differentiate mosasaurs from varanid lizards; some of interest are: hyperphalangy with concomitant shortening of the limbs to paddles in mosasaurs, mosasaurs have only seven cervical vertebrae rather than the nine possessed by Varanus, and the fact that mosasaur teeth are in sockets while varanids have a more typically lacertilian pleurodont attachment (Carroll, 1988). Second, mosasaurs are believed to have evolved from aigialosaurs, a type of varanoid lizard that showed moderate specializations to aquatic life and was present from the Late Jurassic and Middle Cretaceous (while mosasaurs were found in the Late Cretaceous only), placing them at the appropriate time for potential ancestry for mosasaurs (Carroll, 1988). Aigialosaurs, however, had typically lacertilian limb structure. Estes (1983b) noted that the Varanidae had wide distribution in the Late Cretaceous and Early Cenozoic (Central Asia and North America) and were thus contemporaneous with the Mosasauridae. This, of course, makes it unlikely, to say the least, that the Varanidae evolved directly from the Mosasauridae and were thus descendants from the extinct mosasaurid line. The ancestral group for the terrestrial varanids is not known.

27 49 Third, and finally, the idea for varanid ancestry envisioned by the Lutzes may violate DoUo's Law (the law of irreversibility). DoUo's Law states that major steps in evolution are not reversed (Dodson and Dodson, 1985). Put another way, complex structures, once lost, are unlikely to be regained in their original form (Futuyma, 1986). Basically, the mosasaurs have evolved a complex series of morphological changes that allowed their earlier more terrestrial ancestors to become totally adapted to a marine existence. While few, if any, paleontologists would argue against mosasaurs and terrestrial varanids sharing some remote common ancestor, it is inconceivable that they would become highly adapted to a marine existence, and then, at some later point, return to the land virtually unchanged from their original terrestrial ancestor. This scenario has never been proposed for any other tetrapod group that evolved to an obligate marine existence (e.g., dolphins, whales, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, etc.). Therefore, the idea that the fully terrestrial varanids re-evolved legs (especially the hind limbs, where the pelvis had totally lost contact with the spine) from their flipper-bearing mosasaurian "ancestors" violates Dollo's Law by claiming that these varanids could have redeveloped legs in, basically, their original form. Varanid lizards have fore and hind limbs of a typically tetrapodian morphology. In summary, it should be reasonable to suppose that the scenario the Lutzes propose for varanid (and particularly Varanus) evolution is in error. Mosasaurs and terrestrial varanid lizards were contemporaries during Late Cretaceous times. Mosasaurs probably evolved from aigialosaur ancestors, but it is not known with any certainty what the common ancestor of both varanids and mosasaurs was, or when it was alive. It is virtually certain, however, to have been alive earlier than the Late Cretaceous or any time thereafter. Mosasaurs evolved limb structure (particularly hind limb structure) that allowed them to be completely aquatic forms. To propose that these marine forms re-evolved terrestrial limbs that did not differ in any major way from the original plan seems likely to violate Dollo's Law. It is hoped that if the Lutzes publish a revised edition of their book about Komodo monitors, they will seriously revise their paleontological section to be more attuned to what is properly proposed for the evolution of monitor lizards. Michael J. Balsai, Department of Geology, Hayden Hall, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia PA References Carroll, R. L Vertebrate paleontology and evolution. New York: Freeman. Dodson, E. O., and P. Dodson Evolution: process and product. Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt. Estes, R. 1983a. Sauria terrestria, Amphisbaenia: Handbuch der Palaoherpetologie, Teil 10 A. Stuttgart, Germany: Gustav Fischer Verlag b. The fossil record and early distribution of lizards. Pp In: A. Rhodin and K. Miyata, editors. Advances in herpetology and evolutionary biology (essays in honor of Ernest E. Williams). Cambridge MA: Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. Futuyma, D. J Evolutionary biology, 2nd edition. Sunderland MA: Sinauer. Gilmore, C.W Fossil lizards of North America. Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences 22: Fossil lizards of Mongolia. Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist. 81: Horner, J. R Ecologic and behavioral imphcations derived from a dinosaur nesting site. Pp In: S. J. Czerkas and E. C. Olson, editors. Dinosaurs: past and present, volume II. Seattle: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County/University of Washington Press. Lutz, D., and J. M. Lutz Komodo: the living dragon. Salem OR: DIMI Press. Peck, M., and D. Fernandez Book review: Komodo: the living dragon by Dick Lutz and J. Marie Lutz Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 26(ll): Pregill, G. K., et al The evolution of helodermatid squamates, with a description of a new taxon and an overview of Varanoidea. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 21(ll): Romer, A. S The osteology of the reptiles. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ~ Vertebrate paleontology, 3rd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Russell, D. A Systematics and morphology of American mosasaurs. Peabody Mus. Nat. Hist. Yale Univ. Bull. 23:1-241.

28 50 Advertisements Announcing: Reptile & Amphibian Magazine is a full-color, bimonthly magazine for all herp-lovers. It's the complete journal that covers all levels of the hobby. Each issue has articles on the natural history, captive care and breeding, and ecology of herps. We also have technical/veterinary articles, book reviews, photo tips, club & conservation news, and a large classified ad section. Filled with color photos. From novice to expert, there's something for everyone! $12/year-$22/2 years. Reptile & Amphibian Magazine, Yd) #3 Box 3709A,Ponsv\\\t?A Call (717) We need writers and photographers send a SA.S.E. for our guidelines. Attention; Ed Shirley & Sons Sports is offering a 10% discount to CHS members on live and frozen bait nlghtcrawlers; redworms; leafworms; waxworms; maggots; leeches; small & large fathead minnows; medium, large & extra-large golden roach minnows; crickets; and more. Bulk amounts at more savings are available too. Locations in Markham, Countryside, Morton Grove and Palatine. For info call Gary, (708) Fauna classifieds: monthly classifieds publication for reptiles, amphibians, food items & supplies, literature and more. Excellent information source, worldwide circulation. Subscription $14/year. Free sample & info. Write: FAUNA, 555 Vista Rio Court, Woodbridge CA For sale: WILLARD'S RODENT RANCH tell 'em Ben sent ya! Live or fresh-frozen mice and rats mice; pinks to hoppers $.35 each or 3/$1.00; weanlings to adults $.50 each; jumbos $.75 each rats; pinkies to chubbies $.50 each; fuzzies $1.00 each; small $1.50 each; medium $2.25 each; large $3.00 each; jumbo $4.00 each. Discounts available on large one-time orders. Prices subject to change without notice, availability may vary. Pick-up or delivery at the CHS meeting, shipping available for large frozen orders. Contact Mike Miller (days) at (708) , or Eric Richter (evenings) at (708) For sale: highest quality frozen feeder animals, raised on the best diets available. Seven years in the production and supply of frozen feeders. Specializing in various sizes of mice: 1- to 2-day-oId pinks; 4- to 5-day-old large pinks; 8- to 10-day-old extra large fuzzies; and adults. Prices start at $25/100. Also available, pink rats, baby chicks and quail chicks. Write or call for a free price list. Kelly Haller, 4236 S.E. 25th, Topeka KS 66605, (913) For sale: top qualityfreshfrozen rats, $1.50 each. Price includes packing and dry ice. Freight is collect to you. Our rats are fed the highest quality laboratory formulated diet and areflashfrozenfor maximum nutritional value. Minimum order $75. Attn: 30% discount on standing orders and orders of 300 or more rats. Steve Hammond, c/o Exceptional Exotics, Steedland, Louisville KY 40229, (502) For sale: THE GOURMET RODENT: rats and mice-pinkies, fuzzies and adults. Quantity discounts. Please send a SASE for pricelist or call Bill Brant, 3496 State Road 346A, Archer FL 32618, (904) For sale: frozen chicks, four for $1. Will bring to CHS meetings. Bryant Capiz, (312) For sale: top quality mice, rats and Chinese dwarf hamsters. All sizes at competitive prices. Gary W Allison, 919 Wyandotte Street, Bethlehem PA 18015, (215) For sale: murine-pathogen-free rats and mice available in all sizes, live or frozen: pinkies, fuzzies, crawlers, small, medium and large. Frozen crawler mice in lots of 2000, $.17 each. Also available, full grown hairless mice. FOB shipping point. Master Card accepted. Call (518) between 8:00 am and 5:00 pm or write SAS Corporation, 273 Hover Avenue, Germantown NY for prices and additional information. For sale: THE RAT SHACK: all colors, sizes & quantities of domestic rats. Call Keith or Shannon Allen in Alabama, (205) , evenings. For sale: MISSISSIPPI MICE: frozen mice, fuzzies, pinkies-quantity discounts. Rob Screws, 130 Calhoun Ave., Yazoo City MS 39194, (601) For sale: frozen mice, pinkies to adults, $.40 to $.50 each. Chicago area only. Will deliver to herp meetings; please call in advance. Scott Michaels, (815) For sale: large selection of captive bom reptiles and amphibians, books and supplies. Send SA.S. business-size envelope for complimentary price list or $5 for a 1 year subscription (bi-monthly), to Twin Cities Reptiles, 540 Winnetka Avenue North, Golden Valley MN 55427, (612) For sale: HERPETOLOGICAL DIRECTORY. A valuable information source containing private and commercial breeders, U.S. and foreign herp societies, wholesalers, and sources for rodents & other food items, supplies & equipment and publications. Send $19.95 to Great Valley Serpentarium, 2379 Maggio Circle Unit C, Lodi CA For sale: books on reptiles and amphibians, used, out of print and rare. Over 3400 titles listed. List sent free upon request. Herpetological Search Service & Exchange, 117 E. Santa Barbara Road, Lindenhurst NY 11757, For sale: herp books. Stebbins ^mp/uftian^ and Reptiles of Western North America, 1954,536 pp., 104 plates, excellent cond., $32; Neil, Wilfred T. The Last of the Ruling Reptiles, 1971,486 pp., ex-iibraty but very good cond,, $75; Pitman, Charies /4 Guide to the Snakes of Uganda, revised 1974 ed,, 290 pp., color plates, mint condition, $300. Prices postpaid. William R. Turner, 7395 S. Downing Circle W., Littleton CO 80122, (303) For sale: herp books. Snakes ofnyassaland (Sweeney, 1st ed.), $60; Fascination (Kundert, 1974), $95; Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia (Cogger, 1st ed.), $50; Amphibians and Reptiles of Wisconsin (Vogt), $25; Nonvenomous Snakes (Tnitnau), $20; Giant Snakes (Pope), $25; Giant Reptiles (Minton, soft), $15; Reproductive Biology & Diseases of Captive Reptiles (Murphy & Collins), $25. All mint condition. Plus shipping. Jim McDougal, (516) For sale: 111 back issues of the CHS Bulletin, all different, no duplicates. Collection includes 10 issues from the 1960s and 23 issues from the 1970s. Collection is to be sold on an all or nothing basis to the highest bid over $280. Dale Rover, (815) For sale: slides or prints of various exotic herpetofauna; chameleons, poison dart frogs, geckos, boas & pythons, etc. Excellent for lectures, slide shows, or just to fill the gap in your collection of those hard to get and rare herp photos. Sets consist of ten slides labeled with scientific names and geographic localities. Cost per set, $50 (cost per individual slide, $6). Call or write to discuss your specific needs. Paul Freed, 4206 E. Villa, Houston TX 77017, (713) For sale: professional reptile feeding/growth charts. Protect your valuable reptiles by keeping good records. Record feedings, weight, length, shedding, breedings, etc. 3x5 card stock, 20 pack, $3; 50 pack, $6; 100 pack, $10. Prices include shipping and handling! Eiconomical-one card lasts 3-8 months. Dealers wanted. West Texas Reptiles, 6401 University, Lubbock TX For sale: walk-thru reptile display, 28' Wells-Cargo trailer, electric heat & air. 14' awning & 8 hp generator, both new this year. Complete with 50 lighted and decorated cages. With or without '83 Chevy van, 350 V8 & automatic overdrive transmission, front & rear air, new tires & factory rebuilt motor. Terry Dedden, (606) [Cincinnati area] For sale: outdoor plywood tortoise pens, 3'x5'xl' and 2'x4i'xr, open tops with overhang for shade, new, $35 & $25 each. J, Dundek, (708) 371^232. For sale: sheep skulls, for reptile cages, good hiding places for small snakes, $10 each. Also, flesh-eating beetles/larvae, unusual pets, voracious appetites, will eat any type of meat, fast breeders, $3 per dozen. Ask for Steve, (312) , call after 5 P.M. For sale: two RubberMaid tubs one 50-gallon, $75; one 100-gallon, $150. Excellent for turtles. Ron Rysztogi, (312)

29 Advertisements (cont'd) For sale: one-hour videos of African savanna monitors, Varanus exanthematicus, in captivity; two-hour videos of spectacled caimans. Caiman crocodylus, in captivity. $18 each. B. F. Pierson, 2974 Liberty Avenue, Las Vegas NV For sale: 12" c.b. Cuban iguanas, $500; loi" c.b. lewisi iguanas, $900; 11" c.b. caymanensis iguanas, $650; 24" c.b. caymanensis iguanas, $1100; one male and two female caymanensis, 24", breeding trio, $2600; c.b. Cuban iguana, $850; c.b. African spur tortoise; c.b. redfoot tortoise; c.b. leopard tortoise; and a limited number of Chameleo catyptratus. Call or write for free price list or information. Sam Pascucci, 2500 NW 39th Street, Miami FL 33142, (305) or (305) For sale: 2' male African savanna monitor, healthy, gentle, with 55-gallon terrarium, stand, hot rock, shelter, vita/spotlites. Best offer, (312) For sale: one c.b. emerald tree boa, $500; two male and two female bog turtles [permit required], $1500 for the group; four Egyptian spiny-tailed agamas, $75 each; four pancake tortoises, $55 each. Call Ed or Cindy at (606) [KY] [This ad had the phone number wrong last month.] For sale: one male and one female Grenada Island tree boas, Corallus enydris ssp., two phases, $225/pair; one male and one female Mexican black kingsnakes, cycled proven breeders, may consider selling male separately, $285/ pair, one male and one female com snakes, 24", female snow com, male aneiythristic/hetero for "snow," $135/pair. Ray Guese, (303) [Denver] For sale: 5i' male Colombian boa, $225; 5' female Colombian boa, $225; 1' rosy boa, $175. Brian, (312) For sale: adult and baby ball pythons docile and handleable, $80 each; feeder mice, $1.75 each; crickets, mealworms, and king mealworms available. Delivery to CHS meetings possible. Call Rob at (219) or Jim at (219) [northern IN] For sale: three alligator snapping turtles, approx. 8" carapace, $55 each; 5'+ Madagascar hognose snake, healthy and feeding, $110; two green cat-eyed snakes. Ion-term, both feeding, $50 each; southern pine snakes, c.b. adult breeding pair, exceptional, $250/pair. Call (412) [PA] For sale: many 1991 hatchling snakes, including: Texas and Mexican Baird's rats; many varieties of com snakes, including zig-zags, striped, amelanistic striped and blood-reds; hetero and albino black rats; four male and four female Chinese ratsnakes (anomela); Taiwan beauties (friesei); South China ratsnakes (vaitlanti); several varieties of Cal kings including normal and albino "Newports," and "high yellow" phase; two male and one female variable kings (thayeri); one male tangerine Honduran milk; albino and normal striped Pacific gophers. Adult surplus available: male "high yellow" Cal king; male gopher x corn; female yellow rat x corn; male glades x yellow rat x Texas rat x black rat; male Cinese red-banded snake (long term captive). For information, please call Larry Keller at (217) before 9:30 p. M. Central time. For sale: pancake tortoises, 5i", with radiated scute patterns, all very healthy, $75 each; 5' x 2' x 2' reptile cage with front sliding glass doors and nuorescent light fixture, $125. Call Jeffrey Dundek at (708) For sale: four species of Uroplatus; Phelsuma klemmeri, plus 10 other species; lizards and other herps. Call or write for our free price list. Ray's Reptiles, P.O. Box 4732, Lincoln NE Call Mon-Sat (402) , eves are best. For sale: reservations now being accepted for the following very exceptional bloodlines Argentine rainbow boas, from adults with high contrast, extremely intricate pattems, $350; Brazilian rainbow boas from iridescent, red/orange adults, $ ; Colombian boa constrictors from very select gold, black and tan strains, $ ; Dumeril's (Madagascan) boas from adults with intricate patterns and pink/orange highlighting, $350; blood pythons from red/orange adults, $750; carpet pythons (Queensland and New Guinea) fron distinctly patterned adults, $150; Guyanan rainbow boas from very iridescent adults, $100; Mexican boas from adults with connecting saddles and extreme iridescence, $125. All animals are captive bom and bred here and, are 100% guaranteed to be flawless, healthy and correctly sexed. Get your reservation in now! They sell out fast. A 20% deposit is required. Make payable only to Steve Hammond. Steve Hammond, C/O Exceptional Exotics, Steedland, Louisville KY 40229, (502) Want to breed snakes? Join the United States' only Cooperative Breeding Coordination Program! Network with others in your state who own snakes of the opposite sex! We provide informational support throughout the breeding process to help you achieve success. We can even help you sell the offspring! Send a SASE for free information to: Snake Charmer, P.O. Box 385, Dearbom Heights MI Wanted: electronic scales, to weigh in ounces or grams. To weigh in one-gram increments up to 2 or 3 kilos (about 5 lbs). Kenneth E. Farrow Jr., 2400 Riverfront Drive, Suite 632, Little Rock AR 72202, (501) Wanted: Does anybody, anywhere, have back issues of The Herptile (England) or Liueratura Serpemium (Netherlands)? I am willing to pay for photocopies of articles on Boa constrictor from these or any other periodicals. William D. Joy, 7040 Holly Hill Drive, #126, Dallas TX 75231, (214) Wanted: a used copy of Turtles of the United States by Ernst and Barbour. Call Mark at (319) , evenings after 6 P.M. [Iowa] Wanted: Python regius information. Anyone with information concerning ball pythons, please write or call for a survey packet. Greg Greer, Chattahoochee Nature Center, 9135 Willeo Road, Roswell GA 30075, (404) days, (404) nights. Wanted: VERY LARGE (5' + ) brown water snake, Nerodia taxispilola, or green water snake, Nerodia cyclopion, for use in school lectures. Also, adult male and/or female orange/yellow-phase western fox snake, Elaphe vulpina vulpina, from Minnesota-northern Wisconsin region. Robert A. Young, Ph.D., (615) evenings and weekends. [Oak Ridge TN] Wanted: will provide good home for any unwanted boa constrictors or large pythons. Will pick up anywhere in Chicago area. Eric Richter, (708) , evenings. Wanted: 2-3 pairs of the Seychelles giant day gecko, Phelsuma sundbergi; one copy of the David Attenborough book. Hie First Eden, concerning man and his relationships with the natural world in the ancient Mediterranean region. Jim Zaworski, P.O. Box 2922, Carbondale IL 62902, (618) Wanted: -currently breeding 15 species of Phelsuma; 2 species of Bhacodactylus; 2 species of Bavayw; 2 species of Oedura; plus various other terrestrial and arboreal lizards. I would greatly appreciate any help you could provide concerning breeding info or acquisition of new animals. Frank Fast, 2701 S. nth, Lincoln NE 68502, (402) or (402) Wanted: West Florida herp collector would like to correspond with other herp collectors, from all parts of the U.S., as well as foreign countries, who are interested in trading, buying and, selling reptiles of all types. Tony Picheo, Lillian Hiway 98, Pensacola FL 32506, (904) Wanted: On January 7,1992, two alligators were left on the doorsteps of Miami Valley Serpentarium. In order to provide an educational usage of these reptiles the Kentucky Fish and Wildlife Department has informed us that we must build an enclosure within the next two months. Because our constmction budget for 1992 has been spent on improving other exhibits already, we are looking for donations amounting to $1000 in order to build this enclosure. Those who donate will be given a lifetime membership to Miami Valley Serpentarium with a minimum donation of $10 or more. Lifetime membership includes free admission to exhibit and 25% discount on captive born reptiles. A plaque with names of those who donate will be made. James R. Harrison, Owner/Lecturer, Miami Valley Serpentarium, 1275 Natural Bridge Road, Slade KY 40376, (606)