BIOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND SURGERY OF SOUTH AMERICAN WILD ANIMALS

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1 BIOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND SURGERY OF SOUTH AMERICAN WILD ANIMALS

2 BIOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND SURGERY OF SOUTH AMERICAN WILD ANIMALS Murray E. Fowler Editor Zalmir S. Cubas Associate Editor Iowa State University Press / Ames

3 Murray E. Fowler, DVM, is professor emeritus of zoological medicine at the University of California, Davis. Dr. Fowler has been responsible for the Zoological Medicine Service at the School of Veterinary Medicine and has been staff veterinarian for the Sacramento Zoo for 25 years. Dr. Fowler is a Diplomate of the American College of Zoological Medicine and the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine and is a member of the American Board of Veterinary Toxicology. He is editodauthor of 16 books and more than 215 professional publications. Zalmir S. Cubas, DVM, was staff veterinarian for the Curitiba, Brazil Zoo for 9 years and chief veterinarian for 5 years, after graduation. He completed a residency in zoological medicine at the University of California, then became the director of Foz Tropicana Bird Park in Foz do Iguagu, Brazil. Currently, Dr. Cubas is the director of the Department of Environment and a veterinarian for the Tris Fronteiras Conservation and Breeding Center, Foz do Iguagu. Dr. Cubas is also developing a private zoo devoted to conservation of South American species in Brazil Iowa State University Press All rights reserved Iowa State University Press 2121 South State Avenue, Ames, Iowa Orders: Office: Fax: Web site: Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by Iowa State University Press, provided that the base fee of $.lo per copy is paid directly to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payments has been arranged. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is /2001 on acid-free paper in the United States of America First edition, 2001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Biology, medicine, and surgery of South American wild animals / Murray E. Fowler, editor; Zalmir S. Cubas, associate editor.- 1st ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index (p. ). ISBN (alk. paper) 1. Wildlife diseases-south America. 2. Captive wild animals-diseases-south America. 3. Veterinary surgery- South America. I. Fowler, Murray E. 11. Cubas, Zalmir S. SF996.4.B dc The last digit is the print number:

4 Contents PREFACE ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS x Amphibians/Reptiles: Classes Amphibia and Reptilia Birds: Class Aves Class Amphibia (Amphibians): Frogs, Toads 3 Biology, S6rgio Range1 Pinheiro 4 Class Reptilia, Order Crocodilia (Crocodilians): Caimans, Crocodiles 9 Biology and Captive Management, Flavio de Barros Molina 9 Class Reptilia, Order Chelonia (Testudinata) (Chelonians): Turtles, Tortoises 15 Biology, Management, and Free-Living Populations, Flavio de Barros Molina 15 Chelonian Infectious Diseases and General Medicine, Eliana Reiko Matushima 22 Chelonian Noninfectious Diseases, Margarita Mas 25 Class Reptilia, Order Squamata (Lizards): Iguanas, Tegus 31 Biology and Captive Management, Flavio de Barros Molina 31 Iguana Medicine and Surgery, Teresa L. Lightfoot 34 Class Reptilia, Order Squamata (Ophidia): Snakes 40 Biology and Keeping South American Snakes in Captivity, Luiz Roberto Francisco 40 Ophidia-Restraint, Anesthesia, Medicine, Kathleen Fernandes Grego 43 Inclusion Body Disease of Snakes, Margarita Mas 48 6 Order Sphenisciformes (Penguins) 53 Biology, Captive Management, and Medicine, Gene S. Fowler and Murray E. Fowler 53 7 Order Rheiformes (Rheas) 65 Biology of the South American Ratites, Alejandro Scataglini and Marcela V. Torti 65 Helminth Parasites, Isau Gouveia Arantes 68 8 Order Tinamiformes (Tinamous) 72 Biology, Luis Fhbio Silveira and Elizabeth Hofling 72 Red-Winged Tinamou (Rhynchotus rufescens)-utilization for Meat Production, Maria Estela Gaglianone Moro 75 Helminthiasis of Tinamous, Adjair Antonio do Nascimento and Isau Gouveia Arantes 76 9 Order Ciconiiformes (Herons, Storks, Ibises) 81 Biology, Priscilla Prudente do Amaral and Luiz Francisco Sanfilippo 81 Management in Captivity, Priscilla Prudente do Amaral and Luiz Francisco Sanfilippo 83 Ciconiiformes Medicine, Jos6 Heitzmann Fontenelle 84 Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of South American Ciconiiformes, Luciano Antunes Barros 87 V

5 10 Order Phoenicopteriformes (Flamingos) 95 Biology, Management in Captivity, and Medicine, Murray E. Fowler Order Anseriformes (Ducks, Geese, Swans) 103 Biology, Luis Fabio Silveira 103 Captive Management and Medicine, Murray E. Fowler 105 Order Falconiformes (Hawks, Eagles, Falcons, Vultures) 11 5 Biology, Juan Carlos Chebez 115 Raptor Medicine and Surgery, Roberto F. Aguilar Order Strigiformes (Owls) 125 Biology, Medicine, and Surgery, Murray E. Fowler Order Gruiformes (Sun Bitterns, Trumpeters, Rails) 133 Biology, Marcia Cziulik 133 Order Galliformes, Family Cracidae 136 Crax blumenbachii Preservation Project, Roberto Motta de Avelar Azeredo, James G.P. Simpson, and Lucia Paolinelli Barros 136 Order Columbiformes (Pigeons, Doves) 139 Biology, Luiz Francisco Sanfilippo 139 Medicine, Karin Werther 141 Order Psittaciformes (Parrots, Macaws, Conures) 146 Biology, Neiva M. Robaldo Guedes and Pedro Net0 Scherer 146 The Large Macaws, Neiva M. Robaldo Guedes and Pedro Net0 Scherer 150 Nutrition, Aulus Cavalieri Carciofi 152 Viral Diseases, Karin Werther 157 Fungal Infections, Iara Biasia and Attilio A. Giovanardi 163 Noninfectious Diseases, Karin Werther, 168 Miscellaneous Diseases, Maria de Lourdes Cavalheiro Order Trochiliiformes (Hummingbirds) 174 Biology, Management in Captivity, and Medicine, Kathryn A. Orr and Murray E. Fowler Order Piciformes (Toucans, Woodpeckers) 180 Biology, Sandra Bos Mikich 180 Captive Management: Family Ramphastidae (Toucans), Jerry Jennings 186 Medicine: Family Ramphastidae (Toucans), Zalmir S. Cubas Order Passeriformes (Songbirds) 200 Anesthesia, Marta Brito Guimaraes 200 General Medicine, Silvia Neri Godoy 201 Selected Infectious Diseases, Marta Brito Guimaraes 208 Ectoparasites, Marta Brito Guimaraes 209 Mammals: Class Mammalia 21 Order Marsupialia (Opossums) 213 Biology and Medicine, Murray E. Fowler Order Chiroptera (Bats) 219 Biology and Captive Management, Carlos Esberard 219 Public Health, Luciana Hardt Gomes 223 vi

6 Order Rodentia (Rodents) 225 Biology and Medicine, Jose Ricardo Pachaly, Alexandra Acco, Rogerio Ribas Lange, Tatiana Monreal Ramos Nogueira, Marcia Furlan Nogueira, and Elza Maria Galv%o Ciffoni 225 Order Xenarthra (Edentata) (Sloths, Armadillos, Anteaters) 238 Biology and Captive Management of Armadillos and Anteaters, Ana Maria Beresca and Katia Cassaro 238 Biology and Captive Management of Sloths, Carlos Esberard 245 Husbandry, AntBnio Messias-Costa and Carlos Esberard 246 Medicine and Neonatal Care of Sloths, AntBnio Messias-Costa 247 General Medicine, Lilian de Stefani Munao Diniz 249 Order Primates (Primates) 256 Biology of the Cebidae, Anthony B. Rylands 256 Biology and Conservation: Family Callitrichidae, Claudio Valladares-Padua 259 Nutrition, Roberto da Rocha e Silva 261 Behavior and Environmental Enrichment, Vanner Boere 263 Medicine, Jose Luiz Catao-Dias 267 Medicine, Selected Disorders, Alcides Pissinatti 272 Reproduction, Marcelo Alcindo de Barros Vaz Guimaraes 274 Order Carnivora, Family Canidae (Dogs, Foxes, Maned Wolves) 279 Biology, Cecilia Pessutti 279 Medicine, Maria Emilia Bodini Santiago and Laura Teodoro Fernandes Oliveira 285 Order Carnivora, Family Felidae (Cats) 291 Biology, Tadeu Gomes de Oliveira, Eduardo Eizirik, and Peter G. Crawshaw, Jr. 291 Medicine, Cristina Harumi Adania, Marcelo da Silva Gomes, Wanderlei de Moraes, and Jean Carlos Ramos Silva 296 Reproduction in Small Female Felids, Nei Moreira 301 Reproduction in Jaguars, Ronald0 Gonqalves Morato and Regina C.R. Paz 308 Reproduction in Small Felid Males, Rosana Nogueira de Morais 312 Order Carnivora, Family Procyonidae (Raccoons, Kinkajous) Biology, Adriana Sampaio Labate 3 17 Captive Management and Restraint, Adauto Luis Veloso Nunes 31 7 Medicine, Marcelo da Silva Gomes 320 Order Carnivora, Family Mustelidae 323 Biology and Medicine, Tatiana Lucena Pimentel, Marcelo Lima Reis, and Ana Silvia M. Passerino 323 Orders Cetacea and Pinnipedia (Whales, Dolphins, Seals, Fur Seals, Sea Lions) 332 Biology, Fernando Cesar Weber Rosas and Artur Andriolo 332 Medicine, Tatiana Lucena Pimentel and Artur Andriolo 341 Order Sirenia (Manatees, Dugongs, Sea Cows) 352 Biology, Fernando Cesar Weber Rosas 352 Medicine, Tatiana Lucena Pimentel 356 Order Perissodactyla, Family Tapiridae (Tapirs) 363 Biology, Emilia Patricia Medici 363 Capture Methodology and Medicine, Adauto Luis Veloso Nunes, Paulo Rogerio Mangini, and Jose Roberto Vaz Ferreira 367 Order Artiodactyla, Family Tayassuidae (Peccaries) 377 Biology and Medicine, Teresa Cristina Castellano Margarido and Paulo Rogerio Mangini 377 vii

7 34 35 Special Topics Order Artiodactyla, Family Camelidae (Guanacos, Vicuiias) 392 Biology and Medicine, P. Walter Bravo and Murray E. Fowler 392 Order Artiodactyla, Family Cervidae (Deer) 402 Biology and Medicine, Jose Mauricio Barbanti Duarte and contributing authors 402 Nutrition and Nutritional Problems in Wild Animals 425 Aulus Cavalieri Carciofi and Carlos Eduardo do Prado Saad Ophthalmology 437 Fabian0 Montiani-Ferreira The Oral Cavity 457 Jose Ricardo Pachaly and Marco Antonio Gioso Ultrasonography in South American Wild Animals 464 Alessandra Quaggio Augusto Interspecific Allometric Scaling 475 Jose Ricardo Pachaly and Harald Fernando Vicente de Brito Pests and Nuisance Animals in Zoological Parks 482 Zalmir S. Cubas Wild Animals and Public Health 493 Sandra Helena Ramiro and Estevao de Camargo Passos Laboratory Support in Wild Animal Medicine 500 Nadia Regina Pereira Almosny and Leonilda Correia dos Santos APPENDIX: DRUG DOSAGES USED IN AVIAN MEDICINE 506 Karin Werther Table A.l. Principle drugs and doses used in avian medicine 506 Table A.2. Medication interactions 509 Table A.3. Contraindication, collateral effects 5 10 CONTRIBUTORS 512 INDEX 517 viii

8 Preface South America has many wonderful wild animals that are worthy of the special care given them by biologists and veterinarians. Governments in South America are beginning to recognize the importance of their wild fauna. Zoos in South America and worldwide have exhibited South American animals for decades, to the delight of the public. Concern about the continued existence of certain species has prompted a surge in the number of scientists conducting studies to ascertain as much as possible about the lives of wild animals in the freeranging state. Zoo biologists and veterinarians are participating in cooperative captive propagation programs. Wild animals are being managed in semi-free-ranging situations, conditions for the production of meat and fiber for human use. Endangered species of wild animals are being given special consideration by private aviculturists, zoos, rehabilitation centers, and government agencies. Captive propagation is practiced for release back into the wild (Andean condor). Some projects are international in scope (golden lion tamarin). The time is at hand to share the experiences of South American biologists and veterinarians with the world. Numerous scientists, clinicians, administrators, rehabilitators, and academicians have contributed to this book. Except for a few North American participants, the authors are South American. The coverage of specific animal groups varies, either because little information is available or there is a lack of authors who have experience with the taxa. The editors and authors are pleased to present this overview of the biology, medicine, and surgery of South American wild animals. It is a labor of love and dedication that wild animals may be better understood. We hope that the health and well-being of animals, both in captivity and in the free-ranging state, will be improved. -MURRAY E. FOWLER, D.V.M -ZALMIR S. CUBAS, D.V.M ix

9 Acknowledrrments Thanks to the many institutions, agencies, and spouses who have supported the authors in furthering the cause of wild animals in South America or wherever they may be exhibited throughout the world. A special note of thanks is due to Dr. Zalmir Cubas, who first mentioned that the time was right for this book and then proceeded to organize the authors for the various topics. The following individuals provided special assistance by coordinating chapters or sections of the book: Jost Mauricio Barbanti Duarte, Jost Ricardo Pachaly, Wanderlei de Moraes, and Karin Werther. The editors wish to express special appreciation to their wives, Audrey C. Fowler and Patricia H. Cubas, for their support during this project. -MURRAY E. FOWLER, DVM -ZALMIR S. CUBAS, DVM X

10 Amphi bians/reptiles: Classes Amphibia and Reptilia

Animal Disease Surveillance and Survey Systems. Methods and Applications

Animal Disease Surveillance and Survey Systems Methods and Applications Animal Disease Surveillance and Survey Systems Methods and Applications Edited by M. D. Salman M. D. SALMAN is Professor of Veterinary