A HANDBOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

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2 KFRI Research Report No. 398 A HANDBOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE George Mathew Kerala Forest Research Institute An Institution of Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) Peechi , Thrissur, Kerala, India July, 2011

3 KFRI Research Report No. 398 A HANDBOOK ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE (Final Report of the Project 517/2006: A Hand book on the butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, sponsored by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi) George Mathew Forest Health Division Kerala Forest Research Institute An Institution of Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) Peechi , Thrissur, Kerala, India July, 2011

4 Abstract of Project Proposal 1. Project No. : KFRI/517/ Title of the project : A Handbook on the butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve 3. Objectives : To prepare an illustrated hand book on the butterflies of NBR consolidating available data on the butterflies of this region and to assess the problems involved in their conservation. 3. Date of commencement : July Scheduled date of completion : June Project team Principal Investigator : Dr. George Mathew 6. Study area : Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve 7. Duration of the study : Project budget : Rs Lakhs 9. Funding Agency : Ministry of Environment and Forests, GOI, New Delhi.

5 CONTENTS Abstract Acknowledgements Page No. 1. Introduction Biosphere Reserves Biosphere Reserves and Biodiversity Conservation The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Zones of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Ecology Forests types Tropical wet evergreen forests Tropical montane evergreen shola-grassland Tropical semi evergreen forests Tropical dry deciduous forests Tropical dry thorn forests Fauna 5 2. Butterflies Structure of butterflies Biology Ecology Distribution Host plant associations Behaviour Territoriality Courtship Flight Mud puddling Basking Defense mechanisms Migration Butterfly conservation Butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Family Papilionidae Family Pieridae Family Lycaenidae Family Erycinidae Sub Family Libytheinae Sub Family Riodinae 89

6 3.5. Family Nymphalidae Family Acraeidae Family Satyridae Family Amathusidae Family Hesperiidae Discussion Butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and its Significance Threats to butterflies in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Conservation of butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Legislation Captive breeding and reintroduction Enhancing public awareness on species conservation Conclusions References 159 Appendix-I Appendix-II Plates I - XXIII

7 Plate No.I. Figs Papilionidae Plate No.II. Figs Papilionidae Plate No.III. Figs Pieridae Plate No.IV. Figs Pieridae Plate No.V. Figs Lycaenidae Plate No.VI. Figs Lycaenidae Plate No.VII. Figs Lycaenidae Plate No.VIII. Figs Lycaenidae Plate No.IX. Figs Lycaenidae Plate No.X. Figs Lycaenidae Plate No.XI. Figs Lycaenidae Plate No.XII. Fig Riodinae Plate No.XII. Figs Nymphalidae Plate No.XIII. Figs Nymphalidae Plate No.XIV. Figs Nymphalidae Plate No.XV. Figs Nymphalidae Plate No.XVI. Figs Nymphalidae Plate No.XVII. Figs Nymphalidae: Acraeinae Plate No.XVII. Figs Erycinidae: Riodinae Plate No.XVII. Figs Satyridae Plate No.XVIII. Figs Satyridae Plate No.XIX. Figs Satyridae Plate No.XIX. Figs Amathusidae Plate No.XIX. Figs Hesperiidae Plate No.XX. Figs Hesperiidae Plate No.XXI. Figs Hesperiidae Plate No.XXII. Figs Hesperiidae Plate No.XXIII. Figs Hesperiidae

8 ABSTRACT Available information on 282 species of butterflies so far recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve was consolidated. The number of species recorded under various families was: Papilionidae-19 species; Pieridae-29 species; Lycaenidae-88 species, Erycinidae: Riodinae-1 species, Libytheinae-1 species; Amathusidae-1 species; Nymphalidae-59 species; Satyridae-25 species and Hesperiidae- 58 species. Of the 282 species recorded in this study, 104 are rare, 21 endemic, and 19 protected. Due to the fast depletion of their natural habitats, many species recorded as common are also becoming rare in their range of distribution. Considering the high proportion of rare and endemic species found in this area, conservation strategies involving implementation of strict legislation against destruction of biodiversity of this area; captive breeding and reintroduction in the case of rare, threatened and endemic species; implementation of habitat enrichment programmes and enhancing public awareness on species conservation are proposed.

9 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am thankful to Dr. J. K. Sharma (erstwhile Director) and Dr. K.V. Sankaran (Director) for their keen interest in this study. I thank my colleagues Dr. K.V. Bhat, Dr. V.V. Sudheendrakumar, Dr. T.V. Sajeev and Dr. M.S. Muktesh Kumar for kindly going through the manuscript and for offering useful suggestions. Shri. S. Pramod and Ms. K. C. Soumya, Research Fellows attached to this project provided able assistance in implementing this study. Dr. Mujeeb Rehman, Research Associate, kindly designed the cover page. Thanks are also due to Dr. P. Unnikrishnan, (Director, Buterfly Art Foundation, Trichur), Dr. S. Kalesh (Medical Officer, Medical College, Trivandrum) and Dr. Thiru Murugan (Veterinary Surgeon, Vandalur Zoo) for providing excellent photographs of several species of butterflies used in this Report. The financial support from the Ministry of Environment & Forests, New Delhi is gratefully acknowledged.

10 1. INTRODUCTION All biodiversity that we find on earth are the products of millions of years of evolution. Creation and extinction are two aspects of life. The interaction of living organisms among themselves and with the environment has led to an increase in biodiversity over the years. In addition to this, there are also various evolutionary pathways, which produce a vast array of species and ecosystems. On the contrary, various catastrophes like drastic changes in climate brought about by continental drift, massive volcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts have caused mass extinction of life on various parts of the globe. Equally or even more important is the change brought about by human interference. Ever since the appearance of man on the earth's surface, there has been considerable disturbance to natural ecosystems due to exploitation of the natural resources, for both short term and long term requirements. With industrialization and stress on productivity, the pressure on biosphere has increased tremendously leading to pollution of air and water. One third of world s forests, major part of fresh water lakes, rivers, seas and most of the grass lands have been either destroyed or altered affecting all life existing in these habitats. Loss of biodiversity has tremendous implications on the survival of mankind in this universe (Raup, 1988). Therefore, it has long been felt that man should mend his ways to bring a halt to this degradation. It was with this concern that UNESCO evolved the concept of Biosphere Reserve in 1971 under its Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme Biosphere Reserves The term Biosphere refers to that zone of earth where life exists. It includes three strata viz., the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The lithosphere, which varies in thickness from km, forms the outer crust of earth. The outer most layer of this crust is rocky in nature and it disintegrates to form the soil. Atmosphere is the layer of air surrounding the earth and extending to a height of 600 km. The hydrosphere includes all the water bodies Biosphere Reserves and Biodiversity Conservation Biosphere Reserves have been constituted in sensitive environments since these are the areas prone to serious destruction. It is actually a region set aside for careful scientific management and for developing basic knowledge on conservation of natural ecosystems and biological diversity and to link conservation with sustainable development. Therefore, the objective of setting up Biosphere Reserves is not only protection of wild species but also for promoting international cooperation, people-environment interaction, etc., in its management. The ecosystem must be large enough to ensure self-perpetuation and unhindered evolution of the entire organisms. The first Biosphere Reserve was designated in 1976 and since then there has been a rapid increase in their numbers and currently there are 243 Biosphere Reserves spread over 65 countries The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Consistent with the concept of conserving biodiversity in its totality, the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR) was constituted on 1 st September 1986 around the Nilgiri Mountains and 1

11 adjoining hills of the Western Ghats region at 11º25 N and 76º45 E. It includes two of the biogeographical provinces viz., the Malabar rain forest and the Deccan thorn forest. With the formation of this Biosphere Reserve, the biological and cultural heritage of these two regions would be conserved. This Reserve, spread over contiguous areas of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, is sq km in extent (Fig. 1). Of this, sq km is in Kerala, sq km in Karanataka, and sq km. in Tamil Nadu (Vijayakumaran Nair et al. 1986). The Nilgiri, Nilambur and Siruvani hills form the major mountain ranges in this area. The average annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm to 7000 mm. Temperature also shows wide fluctuations and may reach up to 40 C in the rain shadow areas. Because of the rivers Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery and their tributaries Bhima, Thungabhadra, Kabani and Bhavani, there is abundant water availability in this area. The plateaus and the adjoining hills of Wynad, Mysore, Sigur and Talaimalai with elevation ranging from 700 to 1000 m form the boundaries of this Reserve in the north. In the south are the plateau and the hills of Attappadi, Siruvani and Bolampatti with altitudes ranging from 150 m to 1800 m. In the west are the slopes of Nilambur, New Amarambalam and Silent Valley, which descend to 250 m in Calicut plains. In the east are the mountains of Nilgiris, which slopes down to 250 m in the Coimbatore plains. The wildlife sanctuaries of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur, Mudumalai and the Silent Valley National Park belong to this Reserve Zones of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Based on broad management principles, various zones have been recognized within the Biosphere Reserve. These are the core zone, manipulation zone and the restoration zone. For management purposes the Reserve has been divided into a core area of 1240 sq km and a buffer zone of about 4280 sq km. In the core zone, forestry operations, collection of minor forest produce, tourism, construction of dams, etc. are not allowed. The manipulation zone is an area identified for minimum activities involving forestry, agriculture and tourism. It has the largest area ( sq km) in the Reserve. For tourism, an area covering 335 sq km has been set apart in the Nagerhole Wildlife Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park and Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary. All the cultivated areas within the Biosphere Reserve belong to the agricultural zone. The highly degraded areas adjacent to the Biosphere Reserve belong to the restoration zone Ecology Topography, patterns of rainfall and temperature combine to produce complex ecological conditions. There is wide range in the limits of altitude and rainfall. To the north are the Wynad, Mysore, sigur and Thalaimalai plateaus with associated hills at a general elevation of 700 to 1000 m. On the west, the slopes constituting Nilambur, New Amarambalam and Silent Valley Rerserve Forests descend to 250 m in Calicut plains. To the south, the Attappadi plateau, Siruvani and Bolampatty hills show their own diverse topography from 1800m to 150 m in the Palghat gap. On the east, the Nilgiris slopes down to 250 m in the Coimbatore plains. The average annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm to 7000 mm. Temperature also shows wide 2

12 fluctuations- at the foot hills temperature is around 18 C while it may reach up to 40 C in the rain shadow areas. In accordance with the wide variations in edaphic and climatic conditions, the flora and fauna show specializations. An account of vegetation and fauna found in this area is given below Forests types An array of habitats and vegetation types ranging from dry scrub jungle, dry and moist deciduous forests, semi evergreen, evergreen and wet evergreen forests, sholas, grass lands and swamps are found in this area. The most important forest types are described below Tropical wet evergreen forests The wet evergreen forests which are dense and multi storied occur along the western slopes up to an altitude of 1500m where the annual rainfall is over 2000mm. This type of forest, having large trees attaining over 50m in height is characteristically found in Silent Valley and in parts of New Amarambalam and Attapadi areas of Kerala State. Dipterocarpus indicus, Mesua ferrea, Palaquim ellipticum, Artocarpus hirsuta, Bischofia javanica, Garcinia indica, Hopea parviflora, Hopea wightiana, Pterospermum reticulatum, Syzygium gardneri, Diospyros spp. and Cinnamomum zeylanicum are the dominant trees. Association of Dipterocarpus Mesua Palaquim is very prominent. Lichens, mosses, epiphytes and climbers are fairly common. Due to the closed canopy, the ground is usually devoid of grasses Tropical montane evergreen shola-grassland The sholas are found along the upper Nilgiris plateau and on the higher reaches of Siruvani hills in Tamil Nadu State above an altitude of 1800 m. On account of typical temperate conditions, shola vegetation is much specialised. Trees are stunted and are usually restricted to the valleys. The important tree species in the sholas are Cinnamomumum wightii, Elaeocarpus spp., Gordonia obtusa, Meliosoma spp., Liqustrum roxburghi, Litsea spp., Symplocos sp. and Syzygium arnottianum. The slopes are covered with grasses. The ground flora consists of Rubiaceae and Acanthaceae of which Strobilanthus spp. are quite abundant. The grasslands contain species belonging to the genera Cymbopogon, Themeda, Ergrostis and Tripogon Tropical semi evergreen forests This type of forests, which is a transition between the evergreen and the moist deciduous types, is found along the lower reaches of western slopes and below the montane shola vegetation along the northern and eastern slopes. It contains several elements of the evergreen forests like Vitex altissima, Persea macrantha, Holigarna arnottiana and moist deciduous species such as Bombax ceiba, Trewia nudiflora, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Schleichera oleosa and Caryota urens. The ground is usually devoid of grasses. 3

13 Fig. 1. Map of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve 4

14 The Wynad plateau is the typical site having good representation of moist deciduous trees such as Lagerstroemia Kydia calycina and Tectona grandis. Large clumps of Arundinaceae are often found in the The ground may have a good growth of tall grasses such as Themeda spp. and Cymbopogon spp Tropical dry deciduous forests The dry deciduous scrub thickets characterised by the presence of short grasses and thorny shrubs (Acacia spp. and Lantana camara), are dominantly found in the Mysore plateau, Talamalai plateau and a large portion of the rain shadow slopes of the Nilgiris. Because of the frequent fires, various fire hardy species like Anogeissus latifolia, Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa, T. chebula, Albizia odoratissima, Grewia tiliifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Chloroxylon swietenia and Adina cordifolia are quite abundant in this type of habitat. The bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus is very common. The ground layer shows a good grass cover of Tehemeda, Cymbopgon, Imperata and Heteropogon Tropical dry thorn forests The relatively dry regions contain this type of forests where Acacia leucophloea, Albizia amara, Hardwickia pinnata, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Dicrostachys cinerea, Xeromphis spinosa, Erythroxylum monogynum and Capparis sepiaria are the common plant species. Short grasses occur on the ground layer. This vegetation type has largely disappeared from the Deccan plateau where it was once extensive and at present the Moyar Valley has the best representation of this type of forests Fauna More than 100 species of mammals, 550 of birds, 30 of reptiles and several species of invertebrates such as insects and arachnids have been recorded from this area. The area is also important on account of the occurrence of the largest known populations of Nilgiri Tahr, Lion Tailed Macaque, Elephant, Tiger, Gaur, Sambar and Cheetal. Of these, the former two species viz., the Nilgiri Tahr and the Lion Tailed Macaque are endangered. Fresh water fishes of the genera Horabagrus, Bhavania and Travancorica are also seen. The tribal population includes the Cholanaikans of Nilgiris, the only surviving hunter-gatherer community of the Indian subcontinent. With regard to invertebrates, only a few groups have been covered. This include studies on the insect fauna of Wynad, Silent Valley and New Amarambalam, reporting 135 species from Wynad, 704 species from Silent Valley and 41 species from New Amarambalam (Larsen, 1987 a, b, c ; 1988). 2. Butterflies Butterflies belonging to the class Insecta are perhaps the most popular and colourful organisms that have enchanted people of all ages and walks of life. Based on fossil records, it is presumed that butterflies came into existence some 130 million years ago during the Cretaceous period along with flowering plants (Table 1) and there is enough evidence to suggest possible coevolution of plants and butterflies. 5

15 Table 1. Geological time scale (Feltwell, 1986). Million years ago Geological Era 0 Present 2 Pleistocene 7 Pliocene 26 Miocene Tertiary or Coenozoic 38 Oligocene 54 Eocene 64 Palaeocene 136 Cretaceous 193 Jurassic Mesozoic 225 Triassic 280 Permian Palaeozoic 345 Carboniferous 395 Devonian Butterflies along with the moths are included under the order Lepidoptera. The term Lepidoptera (Gk. Lepis, scale; pteron, wing) has reference to the scales covering the wings which vary in shape and colour. The order Lepidoptera is further divided into Rhopalocera which include the butterflies and the Heterocera which include the moths. In Rhopalocera, the antennae are clubbed while in Heterocera, the antennae are serrate. Some of the distinguishing characters of butterflies and moths are given in Table 2. Table 2. Differences between butterflies and moths (Feltwell, 1986). Butterfly Moth Exceptions Antennae knobbed. Antennae serrate. Certain moths of the family Zygaenidae possess swollen antennae. Diurnal (day flying). Nocturnal (night flying). Certain satyrid butterflies fly at dusk. Similarly, some geometrid moths fly during the day. Brightly coloured. Dull coloured. Many satyrid and skipper butterflies are dull coloured. On the contrary, certain day flying moths (Callidulidae) are brightly coloured. While resting, butterflies keep their wings folded vertically / upwards. Butterflies do not have frenate wings. Moths rest with the wings held flat or horizontal to the body. Moths have frenate wings. The skippers rest with the wings held at different angles. Geometrid moths rest with the wings folded. Certain European skippers have frenate wings. 6

16 2.1. Structure of butterflies Butterflies have three body segments viz., the head, thorax and abdomen (Fig. 2). On the head are the antennae, the eyes and the proboscis. Antennae are primarily the olfactory organs which are very useful in detecting the opposite sex for mating. The female possesses specialized scent glands (pheromone glands) which emits a specific odour (pheromone) which is sensed by the antennae of the male. It is stated that the males can locate a female as far as 2 km away. Other than the olfactory use, antennae are also useful in navigation while in flight. Fig. 2. Generalized structure of a butterfly The eyes of butterflies are complex structures composed of thousands of hexagonal units termed ommatida which are directed to all sides. As a result, butterflies can virtually see in all directions. It has been stated that there are over 6000 ommatidia in a single compound eye. The image formed by the omatidia provides only a blurred, mosaic vision which is sensitive to movements and colour. The colour spectrum perceived by butterflies is also quite different from that of the human beings. While man can perceive colours ranging from red to indigo, butterflies can see further into the violet and ultra-violet range of the light spectrum. Plants can absorb as well as reflect the ultra violet rays. In some flowers, the petals reflect ultra violet rays which attract and guide butterflies to the nectaries. Butterflies feed with the help of a feeding tube known as proboscis or haustellum situated on the ventral side of the head. While not feeding, the proboscis is held rolled up beneath the head. The length of the haustellum is related to the length of the corolla tube. Usually, nectar feeding 7

17 butterflies have longer haustellum compared to the saprophytic forms in which the haustellum is short. The thorax is the loco-motor portion of the butterfly body. It is composed of three segments viz., pro, meso and metathorax, each of which carries a pair of legs (true legs) on the ventral side. The legs have six distinct parts viz., coxa, femur, tibia, tarsus, claws and pads. The tarsus consists of specialized sensory cells which help in the detection of the chemical nature of the substratum. The claws are helpful to hold on to the substratum. Two pairs of wings are also borne by the thorax dorso-laterally- on the meso and meta thoracic segments. The wings are covered with scales, some of which are modified into sex brands (androconia) in the males which emit a characteristic odour to arouse sexual attraction in female for courtship. The wings possess a network of veins, the arrangement of which is useful in their classification (Fig. 3). The thorax also carries the auditory organs ventrally which comprises of a pair of ear drums beset with hairs. The sound waves hitting the ear drum produce vibrations which stimulate the hairs surrounding it leading to transmission of sound waves to the brain. The abdomen is composed of ten segments opening posteriorly into the anus. It contains important organs related to respiration, circulation, digestion, excretion and reproduction. Respiration is through a series of spiracles situated on the sides of the abdomen. There are nine pairs of spiracles leading into a network of tunnels or tracheae opening in to the tissues. When the inhaled air passes into the tissues through the tracheae, gaseous exchange takes place. The circulatory system is relatively simple comprising of a dorsal tubular heart open at both ends. The heart has minute openings (ostium) in each segment through which blood is released into the tissues and then sucked back into the heart. The nervous system consists of a brain and a nerve chord along the ventral side of the body from which nerves are sent out in each segment. With regard to the reproductive system, the male has a pair of testes from which leads the sperm ducts opening into the intermittent organ or penis. Surrounding thie penis, accessory structures meant for clasping or holding the female in copulation as well as tufts of hairs meant to distribute the odour from pheromone glands are present. The female genitalial structures include a pair ovary, oviducts and the external genital opening. The eggs produced by the ovaries pass through the oviducts. The sperms received from the male during copulation are stored in a sperm pouch or spermatheca and are used for the fertilization of the eggs produced by the ovaries. The fertilized eggs are deposited on the appropriate host plant through a telescopic ovipositor. The morphological details of the external genitalial structure are very useful in the taxonomic categorization Biology Butterflies are holometabolous insects ie., they have a complete metamorphosis with 4 distinct developmental stages in their life cycle viz., egg, larva, pupa and adult (Fig. 4). Usually, a female butterfly may lay about 100 eggs in its life time. 8

18 Fig. 3. Butterfly wings showing venation and various parts However, due to various reasons such as incidence of parasites and predators, unsuitable weather conditions etc., the survival rate is very low and only about 2 % of the progeny are destined to attain full development. The eggs are of different shapes and sizes. For instance, the eggs of pierids are elongated; those of lycaenids are flattened and disc-shaped while those of the papilionids are rounded. Eggs will be laid either on the upper or lower side of the leaves of the preferred host plant. After 3-7 days, the eggs hatch into larvae. The body of the caterpillar is divisible into three parts viz., the head, thorax and abdomen. The head bears a pair of powerful mandibles for chewing the food. Underneath the head are the silk glands which produce the silk strands. 9

19 Fig. 4. Life history stages of the Common mime, Chilasa clytia. The thorax bears three pairs of legs which are less pronounced. The abdomen consists of 10 segments of which segments 3-6 and 10 bears abdominal legs or prolegs (Fig.5). The larva is voracious and feeds heavily on the foliage. As it grows, the skin covering the larval body is shed and this process is called ecdyses or moulting. The moulted stage is called an instar and the duration between two successive instars is called stadium. The duration of the larval period may vary, but usually it may take three to four weeks to attain maturity. When fully mature, it transforms into the pupal stage. Prior to pupation, the mature larva gets attached to some substratum with the help of its cremaster and with silken fibres. The larval body shrinks and gets encapsulated within a pupal shell. While inside the pupa, the larva undergoes drastic changes. In the place of the mandibles, develops the proboscis which serves as the ingestive organ of the adult butterfly (Fig. 5). Three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings also develop on the thorax. The developing body parts remain embedded in a pupal fluid. The colour of the pupa is usually brown but may be green or grey to match the surroundings. Emergence of the adult butterfly occurs by a longitudinal crack of the pupal shell. The wings of the newly emerged butterfly will be wet in the pupal fluid and 10

20 Fig. 5. Structure of a butterfly caterpillar and pupa it may take about 30 minutes to stretch the wings and to get it dried up. Usually, a butterfly lives for two to six weeks, but some hibernating species are known to live up to ten months. The major role of the butterfly is to maintain the progeny. Under favourable conditions, the generations may be continuous although many species are known to be seasonal Ecology Distribution So far, about 20,000 species of butterflies have been reported from all over the world. They occur in diverse habitats ranging from cold temperate to very hot deserts. Although certain species like the painted lady (Vanessa cardui) are found in colder areas where the temperature falls below 0 0 c, many others prefer the warm and moist habitats of the tropics. In the tropics, the South American region harbours the greatest number of the butterflies (6,000 species) followed by the Oriental region (3,500 species). India has 1,500 species of butterflies, of which peninsular India hosts 350, and the Western Ghats, 330 species Host plant associations Butterflies depend on plants for nectar, for laying their eggs, to escape from the predators as well as to protect themselves from unfavourable weather conditions. The relationship between butterflies and their host plants is very specific and it is belived that plants and insects have evolved simultaniously and have adapted themelves to be mutually beneficial. Butterflies are attracted to flowers by the colour. Red, yellow or bluish flowers having diurnal anthesis are visited by the butterflies. Nectar is suck from the flowers by inserting the haustellum into the corolla tube and in this process the plants get pollinated. 11

21 Butterflies are highly local in their distribution and hence, they spend most of their life in a limited area of their habitat where the specific host plants are available. After mating, the female butterflies lay their eggs on the leaves and stems of their preferred host plants. The larvae (caterpillars) that hatch out from the ova (eggs) will directly proceed to eat the leaves of these plants. Some of the common butterflies and their host plants are listed in Appendix Behaviour Territoriality Many species of butterflies maintain a clear-cut territory which is essentially a strategy to ensure greater chances of success in the search for partner, food as well as protection. In territorial behaviour, the dominant male termed as the Holder, will perch on a vantage point and patrol the area by flying through the habitat in search of receptive females as well as food. It will chase away any intruder which is generally a member of the same sex and species. When a suitable female is sighted, courting normally begins. It has been reported that Papilio machaon maintains a Beat which is simply a large area around which it repeatedly flies. Hilltopping is another form of territorial behaviour observed in butterfly species inhabiting mountains. In such species, males perch on hill-tops awaiting the arrival of receptive females. It will mate with the virgin females flying in to these areas. After mating, the female will subsequently leave the area searching for larval host plants for egg laying. Males will remain in the perching sites for most of their life and leave only periodically to visit nectar sources Courtship The courtship of butterflies involves a variety of behavioural, physiological and biochemical mechanisms. A male butterfly actively searches for the female, using visual and olfactory stimuli. Sexual excitement of the female takes palce due to the scent produced by the pheromone glands of the androconia situated on the forewings of the male. Most male pheromones are effective only over short distance. In courtship display, the male moves round the female and make contact with its abdomen. If the female is receptive, she raises her wings so as to uncover the tip of her abdomen allowing the male to mate. While mating is in progress, one of the pair usually flies, clumsily dragging along the other, who hangs passively Flight While most of the butterflies fly during day time (diurnal), a few butterflies, especially the skippers fly during night (nocturnal). The flight of butterfly may be of two kinds- fluttering or gliding. Butterflies that characteristically fly by fluttering the wings usually possess broad wings which they beat up and down. Gliding is a passive flight performed by butterflies either during migration or while moving from the canopy to the ground. Gliding is the usual flight pattern in certain large butterflies such as the Tree nymph, Idea malabarica Mud puddling Adult butterflies frequently aggregate on damp soil mainly for their salt requirement. The newly emerged adults usually have enough reserve of sodium in their body. The males exhaust their sodium reserves during spermatogenesis while the female replenish their sodium reserve 12

22 through the sperms received from the males during copulation. Males make up for this loss of sodium by licking the sodium deposits contained in damp soil. The mud puddling aggregations usually comprise a large congregation of many species of butterflies (Fig. 6). Only the male butterflies take part in mud puddling. Fig. 6. Mud puddling of the Malabar Banded Swallowtail, Papilio liomedon Basking Butterflies being cold-blooded organisms cannot generate enough heat from their own metabolism for flight. Therefore, butterflies bask in the sun with open wings to keep the thoracic muscles warm for flight. Thermal energy received from the sun is used to warm the surface of the wings. Basking may be dorsal or lateral (Fig. 7). In the former, the wings are kept spread out while in the latter, the wings are held together above the body with the ventral surface kept perpendicular to the sun when the dark pigments on the underside of the wings absorb radiant energy warming the flight muscles of the thorax efficiently. Butterflies having white wings characteristically hold their wings in a V- shaped position in order to reflect the sun rays directly to the thorax. The black areas near the wing bases absorb the heat efficiently which is then directly transferred to the flight muscles. At dusk or during cloudy days, when solar radiation falls beneath the levels needed to ensure sufficient heating, butterflies seek shelter on the branches of trees. In the tropics, the flight activity lasts longer because of the longer duration of warm day hours. 13

23 Fig. 7. A Chocolate Pansy (up) and a Great Eggfly (down) basking in the sun Defence Mechanisms All stages of butterflies are susceptile to a variety of natural enemies such as spiders, preying mantis, ants, wasps, parasitic wasps, parasitic flies, birds, rats, toads, lizards and snakes. Unlike other insects, butterflies do not have any specialised organs of defence. However, as a part of self defence, butterflies have developed various strategies to keep away from the predators. Warning coloration, camouflauge, accumulation of toxic materials in the body etc. are some of the adaptations found in butterflies. 14

24 Warning colouration: Besides facilitating individual recognition, the beautiful colours of butterflies also pass on important clues to the predators on their possible inhibitory attributes. Based on the feeding preferences of predators, butterflies have been classified as palatable or unpalatable. The palatable butterflies are of good taste and are regularly consumed by predators. But, those butterflies which have stored poisonous chemicals in their body will be distasteful and unpalatable to the predators and these butterflies will be successful in deterring the attack of various natural enemies. The immature stages of unpalatable butterflies such as the milk weed butterflies (Blue tiger, Plain tiger etc.) and aristolochian butterflies (Southern birdwing, Common rose etc.) feed on plants containing alkaloids or poisonous substances. Such butterflies will contain toxins in their body which will make the predator sick. Any predator that has ever consumed such a butterfly will easily remember the consequences of eating such a butterfly and it will try to correlate the colour pattern as well as the ill effects and try to avoid eating similar butterflies in the future. The palatable butterflies sharing the habitat of unpalatable butterflies copy their colour pattern and thus gain protection. The former is a mimic and the latter is a model. This phenomenon of gaining protection by resembling another species is called mimicry. There are two main types of mimicry- Batesian and Mullerian. Batesian mimicry: This type of mimicry was first described by the British naturalist Henry Walter Bates in He found two unrelated but similarly marked families of Brazilian forest butterflies one of which (model) was poisonous to the birds and the other was palatable (mimic) which survived because of the resemblance to the poisonous ones (Fig. 8). The viceroy butterflies (Danaus chrysippus) provide a very good example for Batesian mimicry. The viceroy butterfly which is not poisonous gains protection by mimicking the monarch butterfly (Danaus plexipus) which is poisonous and unpalatable. Because of its poisonous nature, predators will avoid the viceroy butterflies, which closely resemble the monarch butterfly. The Great Eggfly (Hypolimnas bolina), the Malabar Raven (Papilio dravidarum) and the Common Mime (Chilasa clytia) which mimics the Common Crow (Euploea core) are examples of Batesian mimicry. Mullerian mimicry: Bates had observed a resemblance among several unrelated inedible butterflies which was perplexing. It was the German Zoologist Fritz Muller who proposed an explanation to Bates s paradox in He found that once the predator has learned to avoid a particular conspicuous warning coloration with which it had its initial contact; it would thereafter try to avoid all other similarly patterned species, edible or inedible (Fig. 9). This tendency of inedible and noxious species to evolve to have the same or similar warning colouration is called Mullerian mimicry. The Common Mime (Chilasa clytia), Blue Tiger (Tirumala limniace), Glassy Blue Tiger (Parantica aglea) and Dark Blue Tiger (Yirumala septentrionis) are examples of Mullerian mimicry. Camouflage: The simplest form is copying the colour of the background or having dark and light stripes or having various patterns on the wings which render recognition of organisms difficult while resting. These complex patterns which make it difficult for predators to distinguish the outline of the butterfly from the environment are called "disruptive coloration". The Indian Leaf butterfly (Kallima) resembles a dead leaf while resting is a very good example for this. The upper side of the wings has blue and orange colour while the under side is dull brown streaked with fine brown lines resembling the veins of a leaf. The form and colouration of the wings makes it hard to recognize this butterfly.similarly, several satyrine butterflies also 15

25 have developed cryptic colouration which renders their recognition difficult. In order to escape from predators, the immature stages also present various adaptations. The larva may be variously coloured, worm-like and is provided with spines or worts to escape from predators. Fig. 8. The Great Eggfly, Hypolimnas bolina (right) mimicking the Common Crow, Euploea core (left). Fig. 9. The Common Mime (right) mimicking the Blue Tiger (left) 16

26 The larva of the lime butterfly Papilio demoleus resembles a bird dropping in the initial stages but later it becomes greenish perfectly matching with the leaf. Caterpillars of ceratin papilionids possess a gland known as osmeterium just behind the head. When disturbed, they may evert a horn-like appendage and eject a fluid on the predator. Caterpillars of Hesperiidae live inside a fold cut from the leaf edge. Larvae of Palm butterflies (Elymnias spp.) live inside rolled leaves. Symbiotic relationships between lycaenid caterpillars and ants are well known. Protective colouration (crypsis) is noticed in the larvae of Hairstreaks and Skippers which resemble their host plants in colour and pattern. Butterflies are potentially most vulnerable in the pupa stage and in order to escape from predators they have developed the ability to camouflage themselves by resembling their surroundings. The pupa of the Commom mime, Chilasa clytia closely resembles a dead twig. This is also an example of protective colouration Migration Like birds, butterflies also migrate. However, the reasons for migration are not fully worked out. It is presumed that butterflies migrate to tide over unfavourable conditions such as over crowding, scarcity of food, unfavourable weather conditions etc. The classical example of butterfly migration is that of the Monarch butterfly (Danaus plexipus) from Canada to Mexico, traversing a distance of 3200 km. In this case, migration begins with the onset of winter season and the return journey is undertaken during the spring. Since butterflies are short-lived, they cannot survive to complete the round trips and the return journey is usually undertaken by the offsprings. About 250 species of butterflies in the world and about 60 species in India are reported to be migratory. Mottled emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe), Common albatross (Appias albina), Blue tiger (Tirumala limniace), Dark blue tiger (T. septentrionis) and the Common Indian crow (Euploea core) are some of the migrant butterflies in southern India Butterfly conservation Butterflies being highly fragile in nature, even minor perturbations in the environment may affect their survival so much so they have been looked upon as biotic indicators to monitor changes taking place in the environment. Due to various disturbances in the ecosystem, mainly brought about by human intervention, the habitats of many butterflies have been altered / destroyed leading to disappearance of many species. Species loss has tremendous implications on the survival of mankind in this universe. It has been stated that loss of even a single species may trigger in a series of changes in the environment leading to the disappearance of at least a dozen species that are linked to it. Therefore, we must try to mend the ill effects of environmental disturbance through appropriate conservation activities. Identification of the threat faced by a given species of butterfly is perhaps the first stage in any conservation programme. It may be due to poaching, deforestation, intensification of agriculture, pollution etc. Of all these, habitat loss is the major threat faced by butterflies. For any conservation programme, ranking of the population status is important. Based on distribution data, butterflies have been ranked as common, rare, threatened, vulnerable or endangered. Species which are well distributed and frequently cited are considered as common. Rare species have populations that are restricted only to certain locations and will be under risk and may become vulnerable or endangered if the threat factors are not changed. 17

27 To protect butterflies facing threat, there are also several laws at national and international levels. As per the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1977), 412 species of butterflies have been brought under the schedules of protected species. Collecting and keeping custody of these species is an offence. Other than legislation, there are also various strategies to conserve butterflies. They can be broadly classified as in situ and ex situ conservation programmes. The former involves enrichment of the habitat by introduction of suitable host plants. Setting up of butterfly gardens is an activity in this direction. In the latter, stock bred under captivity is reintroduced in recreated habitats. In situ conservation of butterflies by setting up butterfly gardens: Butterfly gardening is a conservation cum education programme. By establishing butterfly gardens, it is possible to gain insights into the life history, behaviour and role of butterflies in sustaining natural ecosystems. Butterfly gardens can be set up in any location by introducing butterfly host plants and by recreating suitable habitats. The general design of a butterfly garden is given in Fig. 10. Generally, locations that are close to natural forests or natural vegetations will attract more number of species compared to urban areas. Similarly, larger gardens are likely to contain more the number of butterflies both of individuals and species. Information pertaining to the life history patterns, host range and habitat associations of various butterflies is essential prior to setting up the garden. There are two major phases in the life cycle of butterflies- a juvenile or caterpillar stage which feeds on foliage of specific plants and an adult (butterfly) stage which feeds at flowers on nectar or sap of over-ripe fruits, sappy exudations from plants or the fluid content of excreta of animals and birds. Citrus, Albizia, Cassia, Cinnamom, Aristolochia, Milk weeds, Tylophora, Wattakakka and Mussaenda are the common larval host plants that can be introduced for attracting various butterflies found in southern India. Ixora, Lantana, Mussaenda, Marigold, Cuphea, Zinnia and Clerodendron are some common nectar plants favoured by many species of butterflies. Common Mime, Common Rose, Crimson Rose, Lime Butterfly, Blue Mormon, Southern Birdwing, Glassy Blue Tiger, Blue Tiger, dark Blue Tiger, Emigrants and Grass Yellows are some butterflies that can be easily sustained in butterfly gardens. Besides host plants, butterflies also require specific eco-climatic conditions. Temperature ranging from C and 85-95% relative humidity are suited for most butterflies. Habitats having bright sunshine, shade, bushes, hedges, lianas, streams, ponds and tall trees are preferred by specific groups of butterflies. For maintaining appropriate ecoclimatic conditions, it is essential to set up ponds, waterfalls, streams, bushes, openings etc., in the garden area. Information boards as well as models depicting butterfly life can be set up in the garden for providing information on the life and conservation of butterflies. For sustaining butterflies already present in the area, it is also important to retain the available natural patches of vegetation. Along with the colonization of butterflies, a variety of organisms including preying mantis, spiders, lizards and birds will also make their appearance in the garden which in turn would lead to an increase in the total biodiversity of the area. Butterfly gardens have been established at various locations in Kerala (Fig. 11) 18

28 Fig. 10. Layout of a typical Butterfly Garden i. Butterfly forage area ii. Insectary iii. Butterfly exhibit area Ex situ conservation of butterflies: This can be achieved by butterfly farming which is an activity intended to replenish the already depleted fauna. It will also provide material for trade and scientific study. Although butterflies have high fecundity, this potential is hardly realised under natural conditions on account of various natural mortality factors Very good survival of offsprings can be achieved through captive breeding which will be advantageous in reintroduction programmes. At present, captive breeding of butterflies is undertaken mainly in commercial butterfly houses which serve two important roles, first as a tourist cum education institution for generating revenue and for promoting public awareness on nature conservation (Fig. 12). In this context, it may be noted that there are not many institutions in India for undertaking research on rare or endangered butterflies, monitor their population status, maintain stock cultures, involve in activities pertaining to habitat improvement or to attempt introduction of extremely rare or threatened species. This is going to be an important task to be undertaken for the conservation of critically endangered butterflies. While most commercial butterfly houses in temperate countries are walk-through heated glass houses that are expensive to construct and maintain only simple structures are needed in tropical conditions. 19

29 Fig. 11. Butterfly Garden in the KFRI campus at Peechi 20

30 Fig. 12. Butterfly House at Bennerghetta, Bangalore and the beautifully landscaped interior (Bottom). 21

31 3. Butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Butterflies are perhaps the best studied group of insects. Bingham (1905, 1907), Talbot (1939, 1947), Evans (1925, 1932), Wynter-Blyth (1957), D Abrera ( ), Kunte (2000), and Gaonakar (1996) have made excellent contributions on the butterflies of India. So far, 332 species have been reported from southern India (Varshney, 1986) (Table 3). Larsen (1987, 1988) has recorded two hundred and ninety nine species from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Table 3. Butterfly diversity of India in relation to the World fauna (Varshney, 1986) Families World India S. India Papilionidae Pieridae Nymphalidae Lycaenidae Hesperiidae Total Mathew (1999), Mathew and Rahamathulla (1993) recorded about 100 species of butterflies from Silent Valley National Park. In a study on the insect fauna of New Amarambalam, Mathew (2002) recorded 860 species of insects belonging to 13 orders which included 133 species of butterflies. Of these, 28 species were having high conservation value being either rare or endemic. In this work, an attempt has been made to consoliadate available information on butterflies so far recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The classification followed in this work is mainly after Wynter Blyth (1957) and D Abrera ( ). An account of various butterflies recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is given below under their respective families Family Papilionidae Members of this family popularly known as Swallowtails are generally very large in size, black or dark brown in colour and with varied markings. There are over 700 species of swallowtails recorded from all over the world, of which 107 species are found in India. The legs are long and slender. Papilionids are showy and avid nectar feeders. They are generally found in forest or hilly areas, but may also occur in the plains. The eggs which are spherical in shape are laid singly on the top of a leaf or tender shoot. The caterpillars are conspicuously coloured with a 22

32 large head. Behind the head, there is a retractile lobe-like process known as Osmeterium which emits a characteristic scent. Body of the caterpillar is fleshy covered with protuberances or tubercles and are often brightly coloured to escape from predators. The caterpillars though sluggish are voracious feeders and they feed mainly on plants of the families Rutaceae, Aristolochiaceae and Annonaceae. Pupae are attached to twigs by silken fibres. Three subfamilies viz., Baroniinae, Parnassinae (Apollo butterflies) and the Papilioninae have been recognized. The subfamily Papilioninae is the largest and contains about 650 species. Papilioninae alone occurs in southern India. Nineteen species of Papilionidae recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere is listed below. 1. Troides minos Cramer (The Southern Birdwing) (Plate I, Fig. 1) (=Troides helena) Cramer, Papillons. Exot. 3: 4, t.195 D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region. Part 1: 26. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SOUTHERN BIRDWING measures about mm in expanse and is brown and yellow in colour. In the male, the upper side of the fore wing is glossy black with white stripes on the surface of veins 2, 3 and 4 which become confluent at about the cell. The upper side of the hind wing is golden with the inner area black as far as the cell and with the borders and veins having a black tinge. Abdomen brownish above, yellowish below and with the sides ringed with narrow yellow stripes. The female is more or less similar to the male except for the prominent greyish white stripes along the veins on the fore wing and the discal row of large, triangular black spots on the upper side of the hind wing. The abdomen is blackish brown with a broad yellow stripe at the side. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Sikkim, Orissa, Assam and south India. From Kerala, it has been recorded from Peechi, Nilambur, Mukkali, Parambikulam, Vazhachal and Mannarghat. It is endemic to southern India and the Western Ghats. Habits: It is usually found in lowland evergreen forests although it is also distributed in the subtropical evergreen and moist deciduous forests upto an altitude of about 1829 m ASL in western and south-western india and some localities in mid-western India north and south of Bombay (D Abrera, 1982). It is a good colonizer of agricultural lands particularly coffee plantations (Larsen, 1987a). They are generally found to feed at the flowers quite early in the morning and in the evenings. During the rest of the day they may be seen gliding slowly around tree tops. Commonly found during the wet season. Host plants: Larvae develop on Aristolochia indica, A. tagala, Bragantia wallichii and Thottea siliquosa. Adults feed at the flowers of Lantana. Status: Common. 2. Pachliopta pandiyana Moore (The Malabar Rose) (Plate I, Fig. 2) (=Tros pandiyana) Moore, Trans. ent. Soc. Lond.1881:

33 D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region. Part 1: 28. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MALABAR ROSE measures mm in expanse. It is closely related to the Sri Lankan endemic, Pachliopta jophon Gray. Both sexes have tailed hind wings which in the female is spatulate. The upper side of the fore wing is black with white streaks along the nervures extending from the cell. A fringe of red, crescent shaped spots present in the discal area of hind wing which is more prominent in the female than in the male. Distribution: Recorded from the Nadgani Ghat, Silent Valley, Sholayar and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is usually found in wet evergreen forests at medium elevations. They generally aggregate on trees during nights.usually, they become active relatively early in the morning and fly in dense forests. Frequently they are found along clearings and roads where they visit the flower-heads of Lantana and Clerodendrum paniculatum. Generally found during the months September and October. In the field, they are predated by birds. Larsen (1987a) has reported the Red whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus as predating on this species. Hosts: Larvae develop on Thottea siliquosa. Status: It is endemic to the wetter parts of the Western Ghats. 3. Pachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius (The Common Rose) (Plate I, Fig. 3) (=Tros aristolochiae) Fabricius, Syst. Ent.: 443. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region. Part 1: 30. Wynter-Blyth, 1957, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON ROSE measures mm in expanse. On the fore wing the discal area is paler, with alternately black and pale stripes radiating from the margin of the cell. The upper side of hind wing is black with tails which in the female is spatulate. Five elongate white spots in the discal area. Some of these spots may be absent or those in the anal area may be red. A row of dull red, crescent shaped spots present along the fringe of the wing margin. One of the female forms of Papilio polytes (the romulus form) is an excellent mimic of this butterfly. Similarly, the female of the zygaenid moth, Histia nilgira Moore is another species exhibiting close similarity with P. aristolochiae. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar and India. It has been recorded from several places in Kerala including Peechi, Mukkali, Mannarghat, Silent Valley, Parambikulam, Sholayar and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is frequently found in the plains and in the hills up to 1219 m ASL and is rarely found in dense forests. It often forms communal roosts with P. hector during night. The flight is slow. Frequently visits flowers. Hosts: Caterpillars develop on Aristolochia indica and A. bracteolata. 24

34 Status: Common. 4. Pachliopta hector Linnaeus (The Crimson Rose) (Plate I, Fig. 4) (=Tros hector) Linnaeus, Syst. Nat.10: 459. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region. Part 1: 28. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CRIMSON ROSE measuring mm in expanse, is a tailed butterfly, black above with the fore wing having a broad, white, interrupted band from the subcostal vein opposite the origin of veins 10 and 11 and with another similar subapical band. Hind wing with discal and marginal rows of strongly curved series of seven crimson spots and a submarginal series of crimson lunules. The abdomen is black above. Distribution: Eastern Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Andaman Islands and South India. Hosts: It is generally found in dry deciduous forests and agricultural lands at low altitudes although it may be exceptionally found at altitudes ranging to 1524 m ASL. Communal roosts have been reported during winter season when large-scale migrations occur. Adults feed at the flowers of Lantana and Clerodendron. Larvae develop on Aristolochia indica, A. tagala and Thottea siliquosa. Habits: Slow flying insect preferring open forests with sunshine. Large scale population builds up and migration reported. Status: Common. Protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1982). 5. Papilio clytia Linnaeus (The Common Mime) (Plate I, Fig. 5) Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. X: 479. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 92. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON MIME measures mm in expanse. The upper side is dark brown. Fore wing dorsally with marginal spots and a series of terminal spots between the veins. Upper side of the hind wings bear a discal series of long, arrow-shaped streaks, marginal crescents and narrow, yellow or white terminal spots present between the veins. On the under side, the ground colour varies from soft pale brown to rich dark velvety brown. Markings on fore wings as above. Hind wings with similar markings as those above, but with a marginal row of comparatively large, very conspicuous yellow spots. There are three formsform clytia (mimicking the Common Crow, Euploea core), form dissimilis (mimicking the Blue Tiger, Danaus limniace) and form commixtalis which is intermediate between clytia and dissimilis (fore wing as in clytia and hind wing as in dissimilis). The pupa resembles the end of a broken stick and is attached to a branch. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Kangra to Sikkim, Assam, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh and S. India. It is well distributed all over the Western Ghats and has been recorded from Trivandrum, Silent Valley, Nelliyampathy, Sholayar and Parambikulam. 25

35 Habits: It is generally found in dry deciduous and in lowland evergreen forests up to an altitude of 2438 m ASL. Also found in areas under agriculture probably because of the presence of the larval food plant Cinnamom. They often aggregate on trees during night forming roosts. It has the habit of hovering above the flowers or puddles. Large scale population build up and migration reported. Host: The larva develops on Cinnamomum zeylanicum, C. camphora, C.macrocarpum, Litsea chinensis, Persea macrantha and Alseodaphne semicarpifolia. Status: Common in localities having the larval host plant. Protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Papilio demoleus Linnaeus (Lime Butterfly) (Plate I, Fig. 6) Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. X: 464 D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 60. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LIME BUTTERFLY measures mm in expanse. Dorsal side of wings black and with a series of yellow spots. Fore wing with large, irregular, yellow spots and patches. A curved yellow spot at the upper apex of the cell in the fore wing and marginal and terminal rows of yellow spots on both wings. Hind wing with a broad, irregular yellow discal band and with a red tornal spot and apical black and blue spots. The under side of wings is paler and with much larger markings. Fore wing with cream-coloured lines over the basal half of cell and below it. Hind wing marked with large, pale cream-coloured patches and with discal and post-discal markings. Lower surface of thorax and abdomen cream-yellow and with fine lateral black lines on the abdomen. Antennae dark reddish brown. Distribution: Sri Lanka; China; Vietnam; Arabia and India. It has been recorded from the Nadgani Ghat, Silent Valley, Sholayar, Parambikulam and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is generally found in the low land deciduous forests and rarely in dense wet evergreen forests. Visits flowers and participate in mud puddling. Present in all seasons. Hosts: It is a pest of cultivated citrus and wild rutaceous plants. Aegle marmelos, Glycosmis arborea, Murraya koenigii, Ruta graveolens, Citrus spp. and Chloroxylon swietenia are some of the recorded host plants. Status: Very common. 7. Papilio liomedon Moore (The Malabar Banded Swallowtail) (Plate I, Fig. 7) Moore, Proc.zool.Soc.Lond. 1874: 575 D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1:60. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

36 Description: The MALABAR BANDED SWALLOWTAIL is a dark brown, tailed butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Upper side of both wings with a creamy yellow band running from the apex of the fore wing to about middle of the hind wing. A marginal series of yellow crescents present dorsally on the hind wing. Distribution: The Western Ghats. Recorded from Coorg and Kanara. It is a rather scarce butterfly, which is also somewhat localized. Habits: It is found chiefly in the wettest parts of the lowland evergreen forest between 301 and 914 m ASL. The adults are generally found in mud puddling and are attracted to the flower heads of Clerodendrum paniculatum. Hosts: The eggs are laid one over the other in a band of ten. The caterpillars are gregarious and are subject to attack by natural enemies. Upto 90% mortality has been reported. Larvae develop on Evodea roxburghiana, Acronychia pedunculata and A. laurifolia. Status: Rare, endemic to the Western Ghats. Protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act (1982). 8. Papilio dravidarum Wood-Mason (The Malabar Raven) (Plate I, Fig. 8) Wood-Mason, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.1880:144. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 88. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: This is a tail-less butterfly, blackish brown in colour and measuring mm in expanse. The dorsal surface of wings is dark brown with four indistinct longitudinal lines in the cell irrorated with yellowish brown scales. A small white spot is present across the middle discocellular. A submarginal series of inwardly conical white spots and a marginal series of white spots which decrease in size and completely disappear towards the apex are present. The ground colour of the hind wing is black with a discal series of arrow-shaped white spots and a marginal series of elongate, white lunular spots on the upper surface. The under side is more brownish with markings larger than those above. Head, thorax and abdomen dark brownish black with white specklings on the head and thorax. It mimics the Common Indian Crow butterfly Euploea core core and the Common Mime Chilasa clytia clytia. Distribution: The Western Ghats. This species is reported to be fairly common in Coorg and on the western slopes of the Nilgiris. Recently, this species have been cited from the Kerala part of W. Ghats including the evergreen patches in Peechi forest. Habits: It is a rather rare species confined to the dense forests between 301 and 914 m ASL in the Western Ghats. The male is more common. Uusually feed at the flower heads of Lantana. The species may be found at mud patches during the summer. Hosts: Glycosmis arborea. 27

37 Status: Rare, endemic to the Western Ghats. 9. Papilio helenus Linnaeus (The Red Helen) (Plate I, Fig. 9) Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. X: 459. Satyamurti, 1994: 22. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 64. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The RED HELEN, measuring mm in expanse is the third largest butterfly. It is blackish brown with the upper side of the hind wing having a large, creamy white discal patch. Extreme margin tipped with white and with a series of inwardly convex, crescent-shaped linear spots. Dorsal side of fore wing blackish brown with the outer half remaining slightly paler. Transverse, discal series of inter-nervular streaks present on the under side of the fore wing. A complete row of marginal red crescents present on the under side of the hind wing. Distribution: Myanmar: Sri Lanka; India: Mussoorie, Assam, and the Western Ghats (Nilgiris, Palnis, Shevarys, Coorg and Bangalore). Habits: It has been reported from a variety of habitats ranging from agricultural lands to tea plantations. It is fairly common in the subtropical evergreen forests, relatively common on the plateau, and less common at lower elevations. In south India, it is found at all elevations ranging from 301 to 2134 m ASL. Found in areas of heavy rainfall. The adults are very fond of Lantana blossoms and may join aggregations of swallowtails. Hosts: The larvae feed mostly on rutaceous plants. Zanthoxylum rhetsa, Toddalia asiatica, Evodea roxburgiana, Philodendron sp., Clausena heptaphylla and Citrus lemon are some of the recorded larval host plants of this butterfly. Status: Common. 10. Papilio polytes Linnaeus (The Common Mormon) (Plate I, Fig. 10) Linnaeus, Syst.Nat. X: 460 D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 72 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON MORMON measuring mm in size is a tailed butterfly. In male, the upper side of the fore wing is black, with a terminal series of white spots which gradually become narrower towards the apical end of the wing. The upper side of the hind wing have a transverse series of discal, elongate white spots extending from the inner margin to vein 7. These spots become divided by the veins and are followed by sparse, blue scales beyond the discal area. The under surface is similar to the above, but of a dull ground colour and with a series of white spots on the discal area and another submarginal series of small, dull reddish white lunules and a row of narrow, linear, curved white marginal spots. The 28

38 tornal spot is separated from the blue-scaled area adjacent to the discal area, by a dull reddishyellow line. The females exist in three forms, stichius, romulus and cyrus. Of these, the first two are excellent mimics of the Common Rose, Pachliopta aristolochiae and the Crimson Rose, P. hector respectively. The third form is almost like the male. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; Malay Peninsula; Celebes and India. Habits: It is found in fairly large numbers at low and medium elevations in open country sides. Rarely found in dense evergreen forests. It is a good coloniser and hence is able to survive in altered habitats. Present throughout the year. Hosts: Atlantia racemosa, Aegle marmelos, Glycosmis arborea, Murraya koenigii, Zanthoxylum rhetsa, Citrus spp. and Triphasia sp. Status: Common. 11. Papilio polymnestor Cramer (The Blue Mormon) (Plate I, Fig. 11) Cramer, Papillons exot. I: 83. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 74. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description:The BLUE MORMON which is the second largest of the South Indian butterflies, has an expanse of mm. Upper side of fore wing is black, with a pale blue discal brand which narrows down and becomes obsolete towards the apex. This pale blue brand is traversed by black transverse stripes along the veins. The under side is opaque black with an elongate spot of dark red at the base of the cell in the fore wing. The basal one-third of the hind wing is black on the upper side. The remaining part is pale with a row of black discal spots, a similar row of black submarginal spots and a row of marginal black spots. Some of the submarginal spots coalesce with the marginal spots. The hind wings are tail-less. The under side of the hind wings with five irregular small patches of red at the base. The head, thorax and abdomen are uniformly blackish brown. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Peninsular India: Madhya Pradesh, S. Bihar, Bengal, Sikkim South India and the Western Ghats. It has a close resemblance to P. memnon Lin., which is widely distributed in the Oriental region. Habits: Excepting the dry lowlands, it is distributed in most other habitats. In the Western Ghats, it is found up to an altitude of 2134 m ASL. This butterfly is a powerful and rapid flier although, it doesnot seem to fly high. Observed in mud puddling. Males are fond of basking in sun. Hosts: The eggs are laid on all the natural rutaceous plants as well as on cultivated citrus. Glycosmis arborea, Atlantia racemosa, Atlantia wightii, Paramigyna monophylla, Citrus 29

39 spp.. are some of the larval host plants. Adults generally visit the flower heads of Ixora, Clerodendron and Lantana. Status: Common. 12. Papilio paris tamilana Moore (The Paris Peacock) (Plate I, Fig. 12) Moore, Syst. Nat. X: 459. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 52 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PARIS PEACOCK measuring mm in expanse is black in colour with the upper side of the body and wings dusted with green. The green discal brand is short. The upper side of the fore wing is almost completely black, with a narrow discal brand. The upper side of the hind wing with a large, bright green or blue, sharply defined patch and a red annular tornal ring. The hind wing has a prominent, club-shaped tail. The under side of the wings are brownish black with a series of grey discal stripes under the fore wing and with a complete row of red or yellow lunular rings and with oval, purplish blue spots. Distribution: Oriental region. Myanmar; India: Orissa, Kumaon, Sikkim, Assam and. It has been reported from the moist-deciduous forests of the Wynad and Mudumalai and from the evergreen forests in Nelliyampathy, Sholayar and Silent Valley. Habits: Although it is found in all types of evergreen forest up to 2134 m ASL, its main habitat is the subtropical evergreen forest in clearings. It is fond of sunshine and is found to fly over canopies. Generally abundant during the monsoon season. Hosts: Evodea roxburghiana, Toddalia asiatica, Zanthoxylum ovalifolium and Citrus spp. Status: Rare. 13. Papilio crino Fabricius (The Common Banded Peacock) (Plate II, Fig. 13) Fabricius, Ent. Syst. (3) 1:5. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 56. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON BANDED PEACOCK measures mm in expanse. The upper side of the wings are uniformly dusted with green scales. Both wings with a green, post-discal brand. The tail is tipped with green. In the fore wing, the bluish green discal brand is clearly defined and narrows towards the costa. In the hind wing, there is a broad bluish green post-discal brand, inwardly clearly defined and not entering the cell; above vein 7, it is abruptly narrowed. Its inner edge is fairly straight, while its outer edge is convexly curved. A reddish tornal ocellus, inwardly edged with blue and with a black centre present. 30

40 The under side is dull pale to blackish brown irrorated with scattered yellowish scales which are absent from a large, triangular discal patch on the fore wing. Hind wing with the tornal ocellus much as on the upper side and with an obscure, strongly arched post-discal band. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Bengal and parts of south India. It has been recorded from Silent Valley, Nelliyampathy and Sholayar. Habits: It is a swift flying butterfly more or less restricted to lowland mixed deciduous forest. It has close resemblance to P. buddha which is mostly confined to the wettest parts of the evergreen zone. Usually found in dry areas along hilly tracts at altitudes ranging from 2000 to 914 m ASL and even up to about 1829 m ASL on the hills. The adults have the habit of mud puddling. Flight is rapid. Migratory in habits. Hosts: The larvae feed on the Satinwood tree Chloroxylon sp. The adults feed at the flower heads of Lantana. Status: Rare. Larsen (pers. comm.) has reported large-scale commercial collection of this butterfly and states that several thousands of specimens were caught during one season on behalf of Japanese commercial collectors. 14. Papilio buddha Westwood (The Buddha Peacock) (Plate II, Fig. 14) Westwood, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1872: 186. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 58 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MALABAR BANDED PEACOCK or THE BUDDHA PEACOCK measuring mm in expanse is a very large butterfly with the outer areas and tails black, having broad bluish green discal band spread over the cells of both wings. Basal areas tinged with green. Distribution: It has been recorded from wet evergreen forests in Sholayar and Silent Valley and it is stated that this species is unable to survive in severely disturbed forests (Larsen, 1987a). However, this butterfly has been observed even in urban areas (in Trichur) where it was found to feed at the flower heads of Ixora. Habits: It is limited to canopies of wet low land evergreen forests. It is not usually found where the rainfall is less than 4000 mm a year. Generally found during the months May to September. Swift flying butterfly. Hosts: The larvae develop on Xanthoxylum rhetsa. The butterflies usually feed at the flower heads of Clerodendrum paniculatum. Status: Rare, endemic to the Western Ghats and protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act,

41 15. Graphium sarpedon teredon Felder & Felder (The Common Bluebottle) (Plate II, Fig. 15) (=Zetides sarpedon) Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. X: 461). D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 98 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON BLUE BOTTLE is brownish black in colour and measures mm in wing expanse. The body is brownish black above covered with dark grey hairs and pale grey below. The outer margin of wings is brownish with a prominent greenish blue discal band which is narrowed anteriorly and separated in to spots towards the apex on the upper surface of the fore wing. On the hind wing, the band which continues from the fore wing gets strongly narrowed posteriorly and ends in a point near the anal angle. The costal part of the band is whitish. The upper side of hind wing has a row of narrow green crescents. The hind wing is produced in to a short tail. On the under side, the ground colour of the wings is paler and the discal band is transparent whitish. The fore wing has faint indications of submarginal spots. A red transverse bar extends from the costal margin to the cell. There is a dark patch separating it from the discal band. There are five red discal spots at the base of the hind wing. Distribution: Oriental region: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Kashmir, Assam, south India (Vazhachal, Silent Valley, Sholayar and Parambikulam). Habits: Generally found in aggregations over damp patches within forest clearings ranging from low land forests to high mountains as well as in agricultural lands. Aggregation of this species is common on the banks of streams, mud puddling during September-October. It is a feeble flier. Hosts: Larva feeds on Polyalthia longifolia, Persea macrantha, Alseodaphnesemicarpifolia, Cinnamomum camphora, C. malabathrum, C. macrocarpum, Litsea chinensis and Miliusa tomentosa. Adults feed at the flowers of Lantana, Horse chestnut and Buddleia blossom. Status: It is a common butterfly occurring at all elevations both in forests and in agricultural lands. 16. Graphium doson Felder (The Common Jay) (Plate II, Fig. 16) Felder, 1864.Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. 1864: 365. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 100. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON JAY is a black butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Both wings have a marginal series of small green spots. The fore wing bears three slender, oblique, short, pale green streaks in the basal half of the cell and two irregular, green spots near its apex. A pale green discal band composed of spots that gradually get smaller in size anteriorly and extending from near the apex of the fore wing to nearly the dorsum of the hind wing are present. 32

42 The under side of the wing is brownish black, with the markings more or less similar, but larger and with more diffuses edges. A white basal streak extending half way down the inner margin is present on the under side of the hind wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Bengal, Kumaon to Assam and S. India. Habits: It is usually found in damp, low level evergreen forests. Aggregation of this species is common on the banks of streams. Mud puddling reported during September - October. It is a feeble flier. Host: Polyalthia longifolia, Miliusa tomentosa, Cinnamomum macrocarpum, C. malabathrum, Michelia champaca, Annona lawii and Magnolia grandiflora. Status: Common. 17. Graphium agamemnon Linnaeus (The Tailed Jay) (Plate II, Fig. 17) (=Zetides agamemnon) Graphium agamemnon Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. X: 462. D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 102. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The TAILED JAY is black in colour having an expanse of mm. The body is brownish black above and greyish beneath with a greyish green lateral stripe. The upper side of fore wing is brownish black, with large, bright bluish green patches. In the hind wing, the spots are considerably smaller. The hind wing bears a stumpy tail which is longer in the male. The under side of the wing is paler. A crescent-shaped spot is present on the under side of the hind wing. Distribution: Oriental region. Myanmar; Sri Lanka; S. India to Saurashtra and Kumaon to Assam. Habits: It prefers areas of good rainfall and is usually found only in good forest tracts. Rarely found at higher elevations. Adults feed at the flower heads of Lantana. Host: Polyalthia longifolia, Uvaria narum, Michelia champaca, Artabotrys hexapetalus, Polyalthiacerasoides, Annona reticulata, Annona squamosa, Annona muricata and Cinnamomum spp. Status: Common. 18. Pathysa nomius Esper (The Spot Swordtail) (Plate II, Fig. 18) Ausl. Schmett. : 210. D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 110. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

43 Descripiton: The SPOT SWORDTAIL is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. On the fore wing, five broad, black bands traversed by a submarginal series of small spots are present, of which the anterior ones are rounded and the others are more or less crescentshaped. On the hind wing, there is a marginal streak and two black, transverse bands running across the cell from the costa. Another, very broad black marginal band on the outer margin of the wing, traversed by a series of narrow whitish crescents. A black tail having a white edge is present. Distribution: Oriental region. Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Peninsular India to S. Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Lucknow, Simla and Assam. Habits: It is a fast flying butterfly prefering mixed, dry deciduous forest habitats below 914 m ASL although rarely they may be found at higher elevations up to 2134 m ASL. Usually settles on damp ground in aggregations. Migrate to long distances and fly at altitudes as high as 2000 m. Hosts: Saccopetalum tomentosum and Polyalthia longifolia. Status: Rare. 19. Pathysa antiphates Fabricius (The Five Bar Swordtail) (Plate II, Fig. 19) Cramer, Papillons. exot. 1: 113. D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 112. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The FIVE BAR SWORDTAIL is whitish in colour and has an expanse of mm. On the upper side of the fore wing, there are five short, black bands. In addition to these, there are also post-discal and marginal black bands extending from the costa to the tornal angle. The under side (except that the fore wing) is similar to the upper side, but the green tinge over the white parts in the cellular area is more pronounced. Hind wing more or less uniformly white with shades of the black markings on the under side being seen as dull grey patches. A large, black tornal spot is present. Tail is blackish brown having white edge. Distribution: Peninsular India. Recorded from Coorg and Kanara. In the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, it is confined to the wet, evergreen forest tracts. Habits: It is a swift flying species usually found circling around tree tops in wet forests. Common during the wet season. Mud puddling has been reported during the months February-March. Host: Annona elegans, Annona lawii, Annona zeylanica, Miliusa sp. and Uvaria sp. Status: Rare. 34

44 3.2. Family Pieridae This large family with world-wide distribution are popularly known as Brimstones, Emigrants, Jezebels, Albatross, Puffins, Gulls, Yellows or Whites on account of their predominantly white or yellowish colour with black markings. The hindwings are never tailed. Of the 1200 species known from the world, 109 are recorded from India. In the tropics and subtropics, members of this family breed in great abundance with the adults congregating on damp patches of earth in large flocks licking moisture. They are strong fliers and when disturbed they take to wings and settle quickly. Many are known to be migrants. Unlike Nymphalids, the front or prothoracic legs are fully developed and are adapted for walking. The eggs are spindle-shaped. The larvae are usually smooth and without spines. Larval host plants belong to the families Loranthaceae, Capparidaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Brassicaceae. When ready to pupate they fix to a substratum with the help of the cremaster and with a silken fibre around the middle which provides extra support. Two subfamilies have been recognized viz., Pierinae (Whites) and Coliadinae (Yellows). Twenty none species of Pieridae recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is given below. 1. Delias eucharis Drury (The Common Jezebel) (Plate II, Fig. 20) Satyamurti, 1994: 35. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON JEZEBEL is a white butterfly having an expanse of mm with black veins on the fore wing and having a black discal band on both wings. The wings are often tinged with yellow and pink. The upper side is white, with all the veins heavily blackened. Under side of hind wing yellow with black veins and with a black border containing large red spots that converge to a point at the margin. In the female, the fore wing is greyish white, with the submarginal line much more heavily marked than in the male, the spots being slightly smaller. In the hind wing, the veins are slightly more heavily blackened than in the male. The hind wing bears a conspicuous row of six white submarginal spots, tinged with pink. The under side resembles that of the male. The subapical spots in the fore wing are yellow. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Nepal and India. Habits: It is one of the common butterflies found in deciduous forest tracts up to an altitude of 1219 m ASL. The larvae feed voraciously on the leaves of loranthus growing on various trees. It is aposematic and when handled it feigns death. Its flight is weak and may be often seen fluttering about slowly high up near the tree tops among the leaves looking for their food plants. They may also be seen resting with the wings closed on wet patches of sand on the road side or on river beds. This species is closely mimicked by the Painted Sawtooth, Prioneris sita (Larsen, 1987a). Hosts: Dendrophthoe falcata, Helianthes elastica, Scurrula parasitica and Viscum spp. Status: Common. 35

45 2. Leptosia nina Fabricius (The Psyche) (Plate II, Fig. 21) Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 3(3): 194. D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 122. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PSYCHE is a tiny butterfly measuring mm in wing expanse. It is white in color with the apical portion of the upper side of the fore wing being black and having a large black discal spot. Distribution: This butterfly having African affinities is distributed throughout the Oriental region. This species has been recorded from several places in Kerala including Nilambur, Peechi, Mavelikara and at Kotagiri in the Nilgiris at 1900 m elevation. Habits: It is usually found in deciduous forests and rarely in evergreen forests. Its flight is weak and fluttering keeping close to the ground. Hosts: Larvae develop on plants belonging to Capparidaceae. Recorded hosts include Cleome rutidosperma, C.viscosa, Capparis spinosa, C. rheedii, C. Zeylanica and Crataeva adansonii. Adults feed at the flowers of Tridax. Status: Very common. 3. Prioneris sita Felder & Felder (The Painted Sawtooth) (Plate II, Fig. 22) Felder and Felder, Reise der..fregatte Novara Lep. Rhop. II: 161. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 142. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PAINTED SAWTOOTH is a white butterfly with black veins, measuring mm in expanse. In the male, the fore wing is pointed while in the female, it is rounded. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India, in the Western Ghats especially in the Nilgiris. Habits: It prefers the wet evergreen forests. Large numbers are often found on damp patches in the company of Graphium doson and Pathysa antiphates (Larsen, 1987a). It mimics the Common Jezebel Delias eucharis, both in wing pattern as well as in flight. Hosts: Larvae develop on Capparis zeylanica and C. tenera. Adults feed at the flower heads of Lantana. Status: It is restricted to Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats. Generally rare although it is reported to be very common in the Nadgani Ghat area (Larsen, 1987a). 4. Artogeia canidia Evans (The Indian Cabbage White) (Plate II, Fig. 23) (=Pieris canidia Sparrman, Amoen. Acad. 7: 504. D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1:

46 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The INDIAN CABBAGE WHITE is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Upper side of fore wing has a black apex. The outer margin is inwardly dentate and a discal spot is present. In the female, an additional discal spot is present. The hind wing has apical as well as terminal spots. Distribution: This butterfly having Palaearctic affinities is distributed in the Himalayas, Assam and Myanmar. In south India, it has been reported from the hills of Travancore at elevations above 1800 m usually along the edges of sholas. Specifically recorded from Mannavan shola at Munnar and at higher elevations in Silent Valley. It is found on the higher south Indian Mountains but it is absent from Sri Lanka (Larsen, 1987a). Habits: Found almost throughout the year. Always common above 1524 m ASL in Nilgiris. Reported to be migratory. Hosts: It is a serious pest of cabbage. Status: Common. 5. Cepora nerissa Fabricius (The Common Gull) (Plate II, Fig. 24) (=Huphina nerissa Fabricius, Syst. Ent.: 471. D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 148. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON GULL is a white butterfly measuring mm expanse. Some of the veins are blackened. Terminal border of fore and hind wings are black, the former bearing white spots. In the female, the black markings are more extensive and the veins are darkened. Distribution: It is chiefly a butterfly of the plains. The distribution covers practically the entire Oriental region. Habits: It is a strong flier. In spring, large numbers may be seen mud puddling with other pierids. They occur in dry habitats usually in mixed deciduous forests, clearings and in agricultural lands. Hosts: Larvae develop on Capparis decidua, C. sepiaria, C. rheedii, C. zeylanica, Cadaba fruticosa and Maerua oblongifolia. Status: Common. Cepora nerissa dapha is protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Cepora nadina Moore (The Lesser Gull) (Plate III, Fig. 25) (=Huphina nadina) D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1:

47 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LESSER GULL is a dusky white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Seasonal forms exist. In wet season forms, the wings are dusky white with the apical half of fore wing remaining black. The hind wing has a narrow black border on the upper side. The female is dull brownish with white areas in the centre. The under side of hind wing in both sexes is yellowish green. In the dry season form, the dark markings on the surface are restricted. Under surface of wings are plae yellowish brown. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Nepal east to Taiwan and Sumatra; South India. Habits: It is usually confined to the wet evergreen forests frequenting hilly regions where there is abundant rainfall upto 914 m ASL. It is active and flies close to the ground and it spends most of its time either flying in the forest or some times involving in mud puddling. Hosts: The larvae feed on species of Capparis. Capparis moonii, C. cleghornii, C. rheedii and C. roxburghii are some of the recorded hosts. Status: Common. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Anaphaeis aurota Fabricius (The Pioneer or Caper white) (Plate III, Fig. 26) (= Belenois mesentina Moore) Fabricius, Syst. Ent. II: 197 D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 146. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PIONEER or CAPER WHITE measuring mm in wingspan is white above with the fore wing having broadly white-streaked black apex in the male. Hind wing has white-spotted black border. Under side of hind wing varying from white (dry season form) to yellow (wet season form) with black veins and with black-edged spots on termen. Female white above, resembling the male. Fore wing costa darkened from base to cell bar to which it is joined. Broad black apex with white spots. Distribution: Sri Lanka and India, except Assam. In the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, it has been reported from Masinagudi in the Nilgiris. However, this species is not yet recorded from the Kerala part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Habits: Generally found in the dry tropical habitats, but owing to its great migratory potential it may be occasionally found in other habitats as well (Larsen, 1987a). Hosts: Capparidaceae. Cadaba fruticosa, Capparis spinosa, C. sepiaria, C. zeylanica, C. decidua, C. rheedii, C. pyrifolia and Maerua oblongifolia are some of the recorded larval host plants of this butterfly. Status: Common. 38

48 8. Appias indra shiva Swinhoe (The Plain Puffin) (Plate III, Fig. 27) D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 160. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PLAIN PUFFIN is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Seasonal forms are present. In the male, the upper side of the fore and hind wings is white. In the former, there is a broad, black apical area which is produced inwards at vein 3 and with two white spots at the apex. There is also a marginal border which is absent in the hind wing. The apical area is ochraceous, bordered with brownish black. The under side of the hind wing has wavy discal lines and tiny, black spots on the termen. In the dry season form, the black markings are reduced. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; Nepal; India: Assam, Himalayas and S. India (Coorg to Travancore, Nilgiris, Silent Valley, Sholayar, Nelliyampathy and Nadgani Ghat). Habits: Reported at 602 m ASL in subtropical evergreen forest habitats in the Western Ghats and in the Himalayas, up to an altitude of about 1829 m ASL. Although the males often come out to the open habitats, the females are secluded in habits rarely coming out of dense forests. Hosts: Drypetes oblongifolia and Drypetes roxburghii. Status: Rare. 9. Appias libythea Fabricius (The Striped Albatross) (Plate III, Fig. 28) D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 154. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The STRIPED ALBATROSS is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The upper side is white, with the apex, costa and outer margin of the fore wing very narrowly marked with dusky black, this colour extending narrowly along the veins for some distance. The under side of fore wing is white with the marginal black area interrupted by a series of white streaks between the veins. In the hind wing, the marginal black border is very faintly marked and the outer margin is broadly bordered with black. A subcostal diffuse dusky black streak and another discal streak are also present, separated by a series of ill defined white coloured patches. Wet and dry season forms are present. The dry season form is distinguished by the black markings being reduced or more restricted and the under side of the wings having an ochraceous ground colour with brownish markings. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Philippines; Malaysia; India: The Western Ghats (Silent valley, Sholayar, Parambikulam, Nelliyampathy and New Amarambalam). Habits: A. libythea is generally found in the plains. This is a good coloniser and is usually found in dense forests frequenting damp places. It is migratory and has been recorded at an altitude of 1981 m ASL. 39

49 Status: Common. 10. Appias lyncida Moore (The Chocolate Albatross) (Plate III, Fig. 29) D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 154. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CHOCOLATE ALBATROSS is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. It is characterized by the deep yellow colour of the under side of the hind wing and the broad chocolate borders. Both wet and dry season forms are found. In the wet season form, the upper side of the wings bears very broad, black marginal borders which are strongly dentate on their inner edges. In the female, the upper side of fore wing is black with 4 white discal streaks. The upper side of hind wing is blackish with a white discal area and the under side is deep orchraceous. In the dry season form, the black markings are reduced in the male and the under side of the hind wing is pale yellow. In the female, the hind wing has a sharply defined black marginal border. Distribution: Oriental region: Sri Lanka, Nepal, India (the Western Ghats, Orissa). It has been observed at at about 914 m ASL in the Nadgani Ghat and Silent Valley. Habits: Found in forest clearings and along streams in wet evergreen forests. It is a swift flier and the males frequently hover around small shrubs and bushes and settle in large numbers on moist patches of sand. Hosts: Crataeva adansonii and Capparis cleghornii. Status: Rare. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Appias albina Felder & Felder (The Common Albatross) (Plate III, Fig. 30) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 156. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON ALBATROSS is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Seasonal forms are present. In the wet season form, the upper side of wings is white. In the male, the upper side of the fore wing bears narrow black, apical and terminal markings. The basal dark area has a diffused and in-curved edge. The apex of the fore wing is acute having a straight outer margin. The upper side of the hind wing sometimes bears small black spots at the ends of the veins and the under side is without any markings. In the female, the apex, costa and termen of the fore wing are black with four to five apical white spots and with the terminal border indented at vein 2. There is a light greyish black scaling over the basal area. The upper side of the hind wing bears a narrow, black marginal border dentate on its inner edge. In the dry season form, the black apical and terminal markings are absent, except for a greyish black scaling over the costa. As a result, the entire fore wing is almost uniformly white. The 40

50 apical area on the under side of the fore wing and the whole of the under side of the hind wing are dull pale ochraceous. The seasonal variations are more marked in the male. Distribution: Oriental region: Sri Lanka and India (extending from the Western Ghats to Sikkim). It is reported to be the most abundant species of Appias in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Also reported from Peechi and Parambikulam in Kerala. Habits: It is a powerful flier which is migratory. Larsen (1987a) has reported that about individuals took part in one migration during May-June The males sometimes congregate in large numbers in damp places. It prefers the zone of intergradation between evergreen and mixed deciduous forests. Hosts: Drypetes oblongifolia, D. roxburghii and Drypetes venusta. Status: Rare. 12. Appias wardi Moore (The Lesser Albatross) (Plate III, Fig. 31) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LESSER ALBATROSS is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. In the male, the colour pattern more or less resembles that of a female Appias albina. The base of the fore wing has a black tinge. The apical and marginal areas are black enclosing four subapical white spots and a transversely elongate anterior white spot. The upper side of the hind wing also has a black tinge at the base. There is a narrow marginal black border, which is extended inwards for a short distance along the veins. The under side of the fore wing is white with a yellowish apical area and bearing a narrow, post-discal, curved black band. The under side of the hind wing is yellowish. The female is more or less similar to the male except for the fact that the fore wing bears only two apical spots and the balck areas are much more extensive. The black tinge at the basal area is more prominent. The basal half of the cell is yellowish. The under side of the hind wing is bluish white. Seasonal forms are present. In the dry season form, the black areas are more restricted. The apical area is more diffuse and the subapical spots are faint. The hind wing has a yellow tinge in the female. Distribution: Peninsular India. It has been specifically reported from Nadgani, Kanara, Nilgiris, Coorg, Silent Valley and Travancore. Larsen (1987a) states that although the range of this species is similar to that of Appias albina, the species is rather rare and their populations are often disjunct. Habits: It is a rare butterfly confined to dense evergreen forests. The males are at times abundant, gathering in large numbers in damp places. The habits are very similar to those of Appias lyncida (Cramer). 41

51 Status: Rare. Protected, under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Colotis amata Fabricius (The Small Salmon Arab) (Plate III, Fig. 32) (=Colotis calais) D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 178. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SMALL SALMON ARAB is a pink colored butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Fore wing has a dark costal border. Apical portion dark and termen spotted. Hind wing has a dark, spotted outer border. Distribution: Although it has been reported from the Kotagiri Ghat in the Nilgiri Biosphere Resreve, it has not been so far recorded from the Kerala part. The distribution covers all of tropical Africa, much of Arabia, the drier parts of the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka. Habits: It is chiefly found in thorn forests although specimens have been collected from mixed deciduous forests as well. It is a weak flier always keeping close to the ground. It usually prefers open areas rather than dense forest habitats. Status: Common. 14. Colotis etrida Boisduval (The Little Orange Tip) (Plate III, Fig. 33) D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 178. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LITTLE ORANGE TIP is a small, white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Upper side of the fore wing with a black edged, orange, apical patch. Terminal black spots are present on the hind wings. In the female, the terminal spots on the hind wings are slightly larger. Distribution: Although the genus is African, the species occurs only in India and Sri Lanka. In India, It is distributed all over the plains except Bengal and Assam. Habits: The species is very common in dry forests of low elevation although it has been reported at 2134 m ASL in Nilgiris. It exhibits considerable seasonal variation and the species is usually absent during the rainy season. A weak flying butterfly keeping close to the ground and rarely frequenting wet areas. Hosts: Larvae develop on Cadaba fruticosa. Adults generally feed at the flowers of Tridax. Status: Rare. 15. Colotis eucharis Fabricius (The Plain Orange Tip) (Plate III, Fig. 34) Fabricius, Syst. Ent.: 472 D Abrera, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 178. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

52 Description: The PLAIN ORANGE TIP is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The fore wing has an apical, orange-yellow patch, bordered with bright yellow. The base and costa of the fore wing are slightly tinged with black for a short distance. The hind wing has a series of terminal spots. The under side is usually pure white, tinged with pinkish yellow with a prominent sinuous dark band extending obliquely across the apical region. The basal area of the hind wing is tinged with ochraceous brown on the under side. It also has a subapical dark brown costal spot. Both wings possess black discocellular spots. The head, thorax and abdomen are black. In the female, the discocellular spot is larger compared to the male. The apical area on the fore wing is black, enclosing three or four elongate orange spots. In the hind wing, the basal part is with a faint, black tinge and the marginal spots are much larger than in the male. On the under side the markings are much larger and more conspicuous than in the male. In the dry seasons, form the black markings are reduced. Distribution: This species which shows Afro-tropical affinities is well distributed throughout the tropical region. In India, it is limited to the Deccan and Southern India, but not in Sind and Saurashtra where the Afro-tropical species usually occur. It has been recorded from Sri Lanka as well. Habits: A sluggish butterfly often found in large numbers along with other species especially Colotis danae in dry, rocky areas along forest edges. This butterfly is a weak flier and keeps to the ground. Hosts: They are associated with the plants belonging to Capparidaceae (capers). The larvae develop on the foliage of Cadaba indica while the adults feed at the floweres. Status: Common. 16. Colotis danae Fabricius (The Crimson Tip) (Plate III, Fig. 35) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 178. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CRIMSON TIP butterfly which is white in colour, measures mm in expanse. In the male, the tip of the fore wing bears a broad triangular apical crimson area inwardly edged with black and with or without a minute discocellular spot. The hind wing bears a series of marginal black spots or a marginal black band. The under side of the fore wing is tinged with yellow at the base and there is a brownish pink apical patch, more or less suffused with grey. An oblique series of four or five dark brownish spots are present near its inner edge. The under side is tinged with brownish pink with a small brown or black, annular discocellular spot. 43

53 In the female, the base of the wings is greyish black. In the fore wing, the crimson apical area is pale and reduced, crossed by a line of black spots. The under side of the fore wing is tinged with bright yellow at the base of the cell and with a brown, grey or reddish tinge over the apical area. The under side of the hind wing is tinged with brown or pink. In the dry season form, the black markings are much reduced. The under side of hind wing is reddish brown. Distribution: It has a wide distribution in India, Sri Lanka and Tropical Africa and different sub species have been recognized throughout its range. From the Western Ghats, it has been recorded from Silent Valley. Habits: This butterfly flies steadly in a more or less straight course keeping close to the ground. The females are seen more rarely than the males. Host: The larva which turns pink before pupating develops on plants of the family Capparidaceae (Capers). Status: Common. 17. Madais fausta fulvia Wallengren (The Salmon Arab) (Plate III, Fig. 36) (=Colotis fausta Olivier) Wallengren (?date). Voy. L Emp. Oth., Atl. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 178. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SALMON ARAB measuring mm in expanse is pale orange colored. The fore wing has a black spot in the cell. The apex is black, bearing spots. The hind wing has marginal spots. Distribution: It is a common butterfly confined to the dry areas of the foot-hills rarely going above 602 m ASL. Of the three races recorded, the race fulvia is found in peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Although reported from the Nilgiris, although not so far observed from the Kerala part. Habits: The flight is rapid and dancing. Hosts: The larval food plants are Maerua and the adults frequently visit flowers of Tridax. They never come to damp patches. Status: Common. 18. Ixias marianne Cramer (The White Orange Tip) (Plate IV, Fig. 37) Cramer, Papillons Exot. 2. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 162. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

54 Description: The WHITE ORANGE TIP measuring mm in expanse is chalky white on the upper side. The appical half of the fore wing is black enclosing a large, orange patch which extends to the upper angle of the cell. The hind wing has a fairly broad, black terminal border. In the female, the orange patch is narrower containing four black spots. It has a black tinge at the base and along the cell. The antennae are reddish brown and the head and thorax are also covered with reddish brown hairs anteriorly. The dry season form is smaller, with the orange patch on the fore wing larger and paler. The markings on the under side are more prominent while in the wet form the marks on the upper side are more prominent. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Sholayar, Parambikulam, Nilambur, Nelliyampathy, Silent Valley and New Amarambalam. Habits: Generally found in mixed deciduous forests and seldom found in evergreen forests. It is a good colonizer being found in altered habitats. It is a feeble flier, always flying close to the ground. This species which is migratory is very common in the mud puddling assemblages during the months May June (Larsen 1987a). Host: The larva feeds on Capparis spp. Status: Common. 19. Ixias pyrene Fabricius (The Yellow Orange Tip) (Plate IV, Fig. 38) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 164. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The YELLOW ORANGE TIP measuring mm in expanse is a graceful yellow butterfly. The apical half of fore wing is black, bearing a large, orange band. Hind wing with a black border. The female is either white or yellow with an extensive black area in the fore wing. The apical band is reduced and bears two black spots. Distribution: The range of this species covers Sri Lanka, India and Malaysia. Habits: Although an inhabitant of scrub forests at low elevations, it has been reported even at 2134 m ASL in the Himalayas. Flight is swift and uniform. Males often aggregate in large numbers on damp patches. Host: Larva feeds on Capers viz., Capparis sepiaria and C. zeylanica. Status: Very common. 20. Hebomoia glaucippe Butler (The Giant Orange Tip) (Plate IV, Fig. 39) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 168. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

55 Description: The GIANT ORANGE TIP measuring mm in expanse is the largest of the Indian pierids. It is white with the apical portion of the fore wing bearing a large black edged orange patch. Spots may be present on the hind wing. Under side smeared with red or brown. A prominent row of discal spots is present on the hind wing in the female. Distribution: The species is distributed throughout the Oriental region. From the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, it has been recorded from the Nilgiris and Silent Valley. Also reported from Nelliyampathy, Sholayar and Parambikulam. Habits: It is common in mixed deciduous and open evergreen forests at low elevations. It requires undisturbed habitats and hence is rarely found in disturbed areas. The species is frequently found in mud puddling along with pierids and papilionids. Generally found along streams. The larva possesses a couple of concealed blue eyespots which are shown when disturbed as in the case of snakes to which they are excellent mimics. Hosts: Capparis moonii, C. spinosa, C. sepiaria, C. Zeylanica and Crataeva adansonii. Status: Common. 21. Pareronia valeria hippia Fabricius (The Common Wanderer) (Plate IV, Fig. 40) Parenonia valeria Cramer, Papillons. Exot. 1(8):133. D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 174. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON WANDERER is a pale blue butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The upper side of wings pale blue with all the veins, costa, apex and margin defined with black. Hind wing with a series of prominent, submarginal, bluish white spots at the apex. The under side is of a pale bluish tint with the outer margin bordered with dark brown and bearing a series of indistinct crescent-shaped submarginal spots. In the hind wing, veins 6, 7 and 8 are broadly edged with black. The head, thorax and abdomen are dark brown. In the female, the upper side is black with bluish white markings. The fore wing bears a series of post-cellular stripes of varying lengths. In the female form of philomela (Fabricius) which mimics Parantica (Danais) aspasia, the base of the hind wing is tinged with bright yellow. The under side is similar to the upper side but duller, with the black margins broader, but less sharply defined. Distribution: It is distributed throughout India and Myanmar although it is not reported from Sri Lanka. There is no recent record of this species from the Niligiri Biosphere Reserve although the form philomela is recorded from the Nilgiris (Wynter-Blyth, 1957). It has been recorded from the semi-evergreen forest patches in the Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary. Habits: It is found in low attitudes and has a preference for dry habitats. It is found in low attitudes and has a preference for dry habitats. It is a sun-loving species frequenting dry habitats. The females are more sluggish in their fight and mimic the Danaids very closely. 46

56 Hosts: Capparis zeylanica and C. rheedii. Status: Restricted in distribution. 22. Pareronia ceylonica Felder & Felder (The Dark Wanderer) (Plate IV, Fig. 41) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 174. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The DARK WANDERER is a bluish green butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The black borders of the wings are broad and usually without any spot. The markings are small on the hind wing. On the under side, the black marginal borders are more broad and dark. The submarginal spots on the apex of the fore and on the hind wings are absent or very faint. Distribution: Sri Lanka. In India, reported from the Western Ghats: Mysore, Nilgiris, Kallar and the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: It is generally found in mixed deciduous as well as in tropical evergreen forests up to about 914 m ASL. The male is very swift in its flight and the female is slow resembling Danaids and is generally seen fluttering around undergrowths. Hosts: Capparis spp. Status: Rare. 23. Catopsilia pomona Fabricius (The Lemon Emigrant) (Plate IV, Fig. 42) (C. pomona & C. crocale) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 172. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LEMON EMIGRANT is a white butterfly measuring mm in expanse. In the male, the costal margin is black towards the apex and macular on the termen. Under surface of both wings are silvery with red ringed spots at the end of cells. The female is usually yellowish above with the costa black at the apex. There is a prominent spot in the cell and a discal band of spots. There are two forms viz., crocale with black antennae and immaculate under sides and pomona with reddish antennae and the under side having dark irroration as well as spots at the end of the cell. Distribution: It is very common butterfly in the Indian region. It has been recorded from Silent Valley, Sholayar, Nilambur, New Amarambalam, Nelliyampathy and Parambikulam. Habits: It prefers dry habitats and is abundant at low elevations. The species is strongly migratory and Larsen (1987a) estimates that almost a million individuals participated in the relatively modest migration which he documented in May June, Active during sunshine and ggregates in damp areas for mud puddling. 47

57 Hosts: Bauhinia racemosa, Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Cassia tora, Cassia siamea and Cassia alata. Status: Very common. 24. Catopsilia pyranthe Linnaeus (The Mottled Emigrant) (Plate IV, Fig. 43) (=Catopsilia florella) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 170. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MOTTLED EMIGRANT is a chalky white or greenish butterfly measuring mm in expanse. In the male, the costa of the fore wing is edged with black and occasionally with a black discocellular spot. The hind wing is white, with the marginal black border very narrow and continuous or absent altogether. The under side is greenish and mottled with fine, reticulating reddish brown or greenish lines. The female resembles the male except that the black markings are broader and the discocellular spot on the fore wing is larger. A narrow, black costal border is present on the fore wing and traces of a discal band are present below the apical area. The hind wing bears a narrow, marginal black band and usually a few post discal spots. The under side is as in the male, except that the discocellular spots are more sharply defined with a reddish ring enclosing a silver grey spot. A post-discal series of reddish brown spots are present in both wings. The head and thorax are brown and the abdomen white. Distribution: The distribution covers all of tropical Africa, southern Arabia, the entire Oriental region, New Guinea and parts of Australia. It has been recorded from the Nilgiris, Silent Valley, Sholayar, Parambikulam, New Amarambalam, Nilambur and Nelliyampathy. Habits: In the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, it is a common butterfly at low elevations. The species is strongly migratory. It is fond of both flowers and damp patches. Hosts: Cassia fistula, Cassia alata, Cassia tora, Cassia occidentalis, Cassia auriculata, Cassea siamea, Gnidia glauca, Sesbania grandiflora and Sesbania bispinosa. Status: Very common. 25. Eurema brigitta rubella Wallace (The Small Grass Yellow) (Plate IV, Fig. 44) (=Terias libythea) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 182. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SMALL GRASS YELLOW is a bright yellow butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The apex and termen of fore wing is black with an evenly rounded inner edge. Hind wing with the termen narrowly or broadly black. Under side of fore wing with two 48

58 minute black spots. Seasonal forms are present, but there is not much difference in the color pattern. Distribution: Distribution covers Sri Lanka, India and Myanmar. It is a common butterfly in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. It has been specifically collected from the Nilgiris, Silent Valley, Sholayar, Peechi and Vazhani. Habits: It is generally found at low elevations, among grasses and bushes. It is migratory (Larsen, 1987a). They flutter among grasses or bushes and actively feed at flowers in the morning and in the late afternoon. The species is rarely seen at damp patches. Hosts: Larvae develop on Leguminosae plants such as Cassia spp. and Albizzia spp. Status: Fairly common. 26. Eurema laeta laeta Boisduval (The Spotless Grass Yellow) (Plate IV, Fig. 45) (=Terias libythea) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 182. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SPOTLESS GRASS YELLOW is a bright yellow butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Seasonal forms present. Termen and apical portion of fore wing are black. Upper side of hind wing with a narrow margin. Under side with two dark brown streaks. Distibution: The species is distributed in Sri Lanka and from India to Burma, Thailand and Indo-China. It is reported from the Nilgiris and Silent Valley. Habits: It is generally found in the plains and at low elevations. It flies close to the ground among grasses and bushes. Hosts: Larvae develop on Leguminosae plants such as Cassia spp, and Albizzia spp. Status: Fairly common. 27. Eurema hecabe simulata Moore (The Common Grass Yellow) (Plate IV, Fig. 46) (=Terias hecabe) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 183. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON GRASS YELLOW is a bright yellow butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Seasonal forms present. The apex and termen of the fore wing in the wet season form male is broadly black and incurved between veins 2 and 4. Hind wing with a narrow terminal border. In the female, the black borders are broader. On the under side, the fore wing has two black spots in the cell and irregular rings at the end of cells in both wings. In the dry season form, dark brownish markings present on the under side. The black borders on the upper side of the wings are much narrower. 49

59 Distribution: It is distributed in the tropical zone extending from Africa and Arabia to India and the Oriental region, to New Guinea, Australia, Japan, Fiji and Tonga. From the Western Ghats, it has been recorded from Silent Valley, Mukkali, Parambikulam, Peechi, Vazhai, Sholayar, Vazhachal, Nilambur and New Amarambalam. Habits: It is a common butterfly in degraded forests. Occurs up to an elevation of 2743 m ASL. Also found in altered habitats and frequentls damp places. However, they are not commonly found in dense evergreen forests where it is replaced by E. blanda. It is migratory in habits and has been observed in large- scale migrations in the Nilgiris during May 1986 (Larsen, 1987a). Hosts: Larva feeds on a variety of plants such as Albizzia spp., Caesalpinia spp., Cassia fistula, C. tora, C. alata, C sophera, C. mimosoides, Moulluva spicata, Acacia spp., Aeschynomene americana and Cowpea. Status: Very common. 28. Eurema blanda silhetana Wallace (The Three Spot Grass Yellow) (Plate IV, Fig. 47) (=Terias blanda) D Abrera, 1982, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part 1: 184. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The THREE SPOT GRASS YELLOW is a bright yellow butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Seasonal forms present. Very similar to E. hecabe, although all the markings may be very variable. Under side of the fore wing has three black spots in the cell. In the dry season form, the upper side is yellowish and the fore wing bears a black outer border which is broad in the apical area and curved inwards below vein 4. The hind wing bears a narrow marginal black line enlarged into conspicuous dots at the tip of the veins. On the under side, the markings are brownish and with a minute reddish brown dot at the extreme basal end of the cell besides two small black spots. In the wet season form, the black border on the upper side of the fore wing is broader and the markings on the under side are distinct. Distribution: It is distributed in Sri Lanka, peninsular India and Myanmar. Recorded from Vazhachal, Sholayar, New Amarambalam, Nilambur, Parambikulam and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is found at low altitudes up to about 762 m ASL and has a preference for wet forests. It flies at a higher level than the other species of the genus since the food plants include mostly trees and climbers. Hosts: Larvae develop on Albizia spp., Paraserianthes falcataria and creepers like Wagatea spicata. The species may assume pest proportions in Albizia plantations. Status: Very common. 50

60 29. Colias nilagiriensis Felder & Felder (Nilgiri Clouded Yellow) (Plate IV, Fig. 48) (=Colias erate Esper) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The NILGIRI CLOUDED YELLOW measuring mm in expanse is yellowish above with broad, black outer border and a prominent cell spot in the fore wing. Upper side of hind wing with broad, black outer border. Distribution: Baluchistan, Himalayas, from Chitral to Kumaon and South India Habits: It is commonly found throughout the year around wet places above 1900 m elevation. Host: Parochetus communis (Leguminosae). Habits: Found at higher elevations, upto 1524 m ASL. Fast flying butterfly keeping close to ground. Status: Common. 51

61 3.3. Family Lycaenidae This family comprising of about 6,000 species is widely distributed throughout the world contains some of the smallest and colourful butterflies. They are popularly known as Hairstreaks, Blues and Coppers. Usually, the upperside is blueish and the underside is less conspicuous having a brownish tinge. The underside of both sexes is very similar being spotted and patterned with orange crescents and broken lines on a background of silvery white, tinged with brown or blue. Seasonal variation occurs in several species with characteristic color and markings. Aduls are fond of flowers and damp places. The larvae of most species feed on Leguminosae and other low-growing vegetation such as Kalanchoe spp. So far, 450 species have been recorded from India. Eighty eight species recorded in this study are given below. 1. Spalgis epius Westwood (The Ape Fly) (Plate V, Fig. 49) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 256 Description: The APE FLY measures 20-30mm in expanse. Upper side of the fore wing is brown with diffuse or well-defined discal white patches at the end of the cell. Below grey, covered with numerous fine wavy vertical brown lines. In the male, apex of the fore wing is acute and termen is straight while both are rounded in the female. Distribution: Sri Lanka, Myanmar; India: Bengal, Kumaon to Assam and S. India. Habits: It is found in thick country and along the hills below 1219 m ASL, but it may also be found in the plains. Its flight is rapid and erratic, keeping low. It lays eggs among the scale insects on which its larvae are predatory. Hosts: This butterfly lays eggs among scale insects and the larvae burrow into the scale insects and feed on it. Status: Common. 2. Castalius rosimon rosimon Fabricius (The Common Pierrot) (Plate V, Fig. 50) Fabricius, Ent.Syst.: 523. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 646. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON PIERROT measuring mm in expanse is a white butterfly with dark borders and black spots. The basal areas of the wings are metallic blue in colour with a large black spot on the fore wing and three black spots at the base of the hind wing. In addition, the hind wing has a post-discal, curved, transverse black band, and a subterminal transverse series of black spots. The under side is white with black spots and streaks. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are black. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: S. India (Silent Valley). 52

62 Habits: In South India, they are common on the hills up to an altitude of 1219 m ASL in clearings within forests. It spends its time fluttering about Zizyphus shrubs which are the larval food plants, but it also comes to damp patches during the dry season or to dead insects and bird droppings. Its flight is rather weak keeping close to the ground, frequenting both dense forest and clearings. Hosts: Larvae develop on Ziziphus mauritiana, Z. rugosa and Z. xylopyrus. Status: Common. Protected under Schedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Caleta caleta Hewitson (The Angled Pierrot) (Plate V, Fig. 51) (=Castalius caleta) Hewitson, Exott. Butts.5, pl.i, fig.1. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 646. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The ANGLED PIERROT measuring mm in expanse is brownish black on the upper side with an oblique transverse white band on both the wings. In the dry season form, this white band may be very broad, and may extend over the entire surface of the hind wing except the narrow black terminal margin. On the under side, the wings are white with black markings. There is a narrow streak on the under side of the fore wing extending to the cell and a short discal bar. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are black. It exhibits seasonal variation. Distribution: The distribution covers Sri Lanka and peninsular India. From the Kerala part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, it has been reported from Silent Valley. Habits: It is an inhabitant of mixed deciduous and dense evergreen forests with fairly heavy rainfall. It has been recorded even at 2438 m ASL in the Nilgiris (Wynter-Blyth, 1957). It is a shade loving species, frequently seen in clearings near streams often licking bird droppings. Mud puddling behaviour is also observed. Host: Ziziphus rugosa. Status: Rare. It is a very poor coloniser and will not survive in disturbed habitats. 4. Discolampa ethion vavsanus Fruhstorfer (The Banded Blue Pierrot) (Plate V, Fig. 52) (=Castalius ethion Doubleday & Hewitson) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: It measures mm in expanse. Under side of fore wing with a parallel, narrow streak from dorsum to costa. Upper side of male with a white band which is broadly blue edged and having black outer margin. The female is dark brown and there is no blue edging to white band. 53

63 Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Assam, The Western Ghats (up to Travancore). Habits: Confined to low level thick forests having heavy rainfall. Host: Ziziphus mauritiana, Z. xylopyrus and Z. oenoplia Status: Locally common in south India. 5. Tarucus ananda (de Niceville) (The Dark Pierrot) (Plate V, Fig. 53) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: Small tailed butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Upper side of male is dark purplish blue and the female is dark brown. There is a discal spot in 5 which joins to the outer discal band on the under side of fore and hind wing. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Sikkim to Assam, Nasik, Kanara, Nilgiri, Palni and Anamalais. Habits: Found in open plains and scrub jungles in wet, hilly areas. The eggs are laid on plants infested with the tree ant Crematogaster which attend the larvae. Hosts: Zizyphus sp. and Dendrophthoe falcata. Status: Common. 6. Tarucus nara Kollar (The Striped Pierrot) (Plate V, Fig. 54) (= Tarucus extricates & Tarucus alteratus) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: It measures mm in expanse, violet blue above with comparatively broad and often diffuse border. Fore wing without black spots on disc. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Mussoorie, Bengal and South India. Habits: Found in open plains and scrub jungles in wet, hilly areas. The eggs are laid on host plants infested with the tree ant Crematogaster which attend the larvae of this butterfly. Hosts: Zizyphus and loranthus. Status: Common. 7. Tarucus callinara Butler (The Spotted Pierrot) (Plate V, Fig. 55) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

64 Description: The SPOTTED PIERROT measures mm in expanse, the male is violet to dark blue above with narrow dark border. The female is brown with blue scaled base, discal area white and having dark spots. Distribution: Peshawar to Bengal and north Myanmar; Nilgiris (Masinagudi). Habits: Found in open plains and scrub jungles in wet, hilly areas. The eggs are laid on host plants infested with the tree ant Crematogaster which attend the larvae of this butterfly. Hosts: Zizyphus and loranthus. Status: Common. 8. Syntarucus plinius Fabricius (Zebra Blue) (Plate V, Fig. 56) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The ZEBRA BLUE is a violet butterfly which can be easily distinguished by the bands and markings resembling the stripes of a Zebra. It maesures mm in expanse. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are black in colour. The upper side is pale, transparent and violet with bluish tinge and the under side is white with irregular alternate broad and narrow dark brownish markings. On the under side, these markings are broken up into spots. Towards the base of the fore wing there is a triangular mark extending obliquely. The terminal margin of the fore wing has a narrow, brownish edge. Costal margin of the hind wing with dark brownish shade. In the female, the upper side is brown with bluish basal and white discal areas bearing dark spots. The under side is similar to that of the male but the brown bands are more or less regular and uninterrupted. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India. Habits: Prefers dry areas. In hilly areas, it is found up to 2134 m ASL. elevation. Hosts: Larvae develop on leguminaceous plants such as Albizia lebbek, Sesbania aculeata and Indigofera sp. Status: Common. 9. Azanus ubaldus Cramer (The Bright Babul Blue) (Plate V, Fig. 57) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: It measures mm in expanse, the male is bright blue above with broad, brown borders. There is a prominent dark patch of specialized scales on the discal area. The female is brown above, without any blue at the base. Distribution: Sri Lanka; North Myanmar; India. 55

65 Habits: Prefers plains and scrub forest although occasionally found up to 7000 ft elevation. Hosts: Acacia arabica, A. nilotica, A. leucocephala A. catechu and A. senegal. Status: Common. 10. Azanus jesous Guerin-Meneville (The African babul Blue) (Plate V, Fig. 58) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 267 Description: The AFRICAN BABUL BLUE measures mm in expanse. The under side is pale grey. On the fore wing, the costal margin bears a black spot in the cell. In the male, the upper side is violet with a bluish tinge. The borders are narrow and black in colour. Dark tornal spots are present on the upper side of the fore wing. The female is fine, brownish with a bluish tinge at the base. Obscure, dark subterminal spots are present on the tornus on the upper side of the hind wing. Distribution: Widely distributed in India, Africa and Arabia. Habits: Prefers plains and scrub forest although occasionally found up to 2134 m ASL. Hosts: Larvae develop on leguminaceous plants. Status: Common. 11. Everes lacturnus syntala Cantlie (The Indian Cupid) (Plate V, Fig. 59) (=Everes parrhasius) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The INDIAN CUPID measuring mm in expanse is tailed. The male is bright bluish above and the female is brown. Hind wings usually have orange tornal markings. Below, there are terminal, marginal and discal dark markings on a pale ground. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Assam, the Western Ghats. Habits: Prefers hill areas. The males usually visit damp areas. Status: Common. 12. Udara akasa mavisa Fruhstorfer (The White Hedge Blue) (Plate V, Fig. 60) (=Lycaenopsis akasa) 56

66 Description: The WHITE HEDGE BLUE measuring mm in expanse is white above with broad, black costa and termen; below, white with terminal spots. Hind wings are white. Basal part of both wings is bluish in male and brownish in female. Distribution: Reported from the Nilgiris and Palni hills. It has been collected from the wet evergreen forests at Nadgani. Habits: It is found in clearings, along roads or on hill tops. Mostly seen flying along forest roads or forest edges and rarely comes to wet places. Though tiny and weak in flight they were observed to cover considerable distances. Status: Rare. 13. Acytolepis puspa felderi Toxopeus (The Common Hedge Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 61) (=Lycaenopsis puspa) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON HEDGE BLUE measures mm in expanse. The upper side is iridescent blue in the male and white in the female with the bases of wings suffused with iridescent blue. The costa and apex of the hind wing are bordered with black. In the male, the black border of the termen is made up of a series of rounded coalescent black spots. In the female, the termen below vein 6 bears a series of subterminal black spots. The markings on the under side in both the sexes are coarse and dusky on a slightly bluish white ground. There is an oblique spot in the interspace 2 and a vertical spot in the interspace 3 of fore wing. On the hind wing, two basal and three sub basal spots are present one below the other. The antennae, head and abdomen are dusky black with the antennae marked with white. Distribution: Myanmar; Malaysia; Peninsular India, Himalayas and the Andamans. Hosts: Xylia xylocarpa, Schleichera oleosa, Paracalyx scariosa, Hiptage benghalensis, H. madablota, Cratoxylum ligustinum and Cyclista scariosa. Status: Common. 14. Acytolepis lilacea Hampson (Hampson s Hedge Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 62) (=Lycaenopsis lilacea) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The HAMPSON S HEDGE BLUE measures mm in expanse. The male is bluish above with dark borders which in the female is broader. They exhibit seasonal variation, the dry season forms being paler and less heavily marked. 57

67 Habits: Generally found in clearings, hedges and damp patches. Prefers hilly areas. Larvae are often attended by ants. Distribution: Sri Lanka; S. India: Nilgiris, Palnis and Coorg. Hosts: Larva feeds on Leguminosae, Sapindaceae and Combretaceae. Status: Common. 15. Celatoxia albidisca Moore (the Whitedisc Hedge Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 63) (=Lycaenopsis albidisca) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The WHITEDISC HEDGE BLUE measures mm in expanse. The male is blue above with narrow dark borders which in the female is broad and pale grey below. Bluish colour appears on the bases of both wings and tornus of hind wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Dehra Dun to Assam and Bengal. Habits: Abundant above 914 m ASL at the edges and damp patches of sholas. Larvae are sometimes attended by ants. Hosts: Larva feeds on Leguminosae, Sapindaceae and Combretaceae. Status: Common. 16. Celastrina lavendularis Moore (The Plain Hedge Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 64) (=Lycaenopsis lavendularis) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: It measures mm in expanse, the male is bluish above with dark borders which in the female is broader. It Exhibits seasonal variation, the dry forms being paler and less heavily marked. Distribution: Sri Lanka; South India, Nilgiris. Habits: Abundant above 1524 m ASL at the edges of sholas and on damp patches. Larvae are sometimes attended by ants. Hosts: Larva feeds on Leguminosae, Sapindaceae and Combretaceae. Status: Common. 17. Neopithecops zalmora dharma Moore (The Quaker) (Plate VI, Fig. 65) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

68 Description: The QUAKER which measures mm in expanse is tail-less, dark brown in colour with a small discal patch in the fore wing in wet season form which in the dry season form is extends to most of the discal area. Hind wing is white in dry season form. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Bengal, Kumaon and S. India. Habits: Abundant in lowlevel evergreen forest in areas of heavy rainfall. Hosts: Feeds on Rutaceae (Glycosmis pentaphylla). Status: Common. 18. Megisba malaya twaithesi Moore (The Malayan) (Plate VI, Fig. 66) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MALAYAN which measures mm in expanse is tail-less, dark brown in colour with a small discal patch in the fore wing. Under side is white in colour. Hind wing with a large round black costal spot and 4 similar basal spots. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Bengal, Kumaon, Assam and S. India. Habits: Along the edges of evergreen forests. Males fond of wet sand and cow dung. Hosts: Lava feeds on Sapindaceae. Status: Common. 19. Zizeeria maha ossa Swinhoe (The Pale Grass Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 67) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PALE GRASS BLUE measures mm in expanse, male is pale blue above with broad, dark borders. The female is dark brown with basal blue scaling. Distribution: India and Myanmar. Habits: Found in hilly areas. Hosts: Feeds on vetches and other low growing leguminous plants, or Acanthids (Strobilanthus spp.). Status: Common. 20. Zizeeria karsandra karsandra Moore (The Dark Grass Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 68) (=Z. lysimon) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

69 Description: The DARK GRASS BLUE measuring mm in expanse is blue above with dark borders. Female, pale brown with or without basal blue scaling. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India. Habits: Common in the plains. A weak flying butterfly keeping close to the ground. Hosts: Leguminosae and Acanthaceae. Amaranthus viridis and Zornia gibbosa are some of the recorded host palnts. Status: Common. 21. Zizina otis decreta Butler (The Lesser Grass Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 69) (=Zizeeria otis) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LESSER GRASS BLUE measures mm in expanse. The upper side of the male is bluish white with silvery iridescence. The under side greyish. In the female, the upper side is brown suffused with violet blue at the base. Fore wing with a brownish border on the apical, costal terminal margins. The under side of hind wing bears a sub-basal series of four spots and a discal series of nine spots each of which is encircled by a narrow white circle. The antennae are black with shafts ringed with white and the head, thorax and abdomen are brown bearing blue scales. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India. The subspecies is south Indian. Habits: Found in open areas and grasslands. Hosts: Alysicarpus vaginalis, Sesbania bispinos and Mimosa pudica. Status: Rare. 22. Zizula hylax hylax Fabricius The Tiny Grass Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 70) (=Zizeeria gaika) Fabricius, Syst. Ent.: 526. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 651. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The TINY GRASS BLUE is a small tail-less lycaenid butterfly measuring mm in expanse, bluish above with dark borders. Under side of fore wing has no spot in the cell. The female is plain brown. Distribution: Oriental region. Larsen (1987b) has recorded it from the Nilgiris. So far, it has not been observed in the Kerala part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. 60

70 Habits: It prefers sunshine and usually basks with their wings partly open. Hosts: The food plants are Vetches and other low-growing leguminous plants or acanthids (Strobilanthes spp.). Hygrophila auriculata, Lantana camara, Nelsonia canescens, Phaulopsis dorsiflora, Strobilanthes sp., and Viola sp. are some other recorded hosts. Status: Common. 23. Chilades laius Cramer (The Lime Blue) (Plate VI, Fig. 71) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LIME BLUE is a dull purplish bluish butterfly measuring mm in expanse. In male, the basal and lower half of the costa of the fore wing are tinged with light blue. The terminal and costal margins are bordered with a thread-like, slender, dark brown line. On the hind wing, the costal margins are dusky black. Two patches of sub terminal black spots are present. In the female, the upper side is dark brown in the wet season form and pale blue with brown borders in the dry season form. The fore and hind wings have a bluish tinge at the base. The under side of fore wing has an additional costal spot and a discal spot on the under side of hind wing. The antennae are black, and the head, thorax and abdomen are brown. Distribution: The range covers the northern parts of the Oriental region from Sri Lanka to the Philippines. It has been observed from Kallar (Nilgiris) and from Mukkali (Silent Valley). Habits: It is fairly common throughout the plains and on hills up to an elevation of 1219 m ASL. The species visits both flowers and damp patches in the company of other lycaenids. It flies close to the ground and comes out during sun shine. Hosts: The larvae feed on the young shoots of Citrus and other rutaceous plants. Status: Very common. 24. Chilades parrhasius Fabricius (The Small Cupid) (Plate VI, Fig. 72) (=Euchrysops contracta & E.minuta) Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 3: 289. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 650. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SMALL CUPID measures mm in expanse. The male is violet blue above with narrow dark borders. Distribution: Sri Lanka; South, Central and North India. Habits: Found in dry areas, frequenting open places and clearings. 61

71 Hosts: Feeds on leguminous plants. Status: Common. 25. Chilades pandava pandava Horsfield (The Plains Cupid) (Plate VII, Fig. 73) (=Euchrysops pandava) Horsfield, Reise der-----fregatte Novara 2: 277. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 650. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PLAINS CUPID measures mm in expanse. In the male, the upper side is bluish with the veins darkened. On the fore wing, the costal margin is dark brown. The upper side of the hind wing bears a subterminal series of black spots, with a slender, marginal black line. The under side of wings is greyish brown bearing transverse dark brown markings. In the female, the upper side is brown. On the fore wing, the basal half is tinged with blue. A blue iridescence on the upper side of the hind wing near the base and with large subterminal spots. The under side is as in the male, except that the markings are slightly larger. The antennae are black. The head, thorax and abdomen are brown. In the dry season form, the bluish area on the fore wing and on the hind wing in the female extends to three fourths length from the base. On the under side, the ground colour is darker. Distribution: Its distribution covers Sri Lanka to Sundaland. The typical South Indian race is Chilades pandava pandava while the race minuta is found in the arid regions of North and North West India. It has been reported from Kallar in the Nilgiris and from Nadgani Ghat and Silent Valley. Habits: It prefers wetter lowland forest tracts. Mud puddling in large aggregation observed. The males frequently settle on damp patches of sand. Its flight is less rapid and powerful and they usually fly close to the ground in grassland and weed growing areas. Hosts: Larvae develop on leguminous plants and are attended by ants. Status: Common. 26. Freyeria trochylus putli Kollar (The Grass Jewel) (Plate VII, Fig. 74) (=Zizeeria putli) Kollar, Neu. Beitr. Schmett. 5(74): 98 D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 651. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The GRASS JEWEL which is one of the smallest Indian butterflies measuring mm in expanse. The upper side of the fore wing in the male is uniform brown with an ill defined dark marginal line in some specimens. On the hind wing, a subterminal series of round black spots bordered on the inside with yellowish brown edgings are present. The 62

72 under side is pale silky brown with a short line in the discal area, a curved discal series of small rings and a post-discal series of lunulate markings on the fore wing. The under side of the hind wing bears two short white lines within the discal area. The upper and under sides of the female are as in the male, but the markings are larger and more clearly defined. On the hind wing, the yellow patches bordering the subterminal black spots are wider and more prominent. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are brown in both the sexes. The jewelled, metallic, orange-crowned spots on the hind wing have given rise to the popular name of this species - the Grass Jewel. Distribution: It occurs throughout Africa, in the eastern Mediterranean and much of the Middle East to Pakistan and NW India. The sub species Freyeria trochilus putli covers the Indian subcontinent. Found throughout the Nilgiris. Habits: Generally found in open areas at low elevations on hills in south India. Uaually fly close to the ground in open, grassy meadows. Its flight is weak and interrupted, frequently settling on low vegetation and coming out to bask in the open sunshine. Hosts: Oxalis corniculata, Pisum sativum, Lotus corniculatus, Indigofera sp., Goniogyna hirta, Rhynchosia minima and Vicia sp. Status: Common. 27. Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Fabricius, 1798 (The Gram Blue) (Plate VII, Fig. 75) Fabricius, Ent. Syst. (Suppl.): 430 D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 650. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Descripiton: The GRAM BLUE measures mm in expanse. The upper side of the male is violet with a bluish tinge. On the upper side of the fore wing have a black marginal line and the hind wing bears two tornal spots besides a black marginal line. The under side is silvery grey with a series of brown discal spots. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are dark brown. In the female, the upper side is dark brown. On the fore wing, a triangular bluish patch is present at the base. The upper side of hind wing is tinged with blue posteriorly. The ground colour and markings on the under side are similar to that of the male. Distribution: The distribution covers the whole of the Oriental region. It has been reported from the Nilgiris, in Mukkali (Silent Valley), Vazhachal and Peechi. Habits: It is common throughout India and is found in the hills upto about 2438 m ASL; generally distributed in the dry zones. Larvae develop on cultivated gram crops and hence this species is more common in the agricultural lands compared to natural habitats. It is rarely 63

73 found in evergreen forests. It is a strong flier, flying high in the air. It frequently settles on flowers and also on damp patches of sand. Hosts: The immature stages develop on leguminous plants such as Butea monosperma, Ougeinia oojeinensis, Pisum sativum, Vigna cylindrica, V. trilobata, Paracalyx scariosa and Acacia sp. This butterfly is a pest of gram crops in south India. Status: Common. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Catochrysops strabo Fabricius (The Forget Me Not) (Plate VII, Fig. 76) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: It measures mm in expanse. Under side of the fore wing with the discal band broken in to two parts and bearing a spot on the costa between end of band and spot end cell. The upper side of the male is pale violet-blue with thread- like dark border. On the upper side of the hind wing, one prominent tornal spot is present. The upper side of the female is brown and the discal and basal areas are metallic blue. Hindwing bears only one prominent tornal spot. Distribution: Ceylon, India, and Myanmar. Habits: It is a quick flying butterfly. It is commonly found in weedy areas up to 3048 m ASL in the hills. It does not settle on damp patches. Host: Larva feeds on Leguminosae. Status: Common. 29. Lampides boeticus Linnaeus (The Pea Blue) (Plate VII, Fig. 77) D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 646. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PEA BLUE is a tailed butterfly measuring mm in expanse. In the male, the upper side is violet-blue. Costa of the fore wing and the termen of the hind wing are bordered with brown. There are two prominent black tornal spots on the upper side of the hind wing. The hind wing bears a tail having a white tip. The under side is pale brown or greyish brown, with narrow brown bands. There are two black, orange crowned tornal spots on the under side of the hind wing. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are brown. In the female, the upper side is dark brown with a bluish basal area. The upper side of the fore wing has a series of subterminal bluish spots. There is a post-discal transverse band and a subterminal series of spots on the hind wing. The under side is similar to that of the male. Distribution: It has a wide distribution extending over the whole of Europe, Asia and Africa, and even to the Malayan sub region and Australia. Found all over India. 64

74 Habits: It is a pest of cultivated peas and beans is widely distributed in the Indian subregion. It is reported to be migratory with large number of butterflies flying from South East to North West India during March and April. It has been recoded from the Nilgiris, Mukkali (Silent Valley), Mannuthy, Peechi, Parambikulam and Vazhachal. Its flight is strong. It frequently settles on flowers and on the ground, especially on damp patches of ground. Hosts: The larvae feed on the pods and flowers of various leguminous plants such as Butea monosperma, Pisum sativum, Vigna sinensis, and Crotalaria sp. In Ooty, when the exotic Cytisus and Genista bloom, the butterflies are reported to be very common (Larsen, 1987b). Status: Common. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Jamides bochus bochus Cramer (The dark Cerulean) (Plate VII, Fig. 78) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The DARK CERULEAN measures mm in expanse. The male is dark metallic blue above with broad, black outer border and apex. The female is similar to the male, but of a dull metallic blue and with marginal spots. Under side is dark brown in both the sexes. Distribution: India, Sri Lanka and Myanmar. Habits: Found in hilly areas. Hosts: Develops on leguminous plants such as Butea monosperma, Millettia peguensis, Tephrosia candidas, Pongamia pinnata, Pongamia glabra, Xylia dolabriformis and Crotalaria. The caterpillars burrow into a bud and lives inside the flower eating the carpels and pistils. Larvae are sometimes attended by ants. Status: Common. 31. Jamides celeno aelianus Fabricius (The Common Cerulean) (Plate VII, Fig. 79) Fabricius, Papillons Exot. I. pl. 31 D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 644. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON CERULEAN measures mm in expanse. In the male, the upper side is pale bluish white with the terminal margin of the fore wing having a narrow black border. The upper side of the hind wing is uniformly bluish white with a slender marginal black line and with a row of black spots. The under side is greyish brown with the fore wing traversed by seven white lines and the hind wing by nine white lines. The antennae are brownish black, and the head, thorax, and abdomen are pale brown, tinged with blue on the thorax and base of abdomen in both the sexes. 65

75 In the female, the wings are paler and have a broad terminal border. On the hind wing, the costal margin is black with a series of post-discal spots. The under side is much paler than in the male. Distribution: Oriental region. It has been reported from the Nilgiris and from Silent Valley. Habits: It is a common butterfly found in a variety of habitats ranging from the plains to dry and wet forests of light and heavy rainfall up to an altitude of 1981 m ASL. It is fond of sunshine, often coming out in the open. Its flight is weak, flyings low among the bushes. It may be found on damp patches of ground. Hosts: The food plants include Pongamia glabra, Abrus precatorius, Butea monosperma, Pongamia pinnata, Saraca asoca, Trichilia connaroides, Xylia xylocarpa and Elettaria cardamomum. Status: Common. 32. Jamides alecto alocina Swinhoe (The Metallic Cerulean) (Plate VII, Fig. 80) S. B. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 40: 456. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 646. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The METALLIC CERULEAN measures mm in expanse. In size and appearance, it is similar to J. celeno. It is characterised by the fore wing having a dark border and the hind wing possessing a row of marginal spots. In the wet season form, the upper side is shining violet blue and grey or brown below. The dry season form is white bluish above and yellowish brown below. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Sikkim, south India (Nilgiris, Mukkali, Nelliyampathy and Wynad). Habits: It is mostly found in dense, wet forests. Hosts: It has been recorded as a serious pest of cardamom. Status: Rare. 33. Nacaduba pactolus continentalis Fruhstorfer (The Large Four Line Blue) (Plate VII, Fig. 81) Felder, 1860, S. B. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 12: 456. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 638. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description:) The LARGE FOUR LINE BLUE measuring mm in expanse is tailed. The male is dark brown above with a fine dark, border line. The female is purple bluish basally with broad, dark borders on the fore wing. Under side of fore wing with no pale basal lines, inner marginal line broad, diffused and continuous; all markings broad and yellowish. 66

76 Distribution: Its distribution covers Sri Lanka and south India. Larsen has reported it from Kallar and Nadgani Ghats. He states that this species is scarce in the Nilgiris. Habits: It is generally found in dense evergreen forests. Hosts: Feeds on leguminous plants. Status: Locally common. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Nacaduba hermus hermus Felder & Felder (The Pale Four Line Blue) (Plate VII, Fig. 82) Felder, 1860, S. B. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 40: 457. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 639. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE PALE FOUR LINE BLUE measures mm in expanse with the apex of fore wings and tornus of hind wings produced. The upper side of male is dark blue and that of the female is dark brown. Under side of fore and hind wings consist of narrow lunules. Distribution: Myanmar; Malaysia; Philippines; Sri Lanka; India: Assam, south India (Nadgani Ghat and Coonoor Ghat). Habits: It is an inhabitant of dense tropical or subtropical forests. Status: Common. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Nacaduba kurava canaraica Toxopeus (The Transparent Six Line Blue) (Plate VII, Fig. 83) Moore, 1857, Cat. Lep. Mus. East India Coy. 1: 22. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 640. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The TRANSPARENT SIX LINE BLUE is a tailed butterfly measuring mm in expanse. Under side of fore wing has an additional pair of lines in the cell near the base. Apex of fore wing never pointed, termen rounded, at least at the apex. Male with apex of fore wing produced, termen straight; below, markings prominent; above, pale violet-blue, markings from below showing clearly above. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Sikkim to Assam, south India (Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is mostly found in the evergreen forests and sholas. The flight is very powerful usually settling on damp patches or on bird droppings. Status: Rare. 67

77 36. Nacaduba calauria evansi Toxopeus (The Dark Ceylon Six Line Blue) (Plate VII, Fig. 84) Felder, 1860, S. B. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 40: 457. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 640. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The DARK CEYLON SIX LINE BLUE measures about 30 mm in expanse. Wings are brownish below, crossed by whitish lines in pairs. The male is dark shining blue. In the famale, the basal portion of the wing is purple. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Nadgani Ghat. Habits: It is generally found in wet evergreen forests. Status: Extremely rare. 37. Nacaduba beroe gythion Fruhstorfer (The Opaque Six Line Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 85) Felder, 1865, Reise der..fregatte Novara 2: 275. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 640. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The OPAQUE SIX LINE BLUE measures about mm in expanse. Wings are brownish below, crossed by dull lines in pairs. The male is dark violet blue. In the famale, the basal portion of wing is purple blue. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Sikkim to Assam and south India. Habits: It is generally found in wet evergreen forests. Status: Rare. 38. Ionolyce helicon viola Moore (Pointed Line Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 86) (=Nacaduba helicon) Felder, 1860, S. B. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 40: 457. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 640. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The Pointed Line Blue measuring mm in expanse is tailed. Apex of fore wings pointed. Wings are brownish below, crossed by pale lines. The male is dark shining violet blue. Female plain brown with a prominent black tornal spot. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Sikkim to Assam and south India. Habits: Generally found near moist places at about 914 m ASL. Status: Rare. 68

78 39. Prosotas nora nora Felder & Felder (The Common Line Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 87) (=Nacaduba nora) S.B. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 40: 458. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 641. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON LINE BLUE measuring about mm in expanse is tailed. Wings are dark brownish below with white lines, or yellow or grey with dark bands. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India. Habits: Around moist places. Status: Common. 40. Prosotas dubiosa indica Evans (The Tail-less Line Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 88) (=Nacaduba dubiosa) Semper, 1879, J. Mus. Godeffroy, 5: 159 D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 642. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The TAIL-LESS LINE BLUE measures about mm in expanse. Wings are dark brownish below with wavy silvery lines and with a dark tornal spot in the hind wing. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India. Habits: Around moist places. Status: Rare. 41. Prosotas noreia hampsoni de Niceville (The White Tipped Line Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 89) (=Nacaduba noreia) Felder, 1868, Verh. Zool._bot. ges. Wien. 18: 282. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 642. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The WHITE TIPPED LINE BLUE measures about mm in expanse, tailless. The apex of fore wing white fringed. Basal band of hind wing confined to the cell. Distribution: Sri Lanka; S. India to Madhya Pradesh and Musssoorie. Habits: Around moist places. Status: Very rare. 42. Petrolaea dana dana de Niceville (The Dingy Line Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 90) 69

79 (=Nacaduba dana) de Niceville, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 52:73. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The DINGY LINE BLUE measures about mm in expanse, tailless. The male is dull violet blue above with linear dark borders. Below, pale brown, bands not darker, white lines faint. Female is pale brown above with whitish discal area. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: S. Bihar, Kumaon and south India. Habits: Around moist places. Status: Rare. 43. Anthene emolus emolus Godart (The Ciliate Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 91) (=Lycaenesthes emolus) Ency. Methodique, 9: 656. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 636. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CILIATE BLUE measures mm in expanse. Male dark purple blue and female brown with a basal bluish tinge. Under side of fore and hind wings with discal bands. Hind wing with black marginal spots. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Sikkim to Assam and south India (Nilgiris, Coorg, north Canara and Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is mainly found in low evergreen forests. It is a feeble flier flying close to the ground. Hosts: Saraca indica, Combretum extensum and Terminalia paniculata. Larvae are attended by ants. Status: Extremely rare. 44. Anthene lycaenina lycaenina Hewitson (The Pointed Ciliate Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 92) (=Lycaenesthes lycaenina) Verh. zool. bot Ges. Wien. 18: 281. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 636. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The POINTED CILIATE BLUE measuring mm in expanse has pointed fore wing and hind wing angled at tornus. Male purple blue above and female brown. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India, Orissa, Sikkim to Assam, Bengal and S. India. Habits: Confined to hilly areas upto 2134 m ASL in S. India. Fond of basking and resting in damp areas. 70

80 Hosts: Larvae feed on Wagatea spicata (Leguminosae) and Buchanania latifolia (Anacardiaceae). Status: Common. 45. Talicada nyseus nyseus Guerin-Meneville, 1843 (The Red Pierrot) (Plate VIII, Fig. 93) In Delessert. Souvenirs Voy. Inde: 78. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 648. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The RED PIERROT is a blackish brown butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The hind wing has a broad red terminal area. The under side is silvery white with a white basal patch having a few scattered black spots and an orange-red marginal band as far as vein 6 on the under side of the hind wing. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are black. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Khasi, Naga Hills and south India (Silent Valley, Sholayar, Parambikulam and Nelliyampathy). It is reported to be very common in the hills of Malabar (Satyamurti, 1994). Habits: It has a wide ecological regime ranging from plains and hills up to an elevation of 2438 m ASL and from 500 to 6000 mm rain fall. The flight is slow keeping close to the ground. It prefers shaded areas in dense forests. At nights, it settles gregariously on stems and twigs of bushes. Hosts: The young larvae tunnel inside the fleshy leaves of Kalanchoe pinnata, K. laciniata and Bryophyllum. Pupation takes place in the larval tunnel. Status: Common. 46. Arhopala pseudocentaurus pirama Moore (The Western Centaur Oak Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 94) (=Amblypodia centaurus) Doubleday, List. Lep. Br. Mus. 2: 24. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 576. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The WESTERN CENTAUR OAK BLUE measures mm in expanse. It is the largest south Indian Lycaenid. Male is brilliant dark blue with narrow dark borders and the female is pale blue with broad borders. Under side is dark brown with faint markings. Silver lines are present in the cell of fore wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka and south India. Habits: It is a common butterfly in the wet evergreen forests at low elevations having heavy rainfall and rarely upto 2438 m ASL in the Himalayas. Occasionally visit damp patches. 71

81 Hosts: Terminalia tomentosa, Lagerstroemia microcarpa and Xylia dolabriformis. Larvae are tended by the ant, Oecophylla smaragdina. Status: Common. 47. Arhopala amantes amantes Moore (The Large Oak Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 95) Hewitson, cat. Lyc. Br. Mus.:4. (=Amblypodia amantes) D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 572. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Dscription: The LARGE OAK BLUE measures mm in expanse. The male is deep blue in colour having a narrow black border. The costa of the fore wings is widely arched and the apex is more or less acute and pointed. The female is greyish with brown spots and bands of spots. The under side of the hind wing is metallic green at the tornus. The hind wing is lobed and tailed. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: south India to Madhya Pradesh, South Bihar and Assam. In the NBR, it has been reported from Kallar, Coonoor Ghat, Kotagiri Ghat and the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: It is found in evergreen as well as deciduous forests. Attracted to sap exuding from trees. It is locally common frequenting nutmeg and cinnamon gardens in Sri Lanka. Hosts: Terminalia catappa, T. paniculata, T. tomentosa, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, L. flosreginae and Hopea jucunda. Status: Rare. 48. Arhopala canaraica Moore (The Kanara Oak Blue) (=Amblypodia canaraica) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The KANARA OAK BLUE measures mm in expanse. Upper side of male is shining blue with dark borders. The female is paler and the borders are much broader. On the under side, they are pale purple brown with small dark spots. Distribution: Nilgiris, Coorg, South Kanara and Travancore. Habits: Confined to forests or forest edges or along the sides of streams. Status: Very rare. Found only in the Western Ghats. 49. Arhopala abesus indica Riley (The Aberrant Oak Blue) (Plate VIII, Fig. 96) (=Amblypodia abesus) 72

82 Hewitson, cat. Lyc. Br. Mus.:9. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 565. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The ABERRANT OAK BLUE measures mm in expanse. Upper side of purple blue and the female is paler with dark borders. On the under side, they are dark purple brown. Distribution: Coorg, Kanara, Sikkim to Assam and Myanmar. Habits: Confined to forest edges and along the sides of streams. Status: Very rare. 50. Thaduka multicaudata kanara Evans (The Many-Tailed Oak Blue) (Plate IX, Fig. 97) (=Taduka multicaudata) Moore, Proc. Zool.Soc. Lond. 1878: 836. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 556. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MANY-TAILED OAK BLUE measures mm in expanse. Above, silvery blue with broad, black borders; under side brownish. Hind wing with a large lobe and three distinct tails. Distribution: It is confined to peninsular India, South of the Himalayas, excluding the dry desert regions of Northern India. In the NBR, reported from Coorg, Kanara, Nilgiris and Nadgani Ghat. Habits: Confined to forest edges and sides of streams. Hosts: Trewia nudiflora (Euphorbiaceae). Status: Very rare. 51. Surendra quercetorum biplagiata Butler (The Common Acacia Blue) (Plate IX, Fig. 98) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 328 Description: The COMMON ACACIA BLUE measures 30-40mm in expanse. Males dark brown; fore wing with discal area dark purple-blue; hind wing also purple-blue. Host: Acacia megaladena. Status: Rare. 52. Zinaspa todara todara Moore 1884 (The Silver-Streaked Acacia Blue) (=Surendra todara) Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond (4):

83 D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 583. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 328 Description: The SILVER STREAKED ACACIA BLUE is a shining, purple butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The fore wing has a broad, black border. Under side is pale brown. Fore wing has a silvery discal line and the hind wing has irregular silvery lines and a tail. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Sikkim to Assam and south India (Nilgiris, Nadgani Ghat and Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary). Habits: It is confined to dense moist deciduous and evergreen forests. Host: Larvae develop on Acacia spp. Status: Extremely rare. 53. Iraota timoleon arsaces Fruhstorfer (Silver Streak Blue) (Plate IX, Fig. 99) Stoll, In: Cramer s Papillons Exot. (Suppl.) D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 587. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SILVER STREAK BLUE measures mm in expanse. Male is bright, shining blue or greenish blue above with black borders. Hind wing generally ochreous towards margin, usually with broad irregular basal streak which may be silvery or may vary to a reddish ground colour and with zig- zag discal markings. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Konkan, Madhya Pradesh Simla, Assam and south India. Habits: Usually found on the foliage of Banyan trees. Mainly found at low elevations in wet, hilly areas. Hosts: Larvae feed on the leaves, bark or fruits of Ficus glomerata, Peepul and Pomegranate. Status: Rare. 54. Amblypodia anita dina Horsfield (The Leaf Blue) (Plate IX, Fig. 100) (=Horsfieldia anita) Hewitson, Cat. Lyc. Brit. Mus.:14. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 586. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LEAF BLUE measuring mm in expanse is leaf-like below and tailed. The male is purple or blue with black borders which are very narrow in hind wing and tailed. In the female, both wings are dark brown with bright purple discal areas which are narrower than in the male. 74

84 Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Peninsular India to Bombay, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and Bengal. Habits: Generally found in hilly areas, rarely in evergreen forest. Males rest in damp areas and are fond of carrion. Hosts: Olax wightiana and O. scandens (Oleaceae). Status: Rare. 55. Spindasis vulcanus Fabricius (The Common Silver Line) (Plate IX, Fig. 101) Fabricius Syst. Ent D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 603. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON SILVER LINE measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above with black-spotted orange areas. Male slightly bluish tinged and female without conspicuous leaden scaling. Distribution: Endemic to India and Sri Lanka. Habits: Generally found in hilly areas upto 2438 m ASL. elevation. Prefers plains and rarely found in evergreen forest. Hosts: Allophylus cobbe, Canthium coromandelicum, Ziziphus mauritiana, Clerodendrum inerme, Cadaba fruticosa and C. indicum. Adults feed at the flowers of Tridax. Status: Common. 56. Spindasis schistacea Moore (The Plumbeous Silver Line) (Plate IX, Fig. 102) Moore, Lep. Ceylonica I:106. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PLUMBEOUS SILVER LINE measures mm in expanse. It is very similar to the Common Silverline but normally the males have obscured orange markings on the upper side of the fore wing and a small patch of blue scales in the tornal area of the hind wing. The under side has two yellow-ringed, black, rounded marginal spots over the tornal area at the base of the tails of the hind wing. Distribution: This species is typically south Indian being reported from the Nilgiris, Nadgani Ghats, Sholayar, Coorg and Bangalore. Habits: It is found in wet evergreen forests. Status: Endemic to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Common. 75

85 57. Spindasis ictis ictis Hewitson (The Common Shot Silver Line) (Plate IX, Fig. 103) Hewitson?1862. Illustr. Di. Lep.: 61. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 603. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON SHOT SILVER LINE measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above. Upper side of fore wing with a well defined orange patch. Male with no bluish area above vein 2 and female with leaden scales above. Distribution: India and Sri Lanka. Habits: Confined to open plains at low elevations in dry habitats. Status: Rare, endemic to the Indian Peninsula and Sri Lanka. 58. Spindasis elima elima Moore (Scarce Shot Silver Line) (Plate IX, Fig. 104) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SCARCE SHOT SILVER LINE measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above; below not reddish. Male with an obscure orange patch on the upper side of fore wing and with a bluish area close to vein 2. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India (Coorg). Habits: Found in open plains and in hills of m ASL. Status: Rare, endemic to Peninsular India and Sri Lanka. 59. Spindasis abnormis Moore, 1883 (The Abnormal Silver Line) (Plate IX, Fig. 105) Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1883: 527 D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 606. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The ABNORMAL SILVER LINE measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above and dull reddish brown below, with very narrow markings. Male dusky violetbrown at the apex of fore wing, rest dull greenish grey with light bluish tinge. Distribution: Coorg, Coonoor. Status: Very rare. 60. Spindasis lohita lazularia Moore (The long-banded Silver Line) (Plate IX, Fig. 106) Horsfield, Cat. Lep. Mus. East India Coy: 106. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 602. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

86 Description: The LONG-BANDED SILVER LINE measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above, below creamy yellow and with black to red bands. Under side of hind wing with outer basal band (2 nd band from base) continued along vein 1b to join lower end of central band. Male bluish above and female dull brown. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Taiwan; Hongkong; South India: Western Ghats, Kanara, Palnis and Nilgiris. Habits: Inhabits forest areas having heavy rainfall. Hosts: Adults feed at the flowers of Acacia. Status: Common. 61. Catapecilma elegans Druce (The Common Tinsel) (Plate IX, Fig. 107) D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 588. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON TINSEL measuring mm in expanse is a violet blue butterfly. The under side is grey brown with irregular, silver edged bands and spots. Tails present at veins 1, 2 and 3. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: the Eastern Ghats, from Mussoorie east to the Himalayas, Assam and south India (the Western Ghats south of Konkan and Wynad). Habits: Usually found in dense forests up to 1524 m ASL. It is a strong flier, settling on tall trees. Not observed visiting damp places. Host: Larvae develop on Terminalia paniculata. Status: Extremely rare. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Loxura atymnus atymnus Cramer (The Yam Fly) (Plate IX, Fig. 108) Stoll, Papillons Exot. pl D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 590. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The YAM FLY measuring mm in expanse is an orange colored butterfly having a broad, black border which may be narrower or absent on the hind wing. Hind wing produced at tornus ending in a tail. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Phiippines; India: Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Mussoorie to Assam and south India (Nilgiris, Palnis, Travancore, Coorg and from Western Ghats). 77

87 Habits: It is commonly found in wet low land forests especially in bamboo and reed areas. Reported to be associated with homopteran insects, particularly those feeding on their larval food plants. Hosts: Similax sp. and Dioscorea pentaphylla. The larvae are attended by red ants. Status: Common. 63. Cheritra freja freja Fabricius (The Common Imperial) (Plate X, Fig. 109) Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 3:263. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 600. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON IMPERIAL measuring mm in expanse is a dark brown butterfly. The male is tinged with purple. The tornal area of the hind wing is white, bearing black spots. The upper side of the fore wing is uniformly dark brown and unmarked. The hind wing bears discal and submarginal lines and black tornal spots. The hind wing bears a long tail measuring about 22 mm in length. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Kumaon and south India (Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is locally common at several locations in the Western Ghats. Usually found at 762 m ASL in the Nilgiris and throughout the W. Ghats. It prefers dense, wet evergreen forests, and it usually keeps to the forest edges. Never seen visiting flowers or damp places. Its flight is weak. Status: Common. 64. Rathinda amor Fabricius (The Monkey Puzzle) (Plate X, Fig. 110) Fabricius, Syst. Ent.: 518. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 594 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MONKEY PUZZLE measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above. Fore wing with a white spot at the end of cell and with small narrow spots in 2 and 3 forming a short band. Hind wing with two tornal spots and a narrow, dark reddish patch of spots above and beyond them. Below, white to dark yellowish brown. Fore wing with dark irregular basal markings and curved white discal line; apical 2/5 th dark brown. Hind wing with irregular dark spots and lines, silvery marginal lines and tails at vein 1, 2 and 3. Distribution: Sri Lanka; South India, Orissa and Assam. Habits: Inhabits in dense forest and scrub jungles, on the plains or in the foot hills above 762 m ASL. The flight is weak keeping close to the ground. 78

88 Hosts: Food plants belong to the families Rubiaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Lorantathaceae, Sapindaceae and Mytraceae. Ixora coccinea, Eugenia zeylanica, Hopea sp. and loranthus are some of the recorded host plants. The larva is abnormal, being covered with long protuberances, hence the name. Status: It is a monobasic genus. Common. 65. Horaga onyx cingalensis Moore (The Common Onyx) (Plate X, Fig. 111) D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 594. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON ONYX measuring mm in expanse is bluish with broad black apex and having a prominent white discal patch on the fore wing. Below dark yellowish or greenish brown with irregular, variable, broad, white discal band across both wings. Male with a brand on the under side of fore wing along basal half of vein 1. In female, the blue colour become obscure in upper side of hind wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Kangra to Assam and south India (N. Kanara, Bangalore, Coorg, Wynad and Nilgiris). Habits: Found in hilly areas up to 2134 m ASL. Hosts: Larvae reported on Coriaria nepalensis in the Himalayas. Status: Very rare. 66. Horaga viola Moore (The Violet Onyx) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The VIOLET ONYX measuring mm in expanse is bluish with broad black apex, termen, apex and costa and with prominent white discal patch on fore wing. Below brownish, with an irregular, broad, white discal band across both wings. Male with no brand. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; south India, Kanara, Coorg, Nilgiris. Habits: Found at varying altitudes. Hosts: Larvae feed on Coriaria nepalensis in the Himalayas. Status: Rare. 67. Zezius chrysomallus Hubner (The Red Spot) (Plate X, Fig. 112) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

89 Description: The RED SPOT measuring mm in expanse. It is pale grey below with discal band of loosely-linked spots. Several spots present on the cell and basal area of fore and hind wings. A red-crowned black spot in 2. Upper side is reddish with a narrow dark border in the male. Hind wing with two red-crowned black tornal spots and 2 tails. Female is pale bluish above with broad dark brown borders. Hind wing with two red-crowned black tornal spots and 3 tails. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Bengal, S. Bihar, Orissa and south India. Habits: Generally found at low elevations in humid conditions. Hosts: Terminalia paniculata, Anacardium occidentale, Psidium guava and Pterocarpus marsupium. Larvae tended by the ant Oecophylla smaragdina. Status: Rare. 68. Ancema blanka argentea Aurivilleus (The Silver Royal) (Plate X, Fig. 113) (=Pratapa blanka) J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 63: 39. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 611. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SILVER ROYAL measuring mm in expanse is shining blue above and silvery below in male. Pale blue above and below whitish with an ochreous tinge in female. Distribution: India: Sikkim, south India (Kanara, Coorg, Nilgiris). Habits: Found in hilly areas mostly confined to tree tops. Males usually noticed near water bodies. Status: Rare. 69. Creon cleobis Godart (The Broadtail Royal) (Plate X, Fig. 114) (=Pratapa cleobis) Godart, Ency. Meth. 9(2): 634. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 610. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BROADTAIL ROYAL measuring mm in expanse is bluish above and creamy white below. Outer discal line of fore wing straight at costa, lower part curved. In male, the wings are produced, above pale sky-blue, apex black and border thread-like at tornus. Female pale bluish above with black apical area. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Simla to Assam, Calcutta and south India (Coorg, Nilgiris, Gudalur and Kotagiri). Habits: Found at lower elevations. 80

90 Hosts: Adults feed at the flowers of Polygonum and Poinsettia. Status: Rare. 70. Pratapa deva deva Moore (The White Royal) (Plate X, Fig. 115) Moore, 1857, Cat. Lep. Mus. East India Coy. 1: 46 D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 610. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The WHITE ROYAL measuring mm in expanse is whitish below. Hind wing bluish, turning white beyond cell with a small spot on dorsum between end of outer discal line and base. Black spot at the apex. Discal line broken and irergular. Fore wing white at disc, bluish at the base and dorsum. Costa, termen and tornal part of dorsum black. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Mettupalayam Ghat and Kallar. Status: Rare. 71. Tajuria maculata Hewitson (The Spotted Royal) (Plate X, Fig. 116) Hewitson, Illustr. Di. Lep.: 47. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 612. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SPOTTED ROYAL measuring mm in expanse can be easily recognized by the absence of the outer discal line on the under side and the presence of large irregularly placed black spots. Male shining bluish above turning white on disc of fore wing and with a broad, dark border extending along costa and dorsum. Hind wing with the costa dark. Female white with a dark border. Distributuion: Nilgiris, Sikkim. Habits: Found in hilly areas at about m ASL. elevation. Status: Rare. 72. Tajuria cippus cippus Fabricius (The Peacock Royal) (Plate X, Fig. 117) D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 612. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PEACOCK ROYAL measures mm in expanse. The male is glossy greenish blue with the apex bearing a broad, black patch. The female is greyish blue, becoming whitish outwardly on the fore wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; south India. Although considered to be a fairly common species, there are not much records of this species from the Western Ghats and Larsen 81

91 (1987b) states that this species is rare in the Nilgiris. However, this species has been recorded from Silent Valley (Mathew, 1999). Habits: It is common at lower elevations and rarely upto 2134 m ASL. The males visit flowers and have a special preference for Tamarind flowers. Host: Larvae develop on loranthus. In Sri Lanka, this species has been found in orange and lime plantation where the trees become infested with Loranthus. Status: Rare. Protected under Schedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Tajuria jehana Moore (The Plains Royal) (Plate X, Fig. 118) Moore, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 1883: 529. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 612. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PLAINS ROYAL measuring mm in expanse has a conspicuous white fringe. Below, pale grey to white. Male, slaty blue above with broad black apex to the fore wing. In the female, the bluish tinge of the fore wing is more extensive; beyond cell pale or whitish, usually with a wavy black discal line. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Simla to Bengal and south India (Nilgiris). Habits: Generally found in hilly areas at lower elevations. Hosts: Larva feeds on Loranthus. Status: Rare. 74. Tajuria melastigma de Niceville (The Branded Royal) (Plate X, Fig. 119) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BRANDED ROYAL measuring mm in expanse is brown below with a rosy tinge. Discal line of hind wing broken at vein 4. Male having a pale sky-bluish tinge in two-thirds of cell and 1a and 1b of fore wing and with a prominent band beyond end cell. Female is pale blue in colour. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Mettupalayam Ghat, Nilgiris and N. Kanara. Status: Very rare. 75. Rachana jalindra macarita Fruhstorfer (The Banded Royal) (Plate X, Fig. 120) (=Charana jalindra) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

92 Description: The BANDED ROYAL measuring mm in expanse is shining violet-blue with black borders in male and dark brown above with marginal white spots in female. Below, white in both sexes, outer margins broadly brown suffused with grey. Distribution: Myanmar; Nepal; India: Sikkim to Assam and South India (N. Kanara, Coorg and Nilgiris). Habits: Lives in thick forest below 2438 m ASL. Hosts: Dendrophthoe, Loranthus elasticus and Scurrula sp. Status: Very rare. 76. Hypolycaena nilgirica Moore (The Nilgiri Tit) Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1883: 527. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 619. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The NILGIRI TIT measuring mm in expanse is dark reddish brown above with obscure, orange-crowned tornal spots in male. Above brownish in female. Both sexes bluish white below; no spot above cell in fore wing, tornal spots of hind wing not prominently orange-coloured. Tails present. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Southern India, Palnis, Kallar, Nilgiris. Habits: Found to visit damp patches. Status: Rare. 77. Chliaria othona othona Hewitson (The Orchid Tit) (Plate XI, Fig. 121) Hewitson, Illustr. Di. Lep.:50. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 621 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The ORCHID TIT measuring mm in expanse is pale blue above with apical three-fifths black in male. The female is brown above with the lower part of the disc whitish and hind wing tornal area broadly bluish white crossed by dark veins. Under side of both wings are white. Markings brown and black-edged. Discal band of fore wing completely broken at vein 4 and much broader above break. Prominent black spot above mid cell. Hind wing discal band broken in 4 and 6; prominent black spot towards base 7. Tail present. Distribution: Indo China. India: Calcutta and south India (Nilgiris, Glenburn). 83

93 Hosts: Orchids. Habits: Prefers wet forest upto 1524 m ASL; occasionally visits damp patches. Status: Rare. 78. Zeltus amasa amasa Hewitson (The Fluffy Tit) (Plate XI, Fig. 122) (=Zeltus etolus) Hewitson, Illustr. Di. Lep. D Abrera, 1986, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part III: 623 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The FLUFFY TIT measures mm in expanse. In the male, the fore wing is black with a bluish basal area. Hind wing pale blue with a black tornal spot and with long fluffy tails. The female is dark brown. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Sikkim to Assam and the Western Ghats (Nilgiris and Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is generally found in wet evergreen forests of low elevations. It is a weak flier, confined to shady, damp areas. Status: Rare. 79. Deudoryx epijarbas Fabricius (The Cornelian) (Plate XI, Fig. 123) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CORNELIAN measures mm in expanse. The male is reddish with dark brown costa and termen in the fore wing; the cell is black; middle of the fore wing reddish. Hind wing with the basal costal area and veins in the discal area black. Under side is pale with a white-edged discal band and with a black lobe on the hind wing. Tail is slender at vein 2. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India. It is reported to be scarce in the Nilgiris. Not so far reported from the Kerala part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Habits: It is found in plains and hills up to an elevation of 2438 m ASL. It has a wide distribution except in deserts. A fast flying butterfly frequenting tree tops and damp areas. Host: Larva feeds inside various fruits particularly Pomegranate, some times causing serious damage. In the Himalayas, it feeds inside the fruits of Horse chestnut. Status: Common. Protected under Schedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Deudoryx isocrates Fabricius (The Common Guava Blue) (Plate XI, Fig. 124) (=Virachola isocrates) 84

94 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON GUAVA BLUE measures mm in expanse. The male is violet blue above and the female is brownish darker towards end cell with an orange patch on the fore wing. Hind wing with a black spot. Under side of both sexes pale grey with a straight discal band on the fore wing. The tail is short. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Himalayas and south India (Nilgiris, Kallar and the Nadgani Ghat). Habits: Found up to 2134 m ASL in the Himalayas. They are swift flying butterflies, visiting flowers and resting on tree tops. Hosts: Larva feeds inside fruits of Randia dumetorum, Eriobotria japonica, Psidium guava, Tamarindus indica, Strychnos nux-vomica and Gardenia latifolia. Status: Common. 81. Deudoryx perseghlea Fruhstorfer (The Large Guava Blue) (Plate XI, Fig. 125) ( =Virachola perse) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p.359. Description: THE LARGE GUAVA BLUE measures mm in expanse. The male is shining blue above with broad dark brown termen, apex and Costa in the fore wing. In the hind wing costa and apex are broadly brown in colour. Sometimes a dark orange patch is present beyond the black cell on the fore wing. Female is pale blue with whitish or pale yellow patch beyond the cell on the fore wing. Both sexes are brownish or purple below and the discal band consists of linked spots considerably darker than ground, bent on the fore wing above the middle. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Orissa, Kangara to Assam and south India. Habits: It is usually found in hilly areas. Its early stages are very much similar to Common Guava Blue. Host: Randia dumetorum. Status: Rare. 82. Bindahara phocides moorei Fruhstorfer (The Plane) (Plate XI, Fig. 126) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PLANE measures mm in expanse. The male is shining black. On the upper side of the hind wing, the tornal area and the long fluffy tail are yellowish while the outer margin of the tornal area is bright metallic blue in colour. The under side is yellowish brown. In the female, the upper side is brownish while the tornal area of the hind wing and the 85

95 tail are whitish. The tornal area of the hind wing bears a large black spot. The under side is whitish. Distribution: Oriental region: Sri Lanka; India: Sikkim and south India (Kallar, Nadgani Ghat and Ketty in the Nilgiris). Habits: It is mainly found in wet evergreen forests at low elevations and is usually found on the canopy. It flies very fast inside dense vegetation and the males frequently visit flowers. Hosts: The larvae feed inside the fruits of the creeper Salacia. Status: Very rare. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Rapala lankana Moore (The Malabar Flash) (Plate XI, Fig. 127) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MALABAR FLASH measures mm in expanse. The male is purple brown with a bluish tinge at the base of the fore wing. The female is pale reddish brown. Under side in both sexes is reddish brown with a broad, brown discal band. Distribution: Sri Lanka: India: south India (western slopes of Nilgiris). Habits: Found in thick, moist forest between m ASL. Status: Extremely rare. Endemic to Sri Lanka and the Western Ghats. 84. Rapala manea schistacea Moore (The Slate Flash) (Plate XI, Fig. 128) (=Rapala schistacea) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SLATE FLASH measures mm in expanse. The male is blue in colour with bright bluish tinge in the discal region of fore wing and most part of the hind wing. The female is dark purple. The under side in both sexes is brownish with a narrow band on the fore wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India. It is relatively scarce in the Nilgiris although it has been collected from Kotagiri Ghat, Kallar, Nadagani Ghat and Coonoor Ghat. Habits: It is widely distributed in the plains and hills up to 1981 m ASL. It visits damp patches and rests under the leaves for long periods. Hosts: Caterpillars are attended by ants. Larvae feed on the flowers of Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Combretaceae and Leguminosae. Antidesma acidum, A. ghaesembilla, Camelia sinensis, Quisqualis indica, Ziziphus sp., Acacia pennata, A. Torta and A. Megaladena are some of the recorded host plants. 86

96 Status: Extremely rare. 85. Rapala melampus Cramer (The Indian Red Flash) (Plate XI, Fig. 129) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p. 216 Description: THE INDIAN RED FLASH measures mm in expanse. Upper side of male is bright reddish and shot with purple. On the fore wing, the costa, apex and termen are broadly bordered with black. The terminal border gradually narrows down to the tornus. There is no black border on the dorsum. The upper side of the hind wing is completely red and bears a lobe posteriorly which is overlaid with orange, metallic scales, and a slender thread-like tail. The Upper side of female is reddish, but much paler than in the male. In both sexes, the under side is slaty grey. There is a black tornal spot in interspace 2, but this is not conspicously tinged with orange. Distribution: Sri Lanka; South India, Bombay, Bihar, Orissa, Kutch, Kumaon and Sikkim. It is widely distributed throughout Peninsular India and Northern India excepting the North East and the desert regions of north. Habits: It is commonly seen on the plains than on the hills. In the Himalayas, it is generally found in the lower elevations. Status: Rare. 86. Curetis thetis thetis Drury (The Indian Sun Beam) (Plate XI, Fig. 130) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The INDIAN SUN BEAM measures mm in expanse. Discal and marginal lines parallel to one another and to the termen and consist of short lines. Males are reddish and the females are whitish with black borders. The narrow black border of the male is not continued along the termen of the fore wing. Under surface is whitish in both sexes. Seasonal forms are present. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: south India (Kallar, Kotagiri Ghat and Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is found in wet evergreen forests. Found to visit bird droppings and often come out in sun shine. Hosts: Larvae develop on Pongamia glabra. Status: Rare. 87. Curetis dentata dentata Moore (The Dentate Sunbeam) (Plate XI, Fig. 131) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

97 Description: The DENTATE SUNBEAM measuring mm in expanse is red above in males and white in female, both with black borders. Below covered with minute black dots some of which are brought together to form the markings. Discal band of under side of fore wing pointing to apex and band on under side of hind wing shifted in at vein 6. Seasonal forms are present. Distribution: Myanmar; India: The Himalayas, Assam and south India (Kanara Nadgani Ghat and Nilgiris). Habits: It is found in evergreen forests and scrub jungles at low elevations. Attracted to bird droppings. Status: Extremely rare. 88. Curetis siva Evans (The Shiva Sunbeam) (Plate XI, Fig. 132) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SHIVA SUNBEAM measuring about 35 mm in expanse is reddish above in males and whitish in female, both with black borders. Below, both sexes are glossy white. Apex of fore wing pointed and termen below it is usually straight. Tail is absent. This is more or less similar to C. dentata. Distribution: South India (Travancore, Mysore, Coorg, north Kanara and the Nilgiris). Habits: Inhabits scrub jungles at low elevations. Powerful flier, both sexes bask in sun with the wings held partly open. Status: Extremely rare and endemic to south India. 88

98 3.4. Family Erycinidae Erycinidae are a small of butterflies characterised by the males having fore legs that are brush-like while it is complexly developed in the female. The family consists of two subfamilies- the Libythaeinae and Riodinae. The former has narrowed fore wings which are truncate and angled below the apex. The palpi are conspicuously prolonged in front of the head giving the appearance of a beak. The wings are brownish on the upperside with a tawny horizontal band on each wing. The underside of hindwings is greyish and protectively marked with dark brown spots and patches. In Riodinae, the forewings are generally short and broad. The hindwings may be produced into a prominent lobe at the tornus neither with nor without a very slender tail. The eggs of Libytheinae are long, bottle-shaped and ribbed while in Riodinae, the eggs are small, domed and whitish. The family is trictly confined to hilly areas. Twenty one species of Erycinidae have been reported from India. One species each of these subfamilies have been recorded in this study which is listed below Sub Family Libytheinae 1. Libythea myrrha carma Fruhstorfer (The Club Beak) (Plate XVII, Fig. 194) Libythea myrrha Godart, Ency. Meth. 9: 171. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 404. Description: The CLUB BEAK measuring mm in expanse is dark brown in colour with a central tawny band on hind wing. Fore wing with costal and apical white or tawny spots. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Southern China; India: Kulu, south India (Masinagudi and Silent Valley). Habits: It is a common butterfly found in evergreen forests and sholas in subtropical and tropical zones. It is migratory. Commonly found near streams. Hosts: Larvae develop on Celtis tetrandra (Utricaceae). Status: Rare Sub Family Riodinae 1. Abisara echerius prunosa Moore (The Plum Judy) (Plate XII, Fig. 133) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PLUM JUDY is a chocolate brown or purple butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The upper side of the fore wing bears discal and post-discal transverse bands.the upper side of the hind wing has two small apical and two large sub-apical black patches. The under side is pale brown with discal and post-discal subterminal bands on the fore wing. Discal band and a row of subterminal black spots are present on the hind wings. The termen 89

99 of the hind wing is produced into a prominent tooth at vein 4. In the female, the ground colour is paler, but the markings remain the same. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Bhutan; India: south India (Nilgiris and Silent Valley). Habits: It is found in lowland and subtropical evergreen forests upto an altitude of 1524 m ASL. Frequently visits shady places and rests among foliage during the greater part of the day. In the evening, they venture out, flying in a jerky, unsteady manner. When at rest, the wings are kept half open. Host plants: Attracted to sap exuding from trees. Status: Common. 90

100 3.5. Family Nymphalidae This is one of the largest families, comprising about 6000 species worldwide. They are found in different kinds of habitats such as plains, hills and forests. They are relatively large butterflies characterised by wings of varied shapes having various markings and stripes against a tawny background. The size may vary from 135 mm (Oakleaf butterfly, Kallima sp.) to just 25 mm (Baby Lascar, Neptis aurelia). They are generally known as brush-footed butterflies on account of the short, degenerate fore legs. In the males, there are only two brush-like tarsal joints in the fore legs while in the female, there are four joints beset with short hairs.the sexes may be similar or different in appearance and in certain species, the females are polymorphic. Eggs are dome-shaped, ridged or pitted. The larvae are usually spiny and the skin often contains distasteful or poisonous chemicals such as cyanide. Most birds find them repugnant, with very few exceptions such as the cuckoo, which may be observed to feed on the larvae of Peacock, Small Tortoiseshell etc. The pupae are elongated with angular projections and with metallic spots. Pupae are usually suspended by the posterior end and body bands are absent. Five hundred and twenty species have been listed from India. Fifty nine species of Nymphalids recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve are discussed below. 1. Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Linnaeus (The Plain Tiger) (Plate XII, Fig. 134) (=Danais chrysippus) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 69. Description: The PLAIN TIGER measuring mm in expanse is reddish brown on the upper side with black borders. Fore wing with several white spots in the costa and apex. Upper side of hind wing tawny and with four small black dots around the tip of cell and three spots in the female. Under side is dull orange coloured. There are several white spots in the black area of the fore wing and six black spots in the hind wing. The female of the Danaid Egg Fly, Hypolimnas misippus, the Leopard Lace Wing, Cethosia cyane and the Indian Frittillary, Argyreus hyperbius mimic this butterfly. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Africa; Greece; China; India. One of the most widely distributed butterflies in India. From the Western Ghats, it has been recorded from Mukkali, Vazhachal, Parmbikulam, Nelliyampathy and Peechi. Habits: Found in plains, desert and hills rarely up to an elevation of 2743 m ASL. It is rare in dense evergreen forests, although it may be present in open, disturbed patches. It forms communal roosts for the night or during summer. Active from morning to dusk. Weak flier. It is migratory. Host: Butterflies visit Zinnia, Bougainvillea, Marigold, Sun flower etc. Larva feeds on Asclepias curassavica, Calotropis gigantea, Cryptolepis buchananii, Frerea indica and Caralluma adscendens. Adults visit Heliotropium indicum, Crotalaria retusa, Trichodesma indicum and Paracaryum coelestinum for pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Status: Very common. 91

101 2. Danaus genutia genutia Cramer (The Striped Tiger) (Plate XII, Fig. 135) (=Danais plexippus) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 69. Description: THE STRIPPED TIGER measuring mm in expanse is orange brown above with black veins and with black and white apical and marginal bands. Male with a pouch on the hind wing. Distribution: It is widely distributed throughout the Oriental region. From the Western Ghats, it has been reported from Nilgiris, Wynad, Silent Valley, Parambikulam, Sholayar and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is found in deserts, plains, agricultural lands and scrub hills up to an altitude of 2743 m ASL. They are not very common in damp, dense, forested patches. It is migratory. It is a weak flier and is active from morning to dusk. Aggregates on Crotalaria retusa, Heliotropium keralense and Ageratum conyzoides. Hosts: Larva feeds on Asclepias curassavica, Calotropis gigantea, Ceropegia intermedia, Ceropegia oculata, Ceropegia fantastica, Stephanotis sp., Tylophora tenuis, Wattakaka voluvilis and Hoya sp. Adults visit Heliotropium indicum, Crotalaria retusa, Trichodesma indicum and Paracaryum coelestinum for pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Status: Very common. 3. Tirumala limniace exoticus Gmelin (The Blue Tiger) (Plate XII, Fig. 136) (=Danais limniace) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 67. Description: The BLUE TIGER measuring mm in expanse is black with large, irregular white or pale blue markings and marginal spots. Fore wing with a black basal area. The cell of hind wing is whitish on the upper side enclosing a narrow streak. Under side of the hind wing with a pendulous pouch in the male. Distribution: Widely distributed in the Oriental region. A common butterfly in peninsular India being found in a variety of habitats except in desert regions and at high altitudes. It has been reported from the Nilgiris, Peechi, Nilambur and Mukkali. Habits: It is a weak flier. It aggregates on Crotalaria retusa, Heliotropium keralense and Ageratum conyzoides. It is migratory. Hosts: Adults feed at flowers of marigold, Zinnia, Lucerene, Lantana, Heliotrope etc. Larva feeds on Asclepias curassavica, Calotropis gigantea, Tylophora indica, Wattakaka voluvilis and Hoya sp. Adults visit Heliotropium indicum, Crotalaria retusa, Trichodesma indicum and Paracaryum coelestinum for pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Status: Very common. 92

102 4. Tirumala septentrionis dravidarum Fruhstorfer (The Dark Blue Tiger) (Plate XII, Fig. 137) (=Danais melissa (hamata)) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 68. Description: The DARK BLUE TIGER measuring mm in expanse has pale blue markings on a black background as in T. limniace, but darker and narrower. Cell markings on upper side of hind wing consist of two narrow white streaks joined at the base like a wishbone. In males, under side of hind wing with a pendulous pouch. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Himachal Pradesh and south India (Nilgiris, Peechi, Mukkali, Nilambur and Nelliyampathy). Habits: Found in subtropical forests up to 2438 m ASL. They occur throughout the year often in aggregations. Aggregate on Crotalaria retusa, Heliotropium keralense and Ageratum conyzoides. It is migratory in southern India. It is a weak flier. Hosts: Larva feeds on Vallaris glabra, V. solanacea, Asclepias curassavica, Calotropis gigantea, Tylophora indica, Wattakaka voluvilis and Hoya sp. Adults visit Heliotropium indicum, Crotalaria retusa, Trichodesma indicum and Paracaryum coelestinum for pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Status: Very common. 5. Parantica aglea aglea Cramer (The Glassy Blue Tiger) (Plate XII, Fig. 138) (=Danais aglea) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 65. Description: The GLASSY BLUE TIGER measuring mm in expanse is deep brown in colour with bluish white markings. A pale streak in fore wing cell divided length-wise by two fine dark lines. Both wings bear pale transparent streaks in and below the cells, discal spots and streaks and rows of terminal and marginal spots, the terminal series being small. Male with patches of scent scales. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Poona, Himalayas, Kashmir, Assam and south India (Nilgiris, Peechi, Silent Valley, Parambikulam, Nilambur and Sholayar). Habits: It generally prefers hills with heavy rainfall. Found up to 1219 m ASL in south India. Migratory, weak flier. Hosts: Larva feeds on Asclepias curassavica, Calotropis gigantea, Tylophora indica, Wattakaka voluvilis and Hoya sp. Adults visit Heliotropium indicum, Crotalaria retusa, Trichodesma indicum and Paracaryum coelestinum for pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Status: Fairly common. 93

103 6. Parantica nilgiriensis Moore (The Nilgiri Tiger) (Plate XII, Fig. 139) (=Danais nilgiriensis) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 66. Description: The NILGIRI TIGER measuring mm in expanse is brownish black with white markings. Cells dark with a pale black streak. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Poona, Himalayas, Assam, Bengal and south India (Nilgiris, Silent Valley and New Amarambalam, Peechi, Parambikulam, Nelliyampathy and Sholayar). Habits: It is generally found in evergreen forests upto 1372 m ASL, although they may also be found in the plateau and in open country as well. Its flight is slow, keeping close to the ground. It often visits flowers of trees or shrubs like Lantana and attracted to damp areas and streams. Hosts: Tylophora indica. Adults visit Heliotropium indicum, Crotalaria retusa, Trichodesma indicum and Paracaryum coelestinum for pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Status: Common, endemic to southern India. 7. Idea malabarica Moore (The Malabar Tree Nymph) (Plate XII, Fig. 140) (=Hestia lynceus Moore & de Niceville) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 64. Description: The MALABAR TREE NYMPH measuring mm in expanse. It has translucent, greyish white wings bearing large, black spots. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: The Western Ghats (Silent Valley, Sholayar and Nelliyampathy). Habits: It is found only in pristine, wet evergreen forests usually at m ASL. It is a slow flying butterfly usually found gliding down the valleys. Usually fly at the canopy of dense forests but some times descends to low levels.visits flowers of Lantana and forest trees. Hosts: Aganosma cymosa and Passonsia spiralis. Status: South Indian endemic having restricted distribution. 8. Euploea core core Cramer (The Common Crow) (Plate XII, Fig. 141) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 72. Description: The COMMON CROW measuring mm in expanse is a glossy brown butterfly with marginal and terminal white spots which are more or less equal in size. 94

104 Distribution: Most of the Oriental region. India: All over India. From the Western Ghats, it has been recorded from the Nilgiris, Peechi, Mukkali, Nadgani Ghat, Mukkali, Silent Valley, Sholayar, Parmbikulam, Nelliyampathy and Nilambur. Habits: It is abundant at lower and middle elevations in all types of terrain below 2438 m ASL. Strongly migratory and form communal roosts during summer. The flight is feeble and regular patrolling of territory has been observed. Occasionally visit damp areas. Host: Larvae develop on Ficus spp., Hemidesmus indicus, Cryptolepis buchananii, Tylophora indica, Mimusops elengi, Asclepias curassavica, Nerium oleander, N. odorum, Streblus asper and Carissa carandas. Adults visit Trichodesma indicum and Paracaryum coelistinum for pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Status: Very common. 9. Euploea sylvester coreta Godart (The Double Branded Crow) (Plate XII, Fig. 142) (=Euploea coreta & E. harrisi) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 74. Description: The DOUBLE BRANDED CROW measuring mm in expanse is very similar to E.core in colour and wing pattern. It differs from the Common Crow in having two long prominent brands along the termen of the fore wing upper side instead of one small brand. Distribution: Oriental region; From south India, it has been recorded from Coonoor and Malabar coast. Habits: It is confined to the hilly regions. In the Nilgiris, it has been reported up to 2134 m ASL. Also found in the plains. Unlike E. core, it prefers less dry habitats. It is migratorty and communal roosts have been reported. Larsen (1987b) reports a roost of this species comprising some 300 individuals from the Coonoor Ghat. A weak flier, fairly common during the wet season. Status: Rare. 10. Euploea klugii Moore (The Brown King Crow) (Plate XII, Fig. 143) (=Euploea crassa) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 77. Description: The BROWN KING CROW measuring mm in expanse is very similar to E.core in color and wing pattern except that the wings are broader and the male has a short, broad brand on the fore wing and a large pale yellowish area above the cell of hind wing on the upper side. In male, upper fore wing is dark brown with bluish gloss. Marginal and terminal series of bluish white spots present. Generally, there is a spot at apex of cell, a costal spot and two short streaks beyond cell. Hind wing upper side is brown with bluis gloss in the middle and with marginal and terminal series of white spots. Upper fore wing with short 95

105 brand and creamy scent scales in and above cell in upper side of hind wing. In the female, terminal spots are lacking in the upper side of fore wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Nepal, Indo-China; Sumatra; India: south India (Nilgiris, the Nadgani Ghat, Mukkali and Malabar coast). Habits: It is confined to wet evergreen forests at low elevations. Usually visits flowers and damp patches. Status: Fairly common. 11. Byblia ilithyia Drury (The Joker) (Plate XII, Fig. 144) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The JOKER measures mm in expanse. The male is tawny orange in colour with narrow black markings. The costa of fore wing is black except at the apex and the cell is traversed by three transverse black bands. The veins are conspicuously blackened between the bands. A series of black spots and a black band are present in the discal area of the hind wing. The under side is paler and of a dull orange red colour with white or brown bands. In the female, the colour is paler, and the black markings are narrower. There is considerable seasonal and individual variation in this species. Distribution: Sri Lanka: India: Madhya Pradesh, Kutch and south India (Nilgiris (Gudalur, Kotagiri and Kettys). This is a dry zone butterfly of Afrotropical origin. Habits: It is confined to dry open plains. Its flight is weak, keeping close to the ground. It is migratory during the autumn season. Host: Tragia plukenetii. Status: Rare. 12. Ariadne ariadne indica Moore (The Angled Castor) (Plate XIII, Fig. 145) Ariadne ariadne Linnaeus, Amoen. Acad. 6:407. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 248. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The ANGLED CASTOR measuring mm in expanse is dark reddish in colour with single and regular black lines across the upper side of both wings. Fore wing deeply concave between veins 3 and 5. It is almost identical with Ariadne merione in distribution, ecology and bionomics and the two species are often found together at the same time, sharing the same food plant. Distribution: Africa; Oriental region. Throughout India. 96

106 Hosts: They are often found flying around its larval food plants, Ricinus communis, Tragia involucrate and T. plukenetii. They are attracted to flowers, sap exudations and sugary substances. Migratory in habits. Status: Common. 13. Ariadne merione merione Cramer, 1777 (The Common Castor) (Plate XIII, Fig. 146) Papillons Exot. 11:76 D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 248. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON CASTOR measuring mm in expanse is dark reddish in colour with slender highly waved black lines across the upper side of both wings. The wings are broad, termen much rounded and the males bear a large triangular sex patch of shining dark scales on the dorsum and lower discal area of the under side of fore wing. It is almost identical with Ariadne ariadne in distribution, ecology and bionomics and the two species are often found together at the same time, sharing the same food plant. Distribution: Throughout the Oriental region. Host: Ricinus communis, Tragia involucrate and T. plukenetii. The larvae are very variable and the pupa is trimorphic being green, brown and grey. Status: Very common. 14. Cupha erymanthis maja Fruhstorfer (The Rustic) ( Plate XIII, Fig. 147) Cupha erymanthis Drury?1773. Ill. Exot. Ent. I pl.15. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 254. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The RUSTIC measuring mm in expanse is dark brown in colour. Fore wing with broad, black apex and broad, yellowish discal band. Hind wing with two dark marginal lines and a row of black discal spots. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Musoorie to Assam and south India. Habits: Confined to dense evergreen forests up to 2134 m ASL. Prefers areas with heavy rainfall and never found in the plains. Its flight is weak. Both sexes visit flowers. Males occasionally visit damp areas. Hosts: Larvae feed on Flacourtia ramontchi, F. indica, F. montana, Smilax sp. and Salix sp. Status: Common. 15. Phalanta phalantha Drury (The Leopard Butterfly) (Plate XIII, Fig. 148) (=Atella phalantha) Drury, Illustr. Nat. Hist. I pl. 21 figs. 1, 2. 97

107 D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 255. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LEOPARD BUTTERFLY measuring mm in expanse is tawny with rows of black spots and with 4 dark lines on the cell of the fore wing. A prominent black spot on the under side of fore wing. Distribution: The whole of Africa, south-western Arabia and the entire Oriental region. It has been recorded from Nilgiris, the Nadgani Ghata and Silent Valley. Habits: It is distributed at higher elevations in the W. Ghats. It is very fond of flowers, particularly of Lantana, Duranta and thistles. It also frequent damp patches and is also fond of basking in the sun. It is migratory. Hosts: Larvae develop on Flacourtia ramontchi and F. montana, Xylosma longifolium, Smilax sp. and Salix. Status: Common. 16. Cirrochroa thais thais Fabricius (The Tamil Yeoman) (Plate XIII, Fig. 149) Fabricius, Mantissa Ins. II: 64. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 262. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The TAMIL YEOMAN measuring mm in expanse is bright reddish yellow in colour with the apical and terminal margins of fore wing black. A transverse narrow black line at the apex of the cell, and beyond this, there are three obliquely directed black linear spots. The under side of the wings is dull greyish brown, suffused with purple, with a prominent, transverse white discal band across both wings. In the female, the black markings are broader and on the under side the ground colour is paler. In the dry seasosn form the ground colour on the upper side is paler. Seasonal forms are present. Distribution: It is reported from Coorg, Palnis, the Nilgiris, Wynad, Silent Valley and Cochin. Habits: It is commonly found in the evergreen regions upto 2286 m ASL. This species is generally found in the evergreen forests of Southern India and Sri Lanka. Mostly found during the months of February to May. It frequents damp patches of sand with the wings half closed. Its flight is rapid and fairly steady and powerful. Habits: Frequents damp places. Hosts: Larvae develop on Hydnocarpus wightiana. Status: Common. It is endemic to south India and Sri Lanka. 98

108 17. Vindula erota saloma Swinhoe (The Cruiser) (Plate XIII, Fig. 150) (=Cynthia erota) Vindula erota Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 3(1): 76. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 256. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CRUISER measures mm in expanse. The male is orange in colour with two wavy black lines on the outer margin. The female is greenish brown with a prominent, white discal band. In both sexes, the fore wing is produced and the hind wing is tailed. The Dry Season Form is lightly marked while the Wet Season Form is heavily marked. Seasonal forms present. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Sikkim to Assam and the Western Ghats (Nilgiris, Palnis, the Nadgani Ghat and Silent Valley). Habits: It is mostly found below 2134 m ASL in evergreen forests. A fast flying butterfly found in the canopy. Frequents animal excreta or dead invertebrate organisms. Hosts: Larvae develop on Passiflorae. Adenia hondala, Passiflora edulis and Passiflora subpeltata are some of the recorded host plants. Status: Rare. 18. Argyreus hyperbius hybrida Evans (The Indian Fritillary) (Plate XIII, Fig. 151) =Argynnis hyperbius,?linnaeus, Amoen. Acad. 6:408. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 274. () Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The INDIAN FRITILLARY measuring mm expanse is bright tawny above with transverse lines of black spots. Under side of hind wing outwardly light brown or greenish brown and inwardly dark green. The discal silver stripe is irregular and more or less broken into separate spots. Black-edged silver markings are present on the inner area. Apex of front wing is bluish on the upper side and white banded. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Malaysia; Sumatra; India: south India (Nilgiris, Trichinopoly, Pachmarhi hills) and Mount Abu. Habits: Prefers moist grasslands and clearings in sholas. Migratory. Hosts: Impatiens sp. Status: Common. 19. Cethosia nietneri mahratta Felder (The Tamil Lacewing) (Plate XIII, Fig. 152) C. nietneri Felder, Reise----der fregatte Novara 3:

109 D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 268. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The TAMIL LACEWING measures mm in expanse. Large and brightly coloured butterflies with deeply frilled hind wings and with black border on the upper side of both wings which bears a prominent series of white V-shaped lunules corresponding to the indentations on the margins. Male dusky white having a brown tinge at the base. In the female, markings are greenish white. It resembles Danaus genutia in appearance. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India (The Western Ghats). Habits: It is found in dense forests with heavy rainfall. It is most abundant during wet weather. When handled, it feigns death. Host: It develops on plants belonging to Passiflorae. Adenia hondala, Passiflora edulis and P. subpeltata are some of the recorded host plants. Status: Common, endemic to Sri Lanka and S. India. 20. Junonia hierta Fabricius (The Yellow Pansy) (Plate XIII, Fig. 153) =Precis hierta Fabricius, Ent. Syst. (Suppl.):424. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 278. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The YELLOW PANSY measures mm in expanse. The male is bright yellow with the costa and termen narrowly bordered with black. Post-discal ocelli in the interspaces of veins 2 and 5 are conspicuous in the female but often absent or faintly marked in the male. The upper side of the hind wing is yellow with the base, apex and costal areas broadly black and having a large prominent oval, bright blue patch in the centre. On the under side, the fore wing is pale yellow with its cell traversed by a fine black line and the under side of the hind wing is greyish. In the female, the colours are, on the whole, dull on the upper side, but tinged with brown on the under side. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Widely distributed. From the Western Ghats, it has been recorded from Nilgiris, Mukkali, Silent Valley, Peechi, Sholayar, Nelliyampathy, Nilambur and Parambikulam. Habits: It is a very common at low elevations in the hills and on the plains. They frequent hot and sunny places along river beds and agricultural lands actively visiting flowers. Rare in forests and at higher elevations, migratory. Hosts: Hygrophila auriculata and Barleria spp. Status: Very common. 100

110 21. Junonia orithya swinhoei Butler (The Blue Pansy) (Plate XIII, Fig. 154) (=J. orithya Linnaeus, Mus. Lud. Ulr.: 278). D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 278. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BLUE PANCY measuring mm in expanse is black in the basal two thirds of fore wing, apex pale brown with white bands and outer discal area below apex shining blue. Variegated ocelli present in 2 and 5 which is more prominent in the female. The whole basal area of upper side of hind wing is black. Distribution: Afrotropical, Oriental, Australian and Palaearctic. Common in the Nilgiris. Habits: Common on the plains and at various altitudes. Prefers arid locations, migratory. Hosts: Hygrophila auriculata, Lepidagathis prostrata, L. keralensis, Justicia neesii and J. procumbens. Status: Very common. 22. Junonia lemonias Linnaeus (The Lemon Pansy) (Plate XIII, Fig. 155) (=Precis lemonias Linnaeus, Mus. Lud. Ulr.: 277). D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 277. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LEMON PANSY measures mm in expanse. It is dark brown in colour. On the fore wing, the cell is traversed by four short, black undulating lines and yellowish-white discal and post discal spots. A large, blue-centred, yellow-ringed black ocellus present in interspace 2 and a small, brown ocellus in interspace 5. The hind wing is paler brown with a large ocellus in interspace 5. Seasonal forms present. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Whole of India including the Himalayas, Assam and Bengal. Recorded from the Nilgiris, Mukkali, Silent Valley, Peechi, Sholayar, Nelliyampathy, Nilambur and Parambikulam. Habits: It is commonly found in forest habitats up to an altitude of 2438 m ASL. It is migratory. Hosts: Corchorus capsularis, Hygrophila auriculata, Sida rhombifolia, Cannabis sativa, Barleria spp. and Nelsonia canescens. Status: Very common. 23. Junonia almana almana Linnaeus (The Peacock Pansy) (Plate XIII, Fig. 156) (=Precis almanac Linnaeus, Mus. Lud. Ulr.: 272. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II:

111 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PEACOCK PANSY measuring mm in expanse is orange-yellow in colour. The cell and the costal area of the fore wing are crossed by four short dark bands on the upper side. Ocelli are present at vein 2 and 5. The termen is oblique with subterminal and terminal dark brown lines. A very large pale yellow ocellus is present on the hind wing. The hind wing bears a distinct, tail-like protruberence at the tornus. The under side is pale yellowish, leaf-like in appearance and with markings which are highly variable. The body is brownish above and yellowish beneath. In the wet season form, the under side of the wings is prominently ocellated and not leaf-like and the hind wing is not tailed as in the dry season form. Distribution: The range covers most of the Oriental region. It has been collected from the Nilgiris, Mukkali, Vazhachal and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is most common on the plains and in forest upto an altitude of 4000 and rarely up to 2286 m ASL. The Dry Season Form harmonises very well with its surroundings when it settles among dry, fallen leaves with the under side of the wings exposed. Hosts: Larvae feed on Mimosa pudica, Hygrophila auriculata, Phyla nodiflora, Barleria sp., Acanthus sp. and Gloxinia sp. Status: Very common. 24. Junonia atlites atlites Linnaeus (The Grey Pansy) (Plate XIV, Fig. 157) (=Precis atlites Linnaeus, Mus. Lud. Ulr.: 273. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 278. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The GREY PANSY measuring mm in expanse is pale grey in colour with greyish brown markings. On the fore wing there are transverse undulating lines on the cell, a discal band and a large ocellus at vein 2. The hind wing is also more or less similarly marked, with a post-discal series of five ocelli. The under side is paler, with faint markings. The body is grey above and white below. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; Wetter parts of the Central and Peninsular India. It has been recorded from the Nadgani Ghat, Kallar and Silent Valley. Habits: It occurs at low elevations in areas of heavy rainfall, rarely seen in dry areas. Hosts: Hygrophila auriculata and Barleria spp. Status: Rare. 25. Junonia iphita pluvialis Fruhstorfer (The Chocolate Pansy) (Plate XIV, Fig. 158) (=Precis iphita) 102

112 D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 279. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CHOCOLATE PANSY measuring mm in expanse is brown above with obscure brown bands, somewhat leaf-like below. Fore wing with or without minute ocelli, apex of fore wing slightly produced and termen concave. Hind wing with an obscure row of small ocelli; tornus slightly produced. Distribution: Oriental region: Sri Lanka; Maldive Isles; South India. Habits: Found at low and medium elevations, visiting flowers and damp patches. Migratory. Hosts: Hygrophila auriculata, Carvia callosa and Justicia neesii. Status: Common. 26. Vanessa cardui Linnaeus (The Painted Lady) (Plate XIV, Fig. 159) Linnaeus, Faun. Suec D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 276. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PAINTED LADY measuring mm in expanse. It is pinkish red above with black markings. Distribution: World wide. At various elevations in the Nilgiris, Mettupalayam and in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary. Habits: Migrant, swarms occur in India and elsewhere, especially in North Africa from where, they migrate northwards over Europe, as far as the British Isles and Russia inside the Artctic Circle. Hosts: A wide variety of hosts including Artemissia spp., Blumea spp. and Debregeasia bicolor. Status: Common. 27. Vanessa indica pholoe Fruhstorfer (The Indian red Admiral) (Plate XIV, Fig. 160) V. indica Herbst, Natursyst. Aust. Schmett. 7, pl D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 276. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The INDIAN RED ADMIRAL measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above with a red central band. Fore wing divided on the inside by large black spots. Hind wing with black spotted red terminal band. 103

113 Distribution: Sri Lanka; Japan; China; India: Himalayas, south India (Nilgiris, Coorg). It shows palaeracrtic affinities. Habits: Found along forest edges at about m ASL. Larva lives singly in little tents spun from the leaves of nettles. Hosts: Girardinia diversifolia and Urtica spp. Status: Common. 28. Kaniska canace viridis Evans (The Blue Admiral) (Plate XIV, Fig. 161) (=Vanessa canace (Johanssen)) Kaniska canace Linnaeus, Amoen. Acad. 6: 406. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 276. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BLUE ADMIRAL measures mm in expanse. It is dark indigo-blue with the upper side of both the wings bearing a broad, pale blue post-discal band and an undulating black line on the terminal border. A short, oblique, blue bar beyond the apex of the cell in the fore wing. In the female, the post-discal band is broader than in the male. The under side is brownish black with the basal half very dark and borderd by a wavy black line and the terminal areas paler. On the body, antennae and abdomen are black while the head and the thorax dark blue. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Himalayas, Assam, Sikkim, hills of North East India and southern India (Coorg and Silent Valley). Habits: Frequently found along forest edges and in forest clearings above 1219 m ASL. Usually they are found near streams and rivulets and settle on damp patches of ground or on rocks with the wings half closed. Males exhibit territorial behaviour and chase intruders. They are also attracted to sap of trees and ripe fruits. Hosts: Larvae develop on Smilax and Dioscorea. Status: Common. 29. Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus (The Common or Danaid Eggfly) (Plate XIV, Fig. 162) Linnaeus, Mus. Lud. Ulr.: 264. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 284. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON or DANAID EGGFLY measures mm in expanse and exhibits sexual dimorphism. The male is black above with an oval, white discal patch. Under side of hind wing has a prominent black costal spot at vein 7. The female mimics the plain 104

114 tiger, Danaus chrysippus from which it can be recognized by the wavy hind wing margin and the hind wing costal spot on middle of vein 7 instead of 3 or 4 discal spots in D. chrysippus. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India. It has been reported from the Nilgiris, Silent Valley, Nilambur, Parambikulam and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is usually found during the rainy season. It flies keeping close to the ground. The males are reported to be attracted to Cypress trees. Hosts: Portulaca oleracea, Abutilon sp., Abelmoschus sp., Asystasia lawiana, Barleria cristata and Hibiscus spp. Status: Common. Protected under Schedule 1 of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act, Hyplolimnas bolina jacintha Drury (The Great Eggfly) (Plate XIV, Fig. 163) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The GREAT EGGFLY measures mm in expanse. It exhibits sexual dimorphism. The male is black with an oval, iridescent, blue discal patch on the fore wing. Upper side of the hind wing has a large, oval, iridescent blue patch and a series of minute white dots beyond the discal area. The under side is brown with no prominent black costal spot but with several white spots. The under side of the hind wing bears a fairly broad white discal band and a post-discal series of minute white spots. The female is dark brown becoming pale brown towards the outer margin with a discal row of small pale yellow or white spots on both wings. On the upper side of the fore wing there are a few bright blue spots along the upper margin of the cell and on the costal margin beides a post-discal series of white spots, markings and streaks. A post-discal series of white spots, marks and streaks are present on the uperside of the hind wing. The under side is dull brown. The fore wing has three greyish spots in the cell and a white discal band. The female mimics the crow butterfly, Euploea core, but may be readily distinguished from the latter by the broader wings and the concave termen of the fore wing and the scallopped margin of the hind wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Malayan subregion; Australia; India. It has been recorded from the Nilgiris, Silent Valley, Sholayar, Parambikulam, Nelliyampathy, Nilambur and New Amarambalam. Habits: Wet forests upto an elevation of 1524 m ASL. Generally common during the monsoon. The female flies more slowly and is generally found close to the ground among bushes. Hosts: Larvae develop on Urticaceae. Recorded host plants include Laportea interrupta, Portulaca oleracea and Sida rhombifolia. Status: Very common. 105

115 31. Doleschallia bisaltide malabarica Fruhstorfer (The Autumn Leaf) (Plate XIV, Fig. 164) Doleschallia bisaltide Cramer, Papillons. Exot. 1(9):9 pl D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 286. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The AUTUMN LEAF measuring mm in expanse resembles the Oakleaf butterflies, Kallima except that the fore wing is not so produced at the apex nor hind wing at tornus. Above, tawny with broad black apex bearing a tawny band. Below, leaf-like often with silvery spots. Ocelli in 2 and 5 of hind wing. Distribution: Oriental region excluding south eastern China and Taiwan. Recorded from Nadgani, Palnis and Thenmala. Habis: Wet evergreen forests at low elevations. Hosts: Acanthaceae plants. Status: Rare. 32. Kallima horsfieldi Kollar (The South Indian Blue Oakleaf) (Plate XIV, Fig. 165) Kollar, In: Hugel, Kaschmir, Reich der Siek 4:434. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 286. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SOUTH INDIAN BLUE OAK LEAF measures mm in expanse. Above, dark greenish with pale blue discal band. Apex of fore wing broad, black and with dark bars. Under side leaf-like and while resting it apperas perfectly as a leaf. Seasonal forms present. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: south India (Nilgiris, Wynad). Habits: Found in dense forests at low or moderate elevations in regions of high rainfall. The flight is rapid and erratic. Often settle on sap exuding from trees, toddy or on over ripe fruits, especially mango and jak. Frequents damp places. Hosts: Larvae develop on Carvia callosa, Strobilanthes callosus and Lepidagathis cuspidate. Status: Rare, endemic to the Western Ghats. 33. Cyrestis thyodamas indica Evans (The Map Butterfly) (Plate XIV, Fig. 166) Cyrestis thyodamas Boisduval, in Cuvier, Reg. anim. Ins. 2: pl.138. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 286. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

116 Description: The MAP BUTTERFLY measures mm in expanse. The wings are of irregular outline, white. The upper side of both wings are traversed by fine, black lines resembling a map. Besides spots, lines and bands, greyish brown markings are present at the base, apex, terminal border and costal area of the fore wing. The hind wing is lobed at tornus and bears a bluish grey post-discal band, lines and marks. It also bears a tail at vein 4.The females are larger and more yellowish. The larva is characterised by a pair of fleshy processes each on segments 6 and 12 and 2 horns on the head. Distribution: Continental India (except in the drier areas) extending east to China and Japan. Recorded from Nilgiris, Palnis, Coorg, Wynad, the Nadgani Ghat, Silent Valley, Parambikulam, Sholayar, Nelliyampathy, New Amarambalam and Travancore. Habits: It is found in wet forests up to 2438 m ASL. The flight is weak and irregular. Frequents damp patches and flowers and basks in the sun. It rests, with its wings pressed flat against the under surface of leaves. Hosts: Larva feeds on the Banyan (Ficus bengalensis) and the Peepal (F. Religiosa). Status: Rare. 34. Neptis jumbah jumbah Moore (The Chestnut Streaked Sailor) (Plate XIV, Fig. 167) Moore, Cat. Lep. Ins. East Ind. Coy: 167. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 304. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CHESTNUT STREAKED SAILOR maesuring mm in expanse is a dark brown butterfly with white oval spots and a fringe of small spots along the wing margin. The row of white spots on the upper side of hind wing absent or reduced to an almost continuous line of narrow white spots. Under side of hind wing with prominent discal row of large dark chestnut spots and dark spot in cell near base. Under side of fore wing with prominent dark chestnut streaks beyond cell. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Peninsular India. Habits: Limited to low level mixed deciduous and evergreen forests. Hosts: Moullava spicata, Xylia xylocarpa, Thespesia populnea, Pongamia pinnata, Bombax ceiba, Bytteneria sp., Dalbergia sp., Elaeocarpus sp., Grewia sp., Hibiscus sp., Ziziphus sp. Status: Common. 35. Neptis hylas varmona Moore (The Common Sailor) (Plate XIV, Fig. 168) Neptis hylas Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. 10: 486. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 307. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

117 Description: The COMMON SAILOR measuring mm in expanse is found almost everywhere in gardens, homesteads and forests. Seasonal forms are present. In the dry season form, the upper side is black with white markings. The fore wing has a wide streak and a triangular white spot beyond the apex of the cell besides discal and post-discal series of white spots. The hind wing bears a prominent, white, sub-basal band and post-discal series of white spots. The under side varies in shade but usually it is golden brown with the white markings sharply edged with black lines. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are black above. The body is light brown. In the wet season form the white markings are narrower with broader black margins. Distribution: Oriental region. In India, it is reported to be abundant in Assam although it is reported to be rare in the Nilgiris (Satyamurti, 1994). Recorded from Mukkali, Silent Valley, Nilambur, New Amarambalam, Parambikulam, Sholayar and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It flies by flapping the wings and then gliding. Frequent visitor to flowers and occasionally comes to water. Hosts: Larvae develop on plants belonging to the families Leguminosae, Tiliaceae, Malvaceae, Sterculiaceae and Oleaceae. Xylia xylocarpa, Bombax ceiba, Helicteres isora, Mucuna pruriens, Nothapodytes nimmomiana, Vigna cylindrica, V. ungulata, Canavalia gladiata, Paracalyx scariosa, Corchorus sp., Grewia sp., Flemingia sp. and Lathyrus sp. are some of the recorded host plants. Status: Very common. 36. Neptis clinia kallaura Moore (The Sullied Sailor) (Plate XV, Fig. 169) Neptis clinia, Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.: 563). D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 309. Description: The SULLIED SAILOR measuring mm in expanse is brownish with markings resembling N. soma. Very dark below with markings not black-edged. Cell streak and spot on the under side of fore winge are joined. Spots forming outer discal band of hind wing upper side are widely separated while in soma these spots are conjoined. Distribution: Nepal; China; Sundaland; India: south India: Travencore and Coorg. Status: Extremely rare. 37. Neptis nata hampsoni Moore (The Clear Sailor) (Plate XV, Fig. 170) (=Neptis nandina) Neptis nata Moore, Cat. Lep. Ins. Mus. East India Coy: 168. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 310. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

118 Description: The CLEAR SAILOR measuring mm in expanse is brownish with markings below not black-edged. The under side is dark brownish with two pale marginal lines under the hind wing. Distribution: Oriental region east of Sikkim; India: Madhya Pradesh, south India (Nilgiris, Kotagiri, Runnymede, Longwood Shola and Nadgani Ghat). Habits: Confined to the evergreen forests, plateaus and sholas. It tends to fly higher compared to the Common Sailor. Status: Extremely rare. 38. Neptis soma palnica Eliot (The Sullied Sailor) (Plate XV, Fig. 171) Neptis soma Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1858: 9. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 311. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SULLIED SAILOR measuring mm in expanse. It is black with white markings. In the fore wing, the cell bears a narrow white streak and a triangular spot. Discal and post-discal series of spots are present. Hind wing has a sub-basal white band and postdiscal white spots. The under side is chocolate brown with faint markings indicating those on the upper side and the female with an additional terminal white band. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are black above and the body is light brownish beneath. Distribution: Indo-China; Malaysia; India: Himalayas, south India(Nilgiris, Nadgani). Habits: Usually found in wet forests at low elevations. Flies high and commonly seen during the rains. Status: Rare. 39. Neptis (=Lasippa) viraja kanara Evans (The Yellow Jack Sailor) (Plate XV, Fig. 172) Lasippa viraja Moore, Proc. Zool. Lond. 1872:563. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 303. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The YELLOW JACK SAILOR measuring mm in expanse has pale greyish bands of a violet tint is similar to Pantoporia hordonia in appearance although it is twice as large. Pale greyish bands streaked with violent present below. Distribution: Myanmar; Thailand; India: Andamans, Orissa, Kumaon and south India (Nilgiris and Nadgani Ghat). Habits: Fond of sunlight, confined to damp hilly areas between 602 to 2438 m ASL. Status: Rare. 109

119 40. Neptis (= Phaedyma) columella nilgirica Moore (The Short Banded Sailor) (Plate XV, Fig. 173) (=Phaedyma columella) Cramer, Papillons Exot. 3: 15. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 317. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: Ground colour of the SHORT BANDED SAILOR measuring mm in expanse is dark brown with three white bands. Under side of hind wing with a prominent discal band consisting of separate white spots, a narrow short white streak at the base, another brown streak outside it and a pale brown streak running across the base of the cell. Finely streaked below with brown. The wings are rather narrow and produced. Distribution: Indian Peninsula: south India (at low altitudes in Mettupalayam Ghat). Habits: Fond of sunlight, confined to damp hilly areas between 602 to 2438 m ASL. Status: Rare. 41. Pantoporia hordonia hordonia Stoll (Common Lascar) (Plate XV, Fig. 174) (=Neptis hordonia)stoll, Aanhangs. Werk Uitl. Kapell. Picter Cramer: 149. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 300. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 196.The Description: Ground colour of the COMMON LASCAR it is dark brown with three white bands. Finely streaked below with brown. The wings are rather narrow and produced. Distribution: Throughout the Oriental region. Sri Lanka; Indo China; Malaysia; Singapore; North eastern India, south India. Habits: Frequently found in areas with Acacia horrida. Occasionally visits damp places. Hosts: Acacia instia and Albizia odoratissima. Status: Common. 42. Athyma nefte inara Doubleday (The Colour Sergeant) (Plate XV, Fig. 175) (=Pantopria nefte) Athyma nefte, Cramer, Papillons exot. 3: pl. 256 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COLOUR SERGEANT measuring mm in expanse is yellow in appearance. It exhibits sexual dimorphism. The male is black with a white band and a few orange markings, while the female is dark brown with a series of deep orange bands. Distribution: Nepal to Assam and southern India. Recorded from Nadgani Ghat, Mettupalayam Ghat, Mukkali and Silent Valley in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. 110

120 Habits: Frequents low land evergreen forests. Hosts: Glochidion sp. (Euphorbiaceae) Status: Rare. 43. Athyma selenophora kanara Evans (The Staff Sergeant) (Plate XV, Fig. 176) (=Pantoporia selenophora) Athyma selenophora Kollar, in Hugel, Kaschmir Reich der Siek 4(2):426. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 322. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The STAFF SERGEANT measuring mm in expanse is dark brown with white bands, with a prominent spot on the upper side of fore wing. It exhibits sexual dimorphism. The female is white. Distribution: India: Sikkim, Bhutan, southern India (Biligiriranga Mountains above Honametti Estate, Longwood shola near Kotagiri and Kodanad). Habits: Frequents low land evergreen forests. Hosts: Adina cordifolia (Rubiaceae). Status: Rare. 44. Athyma ranga karwara Fruhstorfer (The Blackvein Sergeant) (Plate XV, Fig. 177) (=Pantoporia ranga) Athyma ranga Moore, Cat. Lep. Ins. Mus. East India Coy. :1: 175 D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 321. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BLACK VEIN SERGEANT measures mm in expanse having white markings above as well as black veins and spots at veins 2 and 3. The white markings below are broad. In the male, the outer discal band is pale or absent and in the female it is broad and whitish. Abdomen is white dotted. Distribution: Myanmar; Nepal; Indo-China; Malaysia; India: Sikkim to Assam, the Western Ghats as far north as North Kanara. Recorded from Palnis, Coorg, Nilgiris, Nadgani Ghat and Wynad. Habits: It is confined to the evergreen areas up to an elevation of 1524 m ASL. Usually found near streams or in forest clearings. Hosts: Larvae develop on Chionanthes mala elengi, Olea dioica and Linociera malabarica. 111

121 Status: Rare. 45. Athyma perius perius Linnaeus (The Common Sergeant) (Plate XV, Fig. 178) (=Pantoporia perius) Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. X: 471. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 319. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON SERGEANT measures mm in expanse. The upper side is black in the male and dark brown in the female with white markings. The fore wing bears a cell streak, a large double spot, a discal band, a post-discal series of transverse spots, and a subterminal row of faintly marked lunules on the upper side of the fore wing. In the hind wing, there is a broad, discal band and a post-discal series of spots. The under side is bright yellow with white markings as on the upper side, but heavily bordered with black. Distribution: Oriental region excluding Sri Lanka, Borneo, and Sulawezi. It has been reported from several locations in the Nilgiris viz., Devala, Kallar, Ketti and Kotagiri as well as from Nadgani. Habits: Confined mostly to low elevations. Its flight is strong, usually keeping close to the ground. Frequents flowers and damp places. Hosts: Glochidion sp. (Euphorbiaceae). Status: Common. 46. Moduza procris undifragus Fruhstorfer (The Commander) (Plate XV, Fig. 179) (=Limenitis procris) Moduza procris Cramer, Papillons. Exot. 2(9):15. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 330. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMANDER measuring mm in expanse. It is reddish brown in colour with prominent white discal bands on both wings. The fore wing has two wavy lines on the terminal border and the hind wing has two rows of marginal spots. Distribution: Oriental region: Sri Lanka and Peninsular India. It has been reported from the Nilgiris, the Nadgani Ghat, Silent Valley, Parambikulam, Sholayar, Nilambur and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is a slow flying butterfly found in openings in forest areas with moderate to heavy rainfall, both in low elevation as well as upto 1219 m ASL. Hosts: Mussaenda frondosa, Wendlandia exserta, W. notoniana, Sarcocephalus missionis and Stephegyne parviflora. Status: Very common. 112

122 47. Parthenos sylvia virens Moore (The Clipper) (Plate XV, Fig. 180) Parthenos sylvia Cramer, Papillons. Exot. 1(4):68. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 336. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CLIPPER measuring mm in expanse is bright green in ground colour. The fore wing has back streaks from the base, and very large, semi-transparent, white discal spots as well as post-discal and terminal black bands. The hind wing has basal and subbasal black streaks, transverse series of black spots, subcostal white spots and discal blackish streaks. The under side is pale bluish green, without the black streaks from the base of the wings, but with the other markings as on the upper side. The antennae are black and the head, thorax and abdomen are green with black bars above and whitish below. The race virens is confined to south India. Distribution: Oriental region: Sri Lnaka: India: Eastern Ghats, Mussoorie and south India (Kallar, Silent Valley and the Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is confined to dense forests with plenty of rainfall at elevations between 301 and 914 m ASL. Its flight is very strong and powerful and often glides for short distances. It is frequently found at tree tops. Host: Larvae feed on Adenia hondala, Tinospora cordifolia and Modecca sp. (Passifloraceae). Status: Rare. 48. Tanaecia lepidea miyana Fruhstorfer (The Grey Count) (Plate XVI, Fig. 181) (=Euthalia lepidea) Tanaecia lepidea Butler, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (4)1: 71. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 345. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The GREY COUNT measuring mm in expanse is dark brown with obscure black transverse markings across the cells of both the wings. The termen of the fore wing falcated below the apex which is produced and the termen of the hind wing are straight, but slightly angled at vein 3. In the male, the under side of the fore wing is yellowish brown and the hind wing is pale. In the female, the fore wing is bright yellow, and the hind wing pale yellow. The under side of both the wings are traversed by discal and post-discal dark coloured bands. Distribution: Malaysia; India: the Eastern Ghats, central India, Kumaon and south India (Nilgiris, Kanara, Mysore, Travancore, the Nadgani Ghat and Silent Valley). Habits: It is generally found in wet forests in clearings and along paths. It generally basks in the sun with the wings held flat. They are attracted to fruit and tree sap. 113

123 Hosts: Larvae develop on Careya arborea and Melastoma malabathricum. Status: Rare in south India although fairly common in north India. 49. Euthalia telchinia Menetries, 1857 (The Blue Baron) (Plate XVI, Fig. 182) Enum., Corp. Anim. Mus. Imp. Acad. Sci. Petrop. (2): 120. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 365. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BLUE BARON measuring mm in expanse is brown above and dull brown below. Hind wing is evenly rounded and not produced at tornus. Outer margin of hind wing with a prominent, broad bluish border. Ditribution: Northern Myanmar; India: Bhutan and south India (Coorg, Gersoppa Ghat in Kanara, Wynad, Sikkim, Assam). Habits: Swampy forest areas upto 914 m ASL. Status: Rare. 50. Euthalia lubentina arasada Fruhstorfer (The Gaudy Baron) (Plate XVI, Fig. 183) Euthalia lubentina Cramer, Papillons Exot. 2. p 155. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 354. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The GAUDY BARON measuring mm in expanse is greenish with red and black spots on hind wing. Fore wing with a Y- shaped band of white spots. Upper side of fore wing of the female with a white discal band of irregular spots. Distribution: Malaysia; Sri Lanka; India: Nilgiris and the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: It is a widely distributed species found in the wet evergreen and moist deciduous forests. Flies at canopy level and settle on tree tops. Visits damp places and are attracted to fruits and sappy exudation. It is migratory and occurs at low elevations although it has been reported at 3048 m ASL in Mussoorie. Host: Loranthus. Status: Common. 51. Euthalia (=Dolpha) evalina laudabilis Swinhoe (The Red Spot Duke) (Plate XVI, Fig. 184) D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 348. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

124 Description: The RED SPOT DUKE measuring mm in expanse is dark green above with irregular red spot in cell of fore wing. The apex of front wing is produced and termen is falcate below it. The race evalina is dark in male and the female is paler, olive green. In laudabilis, the male is shining green and the female is paler. The Sri Lankan and South Indian populations are disjunct. Distribution: Oriental region. Present in south and central India. Habits: Found in thick evergreen forests at low and medium heights upto 914 m ASL. Visits, damp areas feeding sap of trees, rotting fruits etc. Hosts: Anacardium occidentale and Diospyros melanoxylon (Ebony). Status: Rare. 52. Symphaedra nais Forster (Red Baron) (Plate XVI, Fig. 185) (=Euthalia nais) Forster, Nov. spec. Ins. 1:73. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 336. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE RED BARON measuring mm in expanse is brick red in ground colour resembling Junonia.Termen black. Narrow black outer discal line, broken into small spots on hind wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Dehra Dun to Sikkim; south India (Kallar, Kotagiri and Konkan). Habits: Prefers deciduous forests and bamboo-breaks in drier areas below 914 m ASL. Fond of sun shine. Visits rotting fruits and damp areas. Hosts: Ebony (Diospyros melanoxylon) and Sal (Shorea robusta). Larva resembles that of Euthalia in having long filaments on each segment lying flat against the leaf. Status: Rare. 53. Rohana parisatis atacinus Fruhstorfer (The Black Prince) (Plate XVI, Fig. 186) (=Apatura parisatis) Rohana parisatis Westwood, Gen. di. Lep. (2): 306. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 370. Description: The BLACK PRINCE measuring mm in expanse resembles Ariadne. Male is velvet black above, unmarked except for the white apical dots. Female ochreous brown with pale, irregular, discal band on the hind wing. 115

125 Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Southern India: Western Ghats, Nilgiris, Palnis and Travancore. Habits: Fond of sunshine. Confined to evergreen forest between 602 to 1828 m ASL. Female less active and settles among undergrowth while the male is active and flies rapidly. Hosts: Celtis tetrandra and C. lycodoxylon (Urticaceae) Status: Common. 54. Euripus consimilis meridionalis Wood-Mason (The Painted Courtesan) (Plate XVI, Fig. 187) Euripus consimilis Doubleday?1850. Gen.di. Lep.281. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 381. Description: THE PAINTED COURTESAN measuring mm in expanse is cream coloured with black veins. Both wings with black discal and marginal bands and small white dots in pairs on termen. Hind wing with red marginal spots at veins 1 to 3. Distribution: Southern India. Recorded from Kallar, Nilgiris, Glenburn and Nadgani in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Habits: Tropical and sub tropical evergreen forests at low elevations. Hosts: Larvae develop on Trema orientalis (Utricaceae). Status: Rare. 55. Polyura agraria agraria Swinhoe (The Anomalous Common Nawab) (Plate XVI, Fig. 188) Swinhoe, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 1886: 421. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 386. Description: Above dark brown with a broad pale discal band across both wings. Distribution: Oriental region. Recorded from Kallar and Nilgiris in southern India. Status: Rare. 56. Polyura schreiber wardii Moore (The Blue Nawab) (Plate XVI, Fig. 189) (=Eriboea schreiberi) Polyura schreiber Godart, Ency. Methodique 1824: 852. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 384. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

126 Description: The BLUE NAWAB measuring mm in expanse is dark brown with a broadly blue edged, white discal band. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Assam, southern India: north Kanara, Coorg, the Nilgiris, the Nadgani Ghat, Sholayar and Travancore. Habits: It is a very rare butterfly found in wet forests of the Western Ghats. Flight is powerful, flying and resting on tree tops. Visits droppings of animals (monkeys). Hosts: Rourea sanataloides (Connaraceae) and Wagatea spicata (Leguminosae). Status: Extremely rare. 57. Eriboea athamas Drury (The Common Nawab) (Plate XVI, Fig. 190) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE COMMON NAWAB measures 60-75mm. In both male and female, the discal band is pale yellow, the width is varying. Distribution: Himalaya, Kulu, Mhow, Madhya Pradesh and North Kanara. Habits: Fast flying butterfly, generally found to bask on tree tops. Frequently settle in damp areas. Status: Rare. 58. Charaxes bernardus imna Butler (The Tawny Rajah) (Plate XVI, Fig. 191) (=Charaxes polyxena) Charaxes bernardus Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 3(1): p? D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 398. Description: The TAWNY RAJAH measures mm in expanse. It is yellowish, with the upper side of hind wing having a narrow, black border. Fore wing with broad, white discal band. Single tail in female and double in the male. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar and India: Mysore, the Nilgiris, Wynad and the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: Swift flying species usually found on the canopy of wet evergreen forests. Attracted to decaying fruits. Hosts: Larvae develop on Saccopetalum tomentosum, Miliusa tomentosa, Aglaia elaegnoidea, Aglaia roxburghiana and Tamarindus indica (Leguminosae). Status: Extremely rare. 117

127 59. Charaxes solon solon Fabricius (The Black Rajah) (Plate XVI, Fig. 192) (=Charaxes fabius) Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 3(1): 69. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 400. Description: The BLACK RAJAH measuring mm in expanse is dark brown with yellowish green or whitish discal bands across both wings. Hind wings with tails at veins 2 and 4. The tails are longer in the females, but sharper in the males. On the under side, the ground colour is dark grey, with the basal area of both the wings crossed by transverse black lines. The cell of the fore wing has three black spots, a white discal band and a series of dark yellow subterminal spots. Distribution: Oriental region: Sri Lanka; India: Nilgiris and Bangalore. Habits: It is a widely distributed species found both in hills and plains. Its distribution is reported to be dependant on the occurrence of its host plant Tamarind. They are protectively coloured and are commonly found at low evelations. It is attracted to ripe fruits and sap from palms or dung. Also visit damp places. It flies very fast and generally settles on the top of tall trees. Hosts: Larvae develop on Tamarindus indicus and Moullava spicata. Status: Extremely rare. 118

128 3.6. Family Acraeidae These butterflies resembling danaids in habits and general appearance are characterised by tawny or yellowish wings which are sparsely scaled. The eggs are dome-shaped and longitudinally ribbed. The caterpillars possess branched spines and possess an unpleasant odour. Adult and immature stages are avoided by predators. Only two species have been reported from India of which only one species have been recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere area as discussed below. 1. Acraea (=violae) terpsicore Linnaeus (The Tawny Coster) (Plate XVII, Fig. 193) (=Telchinia violae) Acraea violae Fabricius, Ent. Syst.: 460. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 406. Description: The TAWNY COSTER measuring mm in expanse is brick red above with narrow, dark termen in the fore wing. Termen of the upper side of hind wing is black with spots. Black spots on cell and disc of both wings. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar and India. Habits: It is common almost all the year round at low elevations in clearings and open country. Reported up to 2134 m ASL. Hosts: The larvae feed on Cucurbitaceae and Passifloraceae. Status: Very common. 119

129 3.7. Family Satyridae The family is very closely related to Nymphalidae, and considered by some authorities to be a subfamily. There are over 3,000 species reported from all over the world. These butterflies have a characteristically slow and erratic flight. Yet, some are capable of travelling long distances. The wing veining towards the thorax is swollen, which is a useful method of identification and the front pair of legs is reduced in size and are held up tight against the thorax. A characteristic wing marking is the eye-spots (Ocelli). Practically all carry some vestige of these and many are very clearly defined even forming chains. Many species keep away from strong sunlight and keep to woodlands and clearings; others stay hidden during the hottest part of the day and fly in the early morning or evening. They also survive successfully in colder region and at high altitudes. The larvae are usually smooth and plump, bearing hair. Majority are grass feeders. An account of 25 species of satyrid butterflies recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is given below. 1. Melanitis leda leda Drury (The Common Evening Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 195) Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 773. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 410. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON EVENING BROWN measuring mm in expanse is dark brown in colour. Fore wing with 2 parallel ocelli having orange inner borders. Hind wing with 3 ocelli. Seasonal forms present. In the wet season form, there is a large, black spot at vein 3 of fore wing and another smaller one on vein 4. Under side is greyish with striae and black lines. In the dry season form, the colour is brownish and the black spots have short yellow bar above them. Under side blotched or spotted with black. Distribution: Malayan Subregion; Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India, Assam, the Andamans and south India. From the Western Ghats, it has been reported from the Nilgiris, Peechi, Sholayar, Silent Valley, Nelliyampathy, Nilambur and Parambikulam. Habits: It is common on the hills up to an altitude of 1219 m ASL. It is also found near agricultural farms and in countrysides. Its flight is rather weak, and it keeps close to the ground, frequents both thick forest and open country and comes out more in the open sunshine than the other members of the genus. The wet season form is as a rule more heavily ornamented with markings. Hosts: Larvae develop on graminaceous plants. It is a minor pest of paddy, sorghum, wheat, grasses, bamboos etc. Status: very common. 2. Melanitis zitenius gokala Moore (The Great Evening Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 196) Herbst, Naturs. Bek, Schmett. 8:5. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 410. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

130 Description: The GREAT EVENING BROWN measuring mm in expanse has a general resemblance to the Common Evening Brown, but larger. The costa of the fore wing is more rounded, and the apical markings on the upper side of the fore wing are generally more luxuriant than in M. leda. The dry season form is pale brown below with a few black patches. Fore wing more prominently angled. In the wet season forms, the dark discal line is prominent and the ground color is reddish brown. Seasonal forms present. Distribution: South India (Coonoor Ghat, Kallar and the Nadgani Ghat) and from Kumaon to Indo-China. It is found only in dense forests up to 1219 m ASL. Habits: Found only in deep forests upto 1219 m ASL. Hosts: Graminaceae plants (?). Status: Extremely rare. 3. Melanitis phedima varaha Moore (The Dark Evening Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 197) Cramer, 1780, Papillons. Exot. IV: pl D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 412. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The DARK EVENING BROWN measuring mm in expanse is blackish brown in colour and without prominent marks. Seasonal forms present. In the wet season form, the upper side is blackish brown without markings. The termen of the fore wing is straight and not produced. The black sub-apical markings are either reduced or absent. The hind wing is uniformly dark brown, without ocelli and its margin bears a prominent tooth-like projection at vein 3 and streaked with pale purplish lines. The dry season form is distinguishable from the wet season form by the upper side of the fore wing being pale purplish towards the terminal margins. The general ground colour is dark above. On the under side, the general ground colour is darker and the ocelli are reduced to pale spots. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: the Himalayas, Kashmir to Sikkim, Assam, Naga Hills and South India. From the Western Ghats, it has been recorded from Kallar, Mukkali and the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: It is confined to dense, evergreen forests and is rarely found in low forests. This species closely resembles Melanitis zitenius in its habits, except that its flight is weaker and it keeps more to dense forests. This species can be readily distinguished from the latter by the ground colour of its upper side being much darker. Hosts: Graminae. Status: Rare. 121

131 4. Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Butler (The Common Palmfly) (Plate XVII, Fig. 198) Linnaeus, Amoen. Acad. 6: 407. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 475. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON PALMFLY measuring mm in expanse is brightly coloured. The male is blackish brown with a purple gloss. The upper side of the fore wing bears a bluish band and a series of bluish white spots along the margin. The hind wing has a broad chestnut border on the upper side. The female is reddish brown with the apex and margins tinged with dark brown and having white spots. Fore wing with a broad, white band below apex. Sexual dimorphism is very strong, the female mimicks Danaus genutia and D. chrysippus. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Peninsular India. It is rather scarce in the Nilgiris and it has been collected from Travancore to Mysore covering the Nadgani Ghat, Silent Valley, Sholayar and Nelliyampathy. Habits: It is the commonest and the most widely distributed palmflies. These are shadeloving butterflies found in cane and palm plantations. Its flight is weak and the male may be often seen sitting for long periods on palm trees with the wings closed. Hosts: Larvae develop on canes and palms. Cocos nucifera, Areca catechu, Arenga wightii, Calamus rotang and Phoenix sp. Status: Rare. 5. Lethe europa ragalva Fruhstorfer (The Bamboo Tree Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 199) Lethe europa Fabricius, Syst. Ent.: 55. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 416. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 92. Description: The BAMBOO TREE BROWN measuring mm in expanse is brown above. Hind wing caudate at vein 4. Ocelli on the under side of hind wing more or less disintegrated and no markings inside basal line (line that runs from the costa through mid cell towards dorsum). Fore wing with a chequered fringe. Female always with a continuous white band on the upper side of the fore wing. Under side of hind wing with no discal band. Male without brands. Distribution: Myanmar; India ; Madhya Pradesh, Assam and south India. Habits: Frequents damp areas, rotting fruits and fresh cowpats. Can by trapped in bait traps using rotting crabs. Hosts: Bamboos. 122

132 Status: Rare. 6. Lethe drypetis todara Moore (The Tamil Tree Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 200) L. todara Moore, Illustr. Exot. Butts. III: 76. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 418. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 93. Description: The TAMIL TREE BROWN measures mm in expanse. Under side of hind wing with discal band and with ocelli in 3, 4 and 5, all of which are equal in size. The male is dark brown. The hind wing bears a post-discal series of three or four black ocellar spots. The female is similar to the male but paler, with a broad, oblique white discal bar and two white pre-apical spots on the upper side of the fore wing. The markings on the under side are relatively more sharply defined than in the male. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Kashmir to Assam, Pachmarhi and south India (Kotagiri in the Nilgiris, Biligiriranga, Wynad, the Nadgani Ghat and Silent Valley. Habits: It is generally found both in plains and in moist-deciduous forests. It has been reported above 2134 m ASL in the Western Ghats. The flight is very erratic. Attracted to toddy, sugar or sappy exudations of trees and also reported to frequent animal (leopard) droppings. Hosts: Larvae develop on bamboo-breaks (Bambusa arundinacea) and also on grasses. The egg is laid singly on the under side of the leaf. Status: Common, endemic to Sri Lanka and South India. 7. Lethe rohria neelgheriensis Guerin-Meneville (The Common Tree Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 201) Lethe rohria Fb Mantissa Ins.: 45. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 418. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 93. Description: The COMMON TREE BROWN measures mm in expanse. The male is dark brown. The upper side of the fore wing has an apical and costal white spot. The under side of the fore wing has a broad and narrow discal band arranged in the form of a V. In the hind wing, the ocelli of the under side are seen as black spots and with ocelli in 3, 4 and some times 5 all elongated and distorted, the apical ocellus being much larger. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are brown. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Kashmir to Kumoan, Sikkim, Assam and south India (Nilgiris, Malabar and Silent Valley). Habits: It inhabits subtropical, evergreen and moist-deciduous forests. Hosts: Feeds on grasses. 123

133 Status: Rare. 8. Mycalesis anaxias anaxias Hewitson (The Whitebar Bush Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 202) Illust. Exot. Butts. III: 86. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 452. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 83. Description: The WHITE BAR BUSH BROWN measures mm in expanse. It is dark brown in colour with a sub apical white bar on the fore wing. No ocelli. Male with a black brand each on the upper side of fore and hind wings. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Sikkim to Assam and south India (Coorg, Coonoor, the Nadgani Ghat, and Silent Valley). Habits: It is confined to the wet evergreen forests up to 1829 m ASL. Flies low, close to ground. Status: Common. 9. Mycalesis perseus typhlus Fruhstorfer (The Common Bush Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 203) Mycalesis perseus Fabricius, Syst. Ent.: 488. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 458. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 85. Description: The COMMON BUSH BROWN measuring mm in expanse is brownish in colour. Upper side of fore wing with an ocellus in vein 2 which is not ringed. The male can be recognised by a very small, black brand on the under side of fore wing tornus. Under side of hind wing with an eye-spot in space 3, which is usually out of line with the other tornal eye-spots. Seasonal forms present. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Malaysia; India. From the NBR, it has been recorded from the Nilgiris, Nadgani and Silent Valley. Habits: It is found in wet, dense forests. Usually keeps to low elevations although it may ascend to 914 or 1219 m ASL. Usually found in shady places. It is a weak flier. Attracted to sugar and rotting fruit and rarely found to visit flowers. The males are occasionally found near wet areas. Hosts: Grasses. Status: Common. 124

134 10. Mycalesis mineus polydecta Cramer (The Dark-Brand Bush Brown) (Plate XVII, Fig. 204) Mycalesis mineus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. 1(2): 768. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 458. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 85. Description: The DARK-BRAND BUSH BROWN measures mm in expanse. Brown in colour with the ocellus on the upper side of fore wing situated in a more or less pale area. On the under side, there is a sub marginal white line across the wing and with a series of ocelli and a broad white band. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Philippines; Taiwan; Malaysia; India: (Nadgani and Mukkali). Habits: It is found on the hills and plains at low elevations. Hosts: Grasses. Status: Common. 11. Mycalesis visala visala Moore (The Long- Brand Bush Brown) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 205) Cat. lep. Ins. Mus. East India Coy.1:230. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 457. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 86. Description: The LONG-BRAND BUSH BROWN measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above with a prominent eye spot in vein 2 of fore wing. Seasonal forms present. Fore wing sharply pointed in Dry Season Form and rounded in Wet Season Form. Distribution: Myanmar; Thailand; Indo-China; India; Sikkim, Assam and south India. Habits: Scarce in north-west of its range, fairly abundant elsewhere at low elevations. Status: Locally abundant. 12. Mycalesis visala subdita Moore (The Tamil Bush Brown) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 206) Moore, Cat. lep. Ins. Mus. East India Coy.1:230. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 457. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 86. Description: The TAMIL BUSH BROWN measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above with a prominent eye spot with a narrow well defined ring in 2 on the fore wing and with a prominent pale marginal line followed by two black lines. Seasonal forms present. The wet season form is very dark below which has an ocellus in vein 1 on under side of hind wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Southern India (Nilgiris, Kallar, Madras to Orissa, Bangalore). 125

135 Habits: Common in low elevations in hills to about 914 m ASL. Status: Locally common. 13. Mycalesis igilia Fruhstorfer (The Small Long-Brand Bush Brown) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 207) Fruhstorfer, In Seitz: Macrolep. of the world, 9: 346. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 457. Description: The SMALL LONG-BRAND BUSH BROWN measuring mm in expanse is brownish in colour and can be easily identified by its very long brand on the fore wing which extends beyond the white discal line which is often angled towards the tornus at vein 1b. Seasonal forms present. Distribution: Recorded from Coorg, the Nilgiris, Wynad and Silent Valley. Commonly found in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve at about 914 m ASL during the months September to October. Habits: It is commonly found in dense moist deciduous forests, usually in bamboo areas upto 301 m ASL. Status: Common, south Indian endemic. 14. Mycalesis khasia orcha Evans (The Pale-Brand Bush Brown) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 87. Description: The PALE-BRAND BUSH BROWN measurings mm in expanse is brownish with a white and broad discal band. Seasonal forms present. Ground color pale in wet season forms. Brand on the upper side of hind wing yellowish brown. The brand does not go beyond the white discal line. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Assam and south India (Palnis, Shevaroys, Coorg, Nilgiris and Wynad). Habits: It is found in moist deciduous and evergreen forests. Status: Common. 15. Mycalesis adolphei Guerin-Menville (The Red Eye Bush Brown) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 208) Guerin-Menville, In Deless, Voy. Ind. II: 76. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 457. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

136 Description: The RED EYE BUSH BROWN measuring 49 mm in expanse is chocolate brown above with small ocelli from in 2 and 5 in fore wing and 2 to 4 on hind wing and with a reddish brown ring in 5. Male with no brand on under side of fore wing with a black brand with inconspicuopus brown tuft on the upper side of hind wing. Distribution: Southern India: Coorg and Nilgiris. Habits: Generally found along forest tracts between 1219 to 2134 m ASL. Flies along the edges of sholas. Recorded from May to December. Status: Common in sholas in the Nilgiris above 579 m ASL. 16. Mycalesis patnia junonia Butler (The Glad Eye Bush Brown) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 209) Mycalesis patnia Moore, 1857, Cat. Lep. ins. Mus. East India Coy. I: 232. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 457. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p. 91. Description: The GLAD-EYE BUSH BROWN measuring mm in expanse is characterized by the pupilled ocellus in 2 on the upper side of fore wing which is set on the lower and outer edge of a circular white or yellow patch. Wings are rounded and the under side variegated. Distribution: Sri Lanka; South India: recorded from Kotagiri and Nilgiris upto 1829 m asl. elevation. Habits: Tropical and subtropical evergreen forests and bamboo jungle. Rarely found in disturbed forests. Observed on fruits of Fig trees, lying on the forest floor. Attracted to toddy or sugar. Host: Grasses Status: Common, endemic to south India and Sri Lanka. 17. Orostriona medus mandata Moore (The Nigger) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 210) Orostriona medus Fabricius, 1775, Syst. Ent.: 448. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 446. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The NIGGER measuring mm in expanse is dark brownish and unmarked above except for two very narrow pale lines on the termen. The discal band of under side is faintly visible. Below, there is a white discal band across both wings. Under side of fore wing with very prominent ocelli in 2 and 5 and under side of hind wing in 2, 5 and a smaller one in 6. Distribution: Sri Lanka and up to Australia; India; south India (Kallar in Nilgiris). Habits: Prefers low level wet forests. Generally seen during the monsoon. 127

137 Hosts: Grasses Status: Monobasic genus; fairly common. 18. Zipoetis saitis Hewitson (The Tamil Cats-eye) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 211) Hewitson, Illustr. Exot. Butts. 3: 100 D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 472. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The TAMIL CATS-EYE measurs mm in expanse. The upper side is velvety black. The fore wing bears a broad, oblique, white band from the middle of the costa to nearly the margin on the termen. The hind wing bears a similar broad, white band extending almost parallel to the posterior portion of the terminal margin. The outer margin of this band is concavely excavated between the veins. The under side is similar, but paler. The white bands are as on the upper side. There is a subterminal wavy line on both the fore and hind wings on the under side. The under side of the fore wing is without ocelli, but the under side of the hind wing bears a row of five large, prominent ocelli. The head, thorax and abdomen are dark brown and the antennae reddish brown. Distribution: It is found along the slopes of the Western Ghats between 301 and 914 m ASL. It has been reported from Mettupalayam, the Nadgani Ghats, Mukkali and Silent Valley. The range covers western and southern India, the Nilgiris, Anamalais, Cochin and Travancore. Habits: Its flight is weak and seldom comes out into the open. It is attracted to sugar solution and over-ripe fruits. Hosts: Ochlandra sp. Status: Common, endemic to south India. 19. Ypthima asterope mahratta Moore (The Common Three Ring) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 212) Ypthima asterope Klug, Symb. Phys. Pl.29. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 464. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON THREE RING measures mm in expanse. Seasonal forms present. In the wet season form, the upper side is dull brown with a whitish fringe. The fore wing bears a white-centred black sub-apical ocellus. The hind wing is uniform with a single, small sub-tornal ocellus. The under side is greyish white with very fine transverse striations. On the under side of the fore wing a discal and sub terminal dark brown bands which meet below the ocellus to form a loop, are present. Three ocelli are present on the under side of the hind wing, one apical and two tornal. Upper side of hind wing with an ocellus on 2 only. The 128

138 antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are dull brown. In the dry season form the ground colour is paler and the ocelli on the under side are reduced to minute specks or absent altogether. Distribution: Whole of India and Baluchistan and Myanmar. It has been reported from the Nilgiris and the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: It is generally found in the plains and rarely found at higher elevations. Abundant all the year round in the plains and in forest where it is generally found flying at low levels among bushes. Status: Common. 20. Ypthima baldus madrasa Evans (The Common Five Ring) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 213) Y. baldus Fabricius, Syst. Nat.: 829. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 466. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Discription: The COMMON FIVE RING measures mm in expanse. Seasonal forms are present. In the wet season form the upper side is brownish, with the terminal margin of wings are darker. The fore wing bears a double-pupillated, yellow-ringed, black ocellus and two small, single-pupillated ocelli on the hind wing. The under side is brownish white, with transeverse brown striations. The fore wing has a large ocellus as on the upper side and the hind wing bears six smaller ocelli arranged in three pairs. There are also distinct subterminal, discal and sub-basal transverse brown bands on both the wings on the under side. There is a prominent sex brand. The areas surrounding the ocellus on the upper side in both wings are paler in the female. The ground colour on the under side of wings is also paler and the transverse bands are more sharply defined. The dry season form is paler. In this, the ocelli on the under side of the hind wing are reduced and appear as dots. The antennae, head, thorax and abdomen are dull brown. Distribution: It is widely distributed all over India from the Himalayas to southern India and then east to Japan. It has been collected from Silent Valley and Sholayar. Habits: Found in all seasons of the year both in the plains and in the hills up to an altitude of about 2134 m ASL. It inhabits both open country and tropical, subtropical and deciduous forests. The flight is stronger. Frequent visitor to flowers and often basks in the sun with the wings kept three-fourths open. Host: Grasses. Status: Common. 21. Ypthima ceylonica Hewitson (The Ceylon / white Four Ring) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 214) Hewitson, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond. 1864: 288. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II:

139 Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CEYLON / WHITE FOUR RING measuring mm in expanse has three tornal and one apical ocellus on the under side of hind wing. Unlike in Y. chenui, the ocelli in 2 and 3 on the upper side of hind wing are not on a dark band. Tornal half of upper side of hind wing white. Seasonal forms present. Distribution: Peninsular Malaysia; Sri. Lanka; Singapore; Thailand; North Western India (Orissa and Bengal) and southern India (Palnis, Coorg, Nilgiris, Travancore). Habits: Found in openings, along road sides and in hilly areas upto 914 m ASL. Host: Grasses. Status: Common. 22. Ypthima huebneri huebneri Kirby (The Common Four Ring) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 215) D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 464. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON FOUR RING measuring mm in expanse is chocolate brownish with three tornal and one apical ocelli on the under side of hind wing. Upper side of hind wing with ocelli in 2 and 3 and not on a dark band unlike in Y. chenui in which the ocelli are on a dark band. Tornal half of upper side of hind wing is not white. Seasonal forms strongly marked. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Himalayas. Habits: Prefers tropical evergreen forests up to m ASL. Generally found in bamboo areas. Hosts: Adults generally visit fallen fruits and Grasses. Status: Common. 23. Ypthima avanta striata Hampson (The Jewel Four Ring) (Plate XVIII, Fig. 216) (=Ypthima lisadra) Ypthima avanta Moore, Proc. Zool.Soc. Lond. 1874: 567. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 466. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The JEWEL FOUR RING measuring mm in expanse is brownish with three tornal ocellus in a straight line and two apical ocelli in 5 and 6. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Peninsular India (Nilgiris).. 130

140 Habits: Recorded at 914 m ASL. Status: Rare. 24. Ypthima chenui Guerin-Meneville (The Nilgiri Fourring) (Plate XIX, Fig. 217) Guerin-Meneville, in Deless. Voy. Ind.II:77. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 466. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The NILGIRI FOURRING measuring mm in expanse is brownish in colour. Under side of hind wing whitish with prominent white and chestnut bands and three tornal and one apical ocellus. Ocellus on the upper side of hind wing prominent. Seasonal forms not present. Distribution: India: (Coorg, the Nilgiris and the Anamalai hills). Habits: It inhabits the open plateau; above 1829 m ASL in Nilgiris; above 1219 m ASL in Coorg and at about 244 m ASL in Travancore. Status: Common, endemic to southern India. 25. Ypthima philomela tabella Marshall & de Niceville (The Baby Fivering) (Plate XIX, Fig. 218) Ypthima philomela Linnaeus, Amoen. Acad. 6:404 D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 465. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BABY FIVERING is a small brown butterfly measuring mm in expanse. It has a prominent two-pupilled ocellus below the apex of the fore wing. Under side of hind wing with the three tornal ocelli not in a line, that of 2 being shifted in; apical ocelli in 5 and 6, the latter minute. Below, with only an obscure marginal band. Male with no brand. Distribution: North Myanmar; Vietnam; Malaysia, Sumatra, Java; Bali; Sulawesi and in south India (Nilgiris and Wynad). Habits: Prefers forest clearings and grassy hill tops fluttering close to the ground. Status: Extremely rare. 131

141 3.8. Family Amathusidae They are generally large, sombre colored butterflies confined to thick forests. Amathusids are distributed only in South America and Indo-Malayan regions. The under side of the wings may bear eye spots. The antennae are long, slender, gradually thickening towards the end. The fore legs are short, ill developed and brush-like in the male and long in the female.they bear strong affinities with the Nymphalidae and show resemblance to Satyridae in appearance and habits. All species settle with the wings held closed. They frequent sap of trees, damp places and droppings of cattle. The Morpho butterflies of South America are very large and brilliantly coloured and are used in ornaments. Only one species of Amathusidae has been recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve which is given below. 1. Discophora lepida lepida Moore (The Southern Duffer) (Plate XIX, Fig. 219) Moore, Cat. lep. ins. Mus. East India Coy. 1:213. D Abrera, 1984, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Part II: 514. Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SOUTHERN DUFFER measures mm in expanse. The upper side of both the wings is dark glossy brown. The fore wing is traversed by three pale blue spots with a rather ill defined series of four smaller subterminal spots. The upper side of the hind wing is unspotted but bears a very conspicuous, small sex brand in the centre. The under side of the wings is yellowish with a broad, dark brown discal band across both the wings and a prominent subterminal band on both the fore and hind wings. In the female, there is a bluish white broad band on the upper side of the fore wing and numerous, sharply defined markings on the hind wing. The under side is more or less bright yellow in colour. Distribution: Sri Lanka and south India (Kallar, Aravankadu in the Nilgiris and Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is found only in wet evergreen forests at low elevations where bamboo is present. Active only at dawn and dusk. Its flight is fast, jerky and unsteady. The males are more generally seen than the females. Attracted to jaggery. Habits: This species is usually found in the bamboo-breaks along wet evergreen forests of southern India. The eggs are laid on the under side of bamboo leaf along its midrib. Hosts: Bamboo. Status: Rare. Protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act,

142 3.9. Family Hesperiidae Hesperiidae, popularly known as skippers is a large family, widely distributed throughout the world with the South American countries being the most densely populated. The skippers derive their popular name from their irratic, darting flight resembling that of a moth. They are considered to be the most primitive of the butterflies since they retain certain primitive characters such as the frenulum which is found only in moths. In this context, it is interesting to point out that the male members of the Australian Skipper, Euschemon rafflesia possess a frenulum while the females lack it, thus indicating the unique position of this family, midway between the moths and butterflies. To be scientifically accurate, only the female can be said to be a true butterfly. Skippers are characterized by their powerful bodies, the widely spaced antennae and the strongly clubbed antennae. They frequently bask in the sun with the hind wings held flat and the forewings half closed at an angle of 45. The narrow forewings are also held back at an acute angle, giving the butterfly a snub-nosed appearance. The caterpillars construct shelters amongst the grasses on which they feed, and pupate inside flimsy cocoons. Many rest concealed in their shelters, others pupate after getting attached to a stem by the creamaster and supported by a silken girdle. About 3500 species have been recorded from all over the world. An account of skippers recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is given below. 1. Bibasis sena sena Moore (The Orange-Tail Awl) (Plate XIX, Fig. 220) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The ORANGE-TAIL AWL measuring mm in expanse is dark brown in colour and without markings above, but with a white discal band on the under side of the hind wing which has an orange fringe. Under side of fore wing with a white central patch. Tip of abdomen orange. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Philippines; India: Simla and south India (Nilgiris, Coorg and the Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is confined to dense forests from low elevations to about 1524 m ASL. Males fly rapidly up and down and rest under leaves. Host: Combretum extensum. Status: Extremely rare. 2. Choaspes benjaminii (The Indian Awl King) (Plate XIX, Fig. 221) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE INDIAN AWL KING measures mm, the males being shining indigo-bluish overlaid with purplish hairs. The female is dark shining green above overlaid with bluish grey hairs. In both the sexes, upper side of hind wing tornal area is orange with a 133

143 fringe orange to V.3. Under side of hind wing is shining green with black vein and broad orange tornal area. Distribution: Sri Lanka; North Myanmar; India: Kulu to Assam, Palnis, Nilgiris and Coorg. Habits: It is found on hills and in dense forests at about m ASL. Attracted by flowers, birds dropings and damp patches. They are seen in the open during early morning and evening. Status: Common. 3. Hasora chromus chromus Cramer (The Common Banded Awl) (Plate XIX, Fig. 222) (=Hasora alexis) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON BANDED AWL measures mm in expanse. The male is dark brown without any marks. In the female, the upper side of the fore wing has two fairly large, yellowish white discal spots and a minute spot near the apex. In both the sexes, the under side is uniformly dark brown with a dull, steel-blue gloss and with bluish white discal band. Distribution: Oriental region; Papuan subregion; Australia; the Bismarck Islands; South India: Kallar in the Nilgiris and from Kodanad. Habits: It is found on the hills as well as in the plains. Its flight is rapid and fairly well sustained visiting flowers and resting on the under side of leaves. It is migratory. Host: Larvae develop on Pongamia sp. Status: Common. 4. Hasora taminatus Hubner (The White Banded Awl) (Plate XIX, Fig. 223) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE WHITE BANDED AWL measures mm in expanse. The male is unmarked above. In females, there are small spots on the upper side of fore wing. In both the sexes, a white, sharply defined broad band is present below. Distribution: sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Sikkim, the Western Ghats (Nilgiris). Host: Derris scandens, Pongamia pinnata. Status: Common. 5. Hasora badra badra Moore (The Common Awl) (Plate XIX, Fig. 224) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

144 Description: The COMMON AWL measures mm in expanse. Male has no brand, but has apical dots on the fore wing. Female has large yellow spots in the fore wing cell. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Sikkim and south India (Nilgiris Nadgani Ghat). Habits: Visits flowers of Lantana. Its flight is rapid. Status: Common. 6. Badamia exclamationis Fabricius (The Brown Awl) (Plate XIX, Fig. 225) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BROWN AWL measures mm in expanse. The fore wing is elongated, narrow and apically produced, the upper side being hyaline with transversely elongated spots in the cell and in the interspaces of veins 2 and 3. The under side of the wing is pale brown with a whitish spot on the under side of the hind wing in the tornus which is dark brown. Distribution: Oriental region; New Guinea; Australia; Samoa; South India: Kallar. Habits: It is distributed in plains and up to 1372 m ASL on the hills and in dense forests. It is migratory. Visits flowers (of Buddleia sp.), damp patches and bird s droppings. Host: Terminalia bellerica, Combretum latifolium, C. Albidium and Linociera sp. Status: Rare. 7. Celaenorrhinus ambareesa Moore (The Malabar Spotted Flat) (Plate XIX, Fig. 226) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE MALABAR SPOTTED FLAT measuring mm in expanse is dark brown in colour. Fore wing with a discal spot. Upper side of hind wing has three rows of pale yellowish spots. Fringes of fore and hind wings and antennae are chequered. Distribution: Peninsular India south of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Recorded from the Silent Valley National Park along the road sides. Habits: It is generally confined to dense wet forests. Visits Lantana flowers. Status: Common. 8. Celaenorrhinus ruficornis fusca Hampson (The Tamil Spotted Flat) (Plate XIX, Fig. 227) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

145 Description: The TAMIL SPOTTED FLAT measuring mm in expanse is dark brownish and fore wing with a discal band of white spots. Upper side of hind wing having only faint markings. Distribution: The Western Ghats: Nilgiris, Palnis, Nadgani and Wynad. Habits: Shade loving species, generally found in moist-deciduous forests. Status: Common, endemic to South India. 9. Celaenorrhinus leucocera Kollar (The Common Spotted Flat) (Plate XIX, Fig. 228) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE COMMON SPOTTED FLAT measures mm in expanse. It is dark brown above with semi-transparent white discal spots and small apical white spots on the fore wing. A few obscure non-transparent yellow spots on the hind wing. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Himalayas, from Kashmir to Assam, Bengal, Bombay and south India. Host: Carvia callosa, Ecbolium ligustrinum, Eranthemum roseum and Thelepaepale ixiocephala. Status: Common. 10. Tagiades japetus obscurus Mabille (The Common Snow Flat) (Plate XX, Fig. 229) (=Tagiades atticus & T. distans) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON SNOW FLAT measuring mm in expanse is blackish brown with the fore wing bearing semitransparent, white, discal spots. The upper side of the hind wing has black discal spots. Distribution: Oriental region: Myanmar; India: Madhya Pradesh to Bengal, Dehra Dun to Assam and in south India. Habits: It is found in evergreen and moist deciduous forests. It is territorial in habits frequently visiting flowers. The flight is very rapid, occasionally visiting damp areas. Status: Common. 11. Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa Moschler (The Water Snow Flat) (Plate XX, Fig. 230) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The WATER SNOW FLAT measures mm in expanse. It is dark brown in colour. Fore wing with hyaline discal, apical, end of the cell and costal spots. The upper 136

146 side of the hind wing is whitish having black marginal spots. The costal and apical area is brownish. Distribution: Sri Lanka; South China; Hong Kong; Peninsular India: Simla, Silent Valley. Habits: It is confined to evergreen forests and sholas. Roosting observed with the wings held flat on the upper side of leaves. Active flier visiting birds droppings or damp patches. Host: Dioscorea oppositifolia and Dioscorea sp. Status: Common. 12. Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni Swinhoe (The Common Small Flat) (Plate XX, Fig. 231) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON SMALL FLAT measuring mm in expanse is blackish brown above with small semi transparent discal, cell and apical white spot on fore wing. Under side of hind wing greyish with small white spots and with large obscure dark spots on the upper side. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Indo-China; India: Nilgiris and Nadgani. Habits: Found mostly at lower elevations, except in dry areas.they fly low, over grass and bushes. Host: Asystasia sp. and Blepharis asperima. Status: Common. 13. Sarangesa purendra pandra Evans (The Spotted Small Flat) (Plate XX, Fig. 232) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE SPOTTED SMALL FLAT measuring mm in expanse. It is blackish brown above with semi-transparent discal, cell and apical white spots on fore wing. Under side of hind wing have small white spots and large obsure dark spots on the upper side of the hind wings. Distribution: India: Kangra to Kumaon, North Kanara to Sind, Madhya Pradesh and south India. Host: Asystasia sp. Status: common. 137

147 14. Tapena twaithesi twaithesi Moore (The Angeld Flat) (Plate XX, Fig. 233) Description: The ANGLED FLAT is black brown in colour with strongly angled wings. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Malaysia; Sumatra; Borneo; India: Sikkim, Dharwar and south India (Kallar and Nadgani). Habits: It is found in the lowland evergreen forests. Status: Rare. 15. Pseudocoladenia dan dan Fabricius (The Fulvious Pied Flat) (Plate XX, Fig. 234) (=Coladenia dan dan (Fabricus)) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p.463. Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Description: THE FULVIOUS PIED FLAT measuring 40-46mm in expanse is dark golden brown. Fore wings are marking very much with transparent spots. White colour in females and yellow colour in males. Hind wings with suffused obscure conjoined dark spots above and below. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Himalayas, from Kulu to Assam and south India. (The race dan Fabricus is the typcal South Indian race). Habits: This species is common in wet hilly regions. It is fond of bird droppings. Host: Achyranthes aspera. Status: Common. 16. Pseudocoladenia indrana indra Evans (The Tricolour Flat) (Plate XX, Fig. 235) (=Coladenia indrani indra Evans) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p. 222 Description: THE TRICOLOUR FLAT measuring mm in expans is brown in colour with well marked black spots which remain separate on the upper side of the hind wing and with a marginal row of yellow, opaque spots on the upper side of the fore wing. On the under side of the hind wing, the black spots over the basal area are prominent. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Bengal, Mussooree, Sikkim and south India. The race indra Evans, is confined to sri Lanka and South India. Habits: It is generally found on the hills at low elevation. 138

148 Hosts: Xylia xylocarpa, Mallotus philippensis, Grewia nervosa and Desmodium sp. Status: Common. 17. Odontoptilum angulata angulata Felder & Felder (The Banded Angle) (Plate XX, Fig. 236) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p.464. Description: THE BANDED ANGLE measuring mm in expanse. The wings are angular. On the upper side of the fore wing, the inner portion is pale brown while the outer surface is bright chestnut. There are broad, discal and post-discal chestnut bands and a discal white lunulate spot in interspace 2 and a dot in interspace 3. A few semitransparent white apical spots are also present. The upper side of the hind wing is pale brown with the apical area coloured dark chestnut and with narrow sub-basal and post-discal marginal and submarginal white lines. The dorsum and the tornus of the hind wing are clothed with white hairs. Distribution: Southern China; Myanmar; India: Kulu to Bengal, Assam and south India. Habits: This species is commonly found in hilly forested areas up to an altitude of 2438 m ASL. It prefers damp areas. Status: Common. 18. Caprona ransonnetti potiphera Hewitson (The Golden Angle) (Plate XX, Fig. 237) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p.465. Description: THE GOLDEN ANGLE measures 25 mm in expanse with the upper side of both wings dark brownish, with numerous white semitransparent spots. The upper side of the fore wing bears a spot across the cell; a series of discal and apical spots and also a row of much smaller submarginal spots. The upper side of the hind wing also has more or less the same arrangement of spots, but some of the apical spots are absent. There is usually a spot at the base of the cell. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Karachi; Myanmar and India. Habits: This species occurs both on the plains and on hills up to an altitude of 2438 m ASL. It flies keeping close to the ground and often settles with the wings closed over the back. Status: Common. 19. Caprona alida vespa Evans (The Spotted Angle) (Plate XX, Fig. 238) 139

149 (=Halpe homolea Hewitson) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p.480. Description: THE SPOTTED ANGLE measuring 36 mm in expanse has its hindwing under side dark brown with either a clearly defined white central band or marginal spots or with spots, obscure band and a row of black spots between them. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Sikkim to Assam and south India. Status: Common. 20. Iambrix salsala lutipennis Plotz (The Chestnut Bob) (Plate XX, Fig. 239) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Description: THE CHESTNUT BOB measuring mm in expanse. In male, the upper side is dark brown with some dark ochreous orange scaling. The upper side of the fore wing bears a more or less complete row of orange discal spots in interspaces 1 to 8. In the female, the upper side is pale brown with a similar series of semitransparent spots in interspaces 1 to 8, but these are white, instead of being orange and the row is bent inwards at vein 6. Distribution: Myanmar; Malay Peninsula; Sri Lanka; India: Calcutta, Sikkim and Assam and south India. Habits: Commonly found on the forested slopes of hills having heavy rainfall. It prefers shade and flies keeping close to the ground. Host: Grasses. Status: Very common. 21. Notocripta curvifascia curvifascia Felder & Felder (The Restricted Demon) (Plate XX, Fig. 240) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum, p Description: THE RESTRICTED DEMON measuring mm in expanse is characterized by the presence of prominent conjoined apical spots and with the white discal band on the upper side of the fore wing being not continued up to the costa. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Malay Peninsula; India: Mussooree to Sikkim, Assam and south India (Western Ghats to North Canara and Mysore). Habits: Found along the the thickly forested slopes of the Western Ghats with heavy rainfall. 140

150 Hosts: Costus speciosa, Hedychium coronarium, Kaempferia rotunda, Zingiber montana and Curcuma decipiens. Status: common. 22. Matapa aria Moore (The Common Red Eye) (Plate XXI, Fig. 241) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p.480. Description: THE COMMON RED EYE measuring mm in expanse. Above dark brown, unmarked except for the brand on the fore wing in males. Hind wing fringe grey or pale yellow. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Calcutta, Dehra Dun to Assam and South India to Matheran. Habits: It is mainly confined to bamboo jungle where they spent the day under bamboo. The flight is very rapid but the insect often settles on plants. Host: Bambus arundinacea. Status: Common. 23. Borbo cinnara Wallengren (The Rice Swift) (Plate XXI, Fig. 242) (=Baoris zellari colaca Moore) Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Description: THE RICE SWIFT measuring mm in expanse. The upper side is dark brown. The upper side of the fore wing always bears a conspicuous white spot in interspace 1 b and two white spots in the cell. The upper side of the hind wing is usually unmarked or there may be 1-3 minute spots. The under side of the hind wing is uniformly overlaid with dense greenish ochreous scales and usually bears white spots in interspaces 2, 3 and 6 and rarely a spot in interspace 4 or at the end of the cell. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Philippines; Malay Peninsula; North Australia; India and the Andamans. Habits: Although this species is usually found at low elevations, occasionally it is observed upto 1219 m ASL. Hosts: Setaria glauca, Cymbopogon sp., Pennisetum sp., Oryza sativa and Eragrostis sp. Status: Rare. 24. Borbo bevani bevani Moore (The Bevan s Swift) (Plate XXI, Fig. 243) (=Baoris bevani Moore) 141

151 Satyamurty, Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Government Museum. Madras Government Museum, p Madras Description: THE BEVAN S SWIFT measures mm in length. In both sexes, the upper side is pale brown and the upper side of the fore wing bears a white spot in interspace 3 nearer to the spot in interspace 4 and usually another spot in interspace 5. The under side is overlaid with pale, greenish ochreous scales. The under side of the hind wing bears small white spots in the interspace 2 to 6, but it may be absent in the interspace 4 and 5. The Upper side of the female bears a white spot in interspace1b, this spot may be present in males also. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; Malay Peninsula; Philippines; India: Himalayas, from Murree to Assam and south India (Nilgiris). Habits: This species is found both on the hills and in the plains. Recorded at about 2134 m ASL in Simla. Status: Rare. 25. Aeromachus pygmaeus Fabricius (The Pgymy Grass Hopper) (Plate XXI, Fig. 244) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PGYMY GRASS HOPPER measuring mm in expanse is dark brown on the upper side. Discal and marginal rows of small spots are present below. Male with no brand. Distribution: It has been recorded from Kallar, the Nilgiris, Coorg, Kanara and the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: It is common usually in open grassland and at low elevations up to 762 m ASL in the immediate vicinity of wet forests. It flies at low level, over grass and bushes and feed at Tridax flowers. Status: Rare. 26. Ampittia dioscorides dioscorides Fabricius (The Bush Hopper) (Plate XXI, Fig. 245) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BUSH HOPPER measuring mm in expanse is dark brown with yellow markings. Fore wing with discal, apical, cell and costal spots. Hind wing with broad discal area crossed by black veins and under side yellow with black spots. In the male, a brand is present on the upper side of fore wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; China; Hong Kong; Peninsular India: West Bengal, Kallar and the Nadgani Ghat. 142

152 Habit: Mainly found in paddy fields and in openings in forests at low elevations up to 762 m ASL. Host: Oryza sativa. Status: Rare. 27. Halpe porus Mabille (Moore s Ace) (Plate XXI, Fig. 246) (=Halpe moorei) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MOORE S ACE measuring 32 mm in expanse is dark brown in colour with semi- transparent spots on the upper side of the fore wing and with white submarginal spots on the under side. The under side of the hind wing bears a broad, continuous white band and white spots. Distribution: South China; India: Sikkim, Andamans, south India (Coorg, N. Kanara, the Nilgiris and the Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is found in lowland evergreen forests. Status: Common. 28. Sovia hyrtacus de Niceville (The Bicolour Ace) (Plate XXI, Fig. 247) Description: The BICOLOUR ACE measuring about 30 mm in expanse can be easily recognised by the hind wing under side where the basal half is cream and the marginal half brown. Distribution: It has been recorded from the Gersoppa Ghat in Kanara, the Nilgiris and the Nadgani Ghat. Status: Rare, endemic to southern India. 29. Thoressa honorei de Niceville (The Madras Ace) (Plate XXI, Fig. 248) (=Halpe honorei) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The MADRAS ACE measuring mm in expanse is dark brown in colour. Discal and apical spots of fore wing yellow. Hind wing with a central yellow streak on the upper side and a row of discal spots on the under side. Male with no brand. Distribution: S. India: Coorg, Palnis, N. Kanara, Trichinopoly, Kallar and from the Nadgani Ghat. 143

153 Habits: It inhabits wet forests at low elevations along forest paths and clearings. It is active during early mornings. Its flight is very fast. Status: Rare, endemic to southern India. 30. Thoressa astigmata Swinhoe (The Unbranded Ace) (Plate XXI, Fig. 249) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: Golden yellow with white spots. Distribution: Nilgiris, Nadgani Ghat. Habits: Limited to wet evergreen forest with bamboo. Swift flying species, visiting excreata of wild animals. Host: Bamboo. Status: Extremely rare; endemic to southern India. 31. Psolos fuligo subfasciatus Moore (The Coon) (Plate XXI, Fig. 250) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COON measures mm in expanse. The upper side is uniformly dark brown and without any markings. The under side is pale brown with an oblique, purplish grey patch. Under side of the fore wing with whitish, post-discal and sub-apical spots. Under side of the hind wing with purplish grey bands and discal spots. Distribution: Siam; Malay Peninsula; Myanmar; India: Assam and the Western Ghats. Habits: Prefers evergreen forests. Its flight is very slow and unsteady keeping close to the ground. Common during the rainy season. Host: Stachyphrynium spicatum and Zingiber officinalis. Status: Common. 32. Notocrypta paralysos alysia Evans (The Common Banded Demon) (Plate XXI, Fig. 251) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COMMON BANDED DEMON measuring mm in expanse is black above and dark brown below. The fore wing has a semi-transparent discal band of several white spots. On the under side, the white scaling is conspicuous. Distribution: Philippines; Sulawesi; Sri Lanka; India: Mussoorie and the Western Ghats (Kanara, Coorg, the Nilgiris and the Nadgani Ghat). 144

154 Habits: It is restricted to low land wet evergreen forests in shady areas. Their flight is fast, keeping close to the ground. They are crepescular in their bahits, visiting flowers in the mornings and evenings and resting during the rest of the day. Host: Curcuma sp. and Zingiber sp. Status: Common. 33. Udaspes folus Cramer (The Grass Demon) (Plate XXI, Fig. 252) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The GRASS DEMON measring mm in expanse is black on the upper side, with large, white, semi-transparent spots. The upper side of the fore wing has spots across the cell, in the interspace of veins as well as in the post-discal and apical areas. Upper side of the hind wing has a large, white, semi-transparent central area which is enough to identify this species. The under side is dark brown, overlaid with white scales on the apex of the fore wing and on the dorsum and termen of the hind wing. The ciliary fringe on the wings is alternately banded brown and white. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; China; Malay Peninsula; India: Calcutta, Kangra to Assam in the Himalayas and south India (Nilgiris at Kallar, Kotagiri and Silent Valley). Habits: It is found both in the open country and along the slopes of the forests up to 2438 m ASL. It usually flies close to the ground, keeping mostly to the shade. Visits cow dung and damp places. Hosts: Curcuma aromatica, C. pseudomontana, C. decipiens, Hedychium coronarium, Zingiber sp. and Hitchenia colina. Larva feeds on ginger and turmeric, on which it is a pest. Status: Common. 34. Hyarotis adrastus Cramer (The Tree Flitter) (Plate XXII, Fig. 253) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE TREE FLITTER measures mm in expanse. The male and female have a chequered brown and white fringe. Above, black with large white semi-transparent spot across the cell, large one in 2 on disc, a small one in 3 and on apex from 6 to 8 and also a non- transparent spot in1b. Hind wing is unmarked. Centrally, a diffused dark brown band is present below the dark ochreous outer half. Hind wing with an irregularly broken central white band. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India: Kangra to Assam, Culcutta and the Western Ghats (N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Palni and Coorg). Habits: This species is usually found in the hills and in the open country. 145

155 Status: Rare. 35. Arnetta mercara Evans (The Coorg Forest Hopper) (Plate XXII, Fig. 254) (=Astictopterus jama) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The COORG FOREST HOPPER measuring mm in expanse is brown above and unmarked except for small semi transparent apical white spots on the fore wings. It is similar to Psolos fuligo although it can be distinguished by the three white apical spots on the fore wings which are invariably absent in the latter. The under side of hind wings are more or less grey or dark brown with obscure dark bands. Distribution: The Western Ghats (Nadgani Ghat). Habits: Weak flier, keeping to shade. It inhabits forests having heavy rainfall Status: Extremely rare, endemic to the Western Ghats. 36. Arnetta vindhiana nilgiriana Moore (The Vindhyan Bob) (Plate XXII, Fig. 255) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The VINDHYAN BOB measuring mm in expanse is dark brown in colour with semi-transparent white spots on the fore wing. Under side of the hind wing is ochreous brown or greenish ochreous. Distribution: The range covers the southern and central India. It is found along the hills of south and central India, frequenting hilly areas where bamboo grows. It has been recorded from Wynad, Nadgani Ghat, Sholayar and Anamalais. Habits: It visits flowers and sometimes settles on grass and dry leaves. Status: Rare. 37. Suastus gremius gremius Fabricius (The Indian Palm Bob) (Plate XXII, Fig. 256) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The INDIAN PALM BOB measures mm in expanse. Dark brown with semi transparent cell and discal spots on the fore wings. Easily distinguishable from other skippers from the under side of hind wing being brown overlaid with greyish scales, bearing a variable number of sharply defined black spots. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Bangladesh; Myanmar; Thailand; Indo-China; Taiwan; China; India: south India (Kallar and the Nadgani Ghat). Habits: Found in the vicinity of palms. Its flight is rapid. Usually seen settling on damp patches, bird droppings or on leaves. 146

156 Host: Calamus sp., Caryota urens, Cocos nucifera, Phoenix acaulis and P. loureii. Status: Common. 38. Suastus minuta bipunctus Swinhoe (The Small Palm Bob) Description: The SMALL PALM BOB is dark brown with semi transparent cell and discal spots on the fore wings, the hind wings are unmarked. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Philippines; Java; India: Sikkim and South India. It has been recorded from the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: Found in dense forest areas along paths and clearings. Hosts: Bamboos, canes and palms. Status: Rare. 39. Baracus vittatus Felder & Felder (The Hedge Hopper) (Plate XXII, Fig. 257) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The HEDGE HOPPER measures mm in expanse. It is dark brown in colour with faint, yellow discal and apical spots. The under side is brownish ochreous with a streak on the mid termen on the under side of the hind wing. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Assam to Myanmar and southern India. It has been recorded from Kanara, Palnis, the Nilgiris and Travancore. Habits: It is confined to moderately high elevations ie., above 914 m ASL in the Western Ghats. Its flight is week usually keeping close to the ground. Status: Common. 40. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis Fabricius (The Giant Red Eye) (Plate XXII, Fig. 258) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The GIANT RED EYE which measures mm in expanse is dark chocolate brown above and with the fore wing having large semi-transparent yellow spots on cell and small apical spots. Distribution: Oriental region: India (Kallar, the Nilgiris, Silent Valley, Nilambur and Vazhachal). Habits: It is generally found around palm trees in forested areas as well as in the plains. Crepuscular, being found shortly after dawn and at dusk. 147

157 Host: Areca lutens, Calamus rotang, Caryota urens, Cocos nucifera, Phoenix acaulis, P. loureii, Licuala grandis and ornamental palms. Status: Very common. The bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata) and the house crow (Corvus splendens) was reported to feed on the larvae and pupae of this butterfly. 41. Telecota colon (The Pale Palm Dart) (Plate XXII, Fig. 259) (=Astychus augias Linnaeus) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE PALE PALM DART measures mm in expanse. In both male and female, the fore wing is yellow above with dark border along the margin and above each vein. In males, the greyish broad brand is more on the innerside than on the outer edge of the central black band of the fore wing. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka and India. Status: Common. 42. Telecota ancilla bambusae (The Dark Palm Dart) (Plate XXII, Fig. 260) (= Astychus pythias Mabille) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE DARK PALM DART measures 34-36mm. Both sexes are dark orang in colour and the border of fore wing on upper side is not penetrated to margin. In males, the brand is darker and narrower on the outer than in the inner edge of the central black band of upper side of fore wing. Distribution: Myanmar; Sri Lanka; India. Habits: It is usually found on the hills and in fairly wet regions. Powerful flier. Host: Bamboo. Status: Common. 43. Oriens concinna Elwes & Edwards (The Tamil Dartlet) (Plate XXII, Fig. 261) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE TAMIL DARTLET measures mm in expanse. It is dark brown with dark orange and narrow markings. Discal bands on the upper side of fore wing and hind wings are divided by dark veins. Distribution: Shevaroys, Nilgiris, Palnis and Coorg. Habits: Confined to the evergreen regions of the South Indian Hills. 148

158 Status: Rare. 44. Oriens goloides Moore (The Indian Dartlet) (Plate XXII, Fig. 262) (=Oriens gola) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The INDIAN DARTLET measures mm in expanse. Dark brown in colour with tawny markings which include a discal band as well as apical and cell spots. Upper side of hind wing with discal band but no spots. Distribution: Malaysia; Sri Lnaka; India: Kumaon and south India (Kallar and the Nadgani Ghat). Habits: Found in forests of high rainfall from lower elevations to 1981 m ASL. It flies rapidly, keeping close to the ground, resting under shade or basking in the sun. It comes only very rarely to water. Status: Rare. 45. Taractrocera maevius Fabricius (The Common Grass Dart) (Plate XXII, Fig. 263) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: THE COMMON GRASSDART measures mm in expanse. Under side of hind wing is whitish brown, or greenish brown.veins are paler than ground and spot in 7. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India. Habits: It is a very local but widely distributed species.usually found above 1524 m ASL. Status: Locally common. 46. Taractrocera ceramas ceramas Hewitson (The Tamil Grass Dart) (Plate XXII, Fig. 264) Wynter-Blyth, 957. Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The TAMIL GRASS DART measures mm in expanse. Dark brown in colour with yellow spots above. Distribution: Myanmar; India: Bombay and the Western Ghats (Nilgiris, Mukurti, Nadgani and Wynad). Habits: It is confined to regions of heavy rainfall, being found all along the ghat as well as on the plateau but it does not seem to extend to the plains. It is commonly found in grasslands at all levels particularly the montane grasslands. Status: Common. 149

159 47. Potanthus pseudomaesa pseudomaesa Moore (The Pseudomaesa Dart) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 265) (=Padraona sp.) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PSEUDOMAESA DART is a small butterfly having straw yellow markings. Distribution: Sri Lanka, India: Mt. Abu, Kashmir and India (Glenburn in the Nilgiris, Nadgani Ghat and the Biligiriranga Mountains). Habits: It is found in evergreen forests along paths. Status: Extremely rare. 48. Potanthus confucius diana Evans (The Confucian Dart) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 266) (=Padraona sp.) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CONFUCIAN DART is a very small butterfly. Distribution: Sri Lanka; India: Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam Nepal and south India (Nadgani Ghat). Status: Extremely rare. 49. Potanthus pava pava Fruhstofer (The Pava Dart) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 267) (=Padraona sp.) Description: The PAVA DART is not properly described. Distribution: Distribution covers South India and Himachal Pradesh. It has been reported from Mukkali as well as a fair series from the Biligiriranga Mountains. Habits: It is found in moist deciduous forest areas. Status: Extremely rare. 50. Potanthus palnia Evans (Palni Dart) (=Padraona sp.) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PALNI DART is a small dark brown skipper with narrow, orange coloured discal bands on the upper side of fore wing. 150

160 Distribution: The range covers southern India, then from Sikkim to Burma and Thailand. This has been recorded from Kallar, Mukkali as well as from the Biligiriranga Mountains. Habits: Found in hilly regions of south India. Status: Extremely rare. 51. Pelopidas subochracea subochracea Moore (The Large Branded Swift) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 268) (=Baoris sinensis) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The LARGE BRANDED SWIFT is brownish measuring mm in expanse. Distribution: The range covers Sri Lanka and South India, Kangra to Assam and Bengal. It has been reported from the Nilgiris, Coorg and N. Kanara. Larsen (1987) reports it from Sholayar in the Anamalais. Habits: It is found in wet evergreen forests. Status: Extremely rare. 52. Pelopidas mathias mathias Fabricius (The Small Branded Swift) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 269) (=Baoris mathias) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The SMALL BRANDED SWIFT measures mm in expanse. The upper side of the male is dark brown with white spots on the fore wing. The under side of the hind wing bears several small white spots. Distribution: Africa; Arabia and the Oriental region. Habits: It is a very common butterfly usually found in the dry zone at all elevations ranging from the plains to hills up to 2286 m ASL. It is fond of sun shine and visits flowers. It is crepescular in habits, being active in the mornings and in the evenings. Hosts: Larvae develop on palms. Status: Very common. 53. Pelopidas conjuncta narooa Moore (The Conjoined Swift) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 270) (=Baoris conjuncta) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p

161 Description: The CONJOINED SWIFT measuring mm in expanse is brown in colour. Upper side of fore wing with two cell spots. The hind wing under side usually carries a complete complement of white spots and some of these are usually present on the upper side as well. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Philippines; Borneo; Java; India: Ketti, Kallar, Gudalur and Nadgani. Habits: Usually found in wet evergreen forests in areas having bamboos areas having bamboos at altitudes of 1981 m ASL. Flies a low level. Uusually seen in the company of the Blank swift, B. kumara. Host: Larva feeds on Bamboo. Status: Extremely rare. 54. Polytremis lubricans lubricans Herrich-Schaffer (The contiguous swift) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 271) (=Baoris contigua) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The CONTIGUOUS SWIFT is a dark brown butterfly measuring mm in expanse. The fore wing is dark brown with two spots on the upper side which show as yellow spots below. Hind wing with spots on the upper and under sides. Distribution: Sri Lanka; Myanmar; India: Kumaon to Assam and south India (Coorg, Nilgiris, Travancore and Wynad and the Nadgani Ghat). Habits: It is found in dense, wet evergreen forests and rarely in the plains. It flies low. Host: Larvae develop on bamboo. Status: Extremely rare. 55. Baoris farri farri Moore (The Paint Brush Swifts) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 272) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PAINT BRUSH SWIFT measures mm in expanse. It is dark brown in colour with two semi transparent spots in the cell of fore wing, no spots on the hind wing. In the male, a paint brush-like androconial tuft on the cell on the hind wing. Below, chocolate brown. Distribution: India: Sikkim, Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Kanara and the Nadgani Ghat. Habits: It is confined to dense, wet evergreen forests at moderate altitudes. It rarely occurs in the plains and at very high altitudes. It flies at low levels. 152

162 Hosts: Larva feeds on bamboo and reed. Adult males reported to visit fresh buffalo dung. Status: Extremely rare. 56. Caltoris kumara kumara Moore (The Blank Swift) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 273) (=Baoris kumara) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The BLANK SWIFT measures mm in expanse, dark brown in colour and without hyaline spots in the fore wing cell. Distribution: Thailand; Indo-China; Java; Sri Lanka; India: Sikkim and South India (Ketti, Kallar, Gudalur and Nadgani). Habits: It is found in dense, wet evergreen forests at moderate elevtions, usually in locations with bamboo or reed. It flies low. Host: Larva feeds on bamboo and reed. Status: Extremely rare. 57. Caltoris canaraica Moore (The Kanara Swift) (Plate XXIII, Fig. 274) (=Baoris canaraica) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The KANARA SWIFT measures mm in expanse and is dark brown with pale, semi-transparent spots. Seasonal forms present. In the dry season form, the discal band is greenish white which is absent in the wet season form. Distribution: South India: Coorg, Nilgiris, N. Kanara, Nadgani Ghat, Wynad and Mukkali (Silent Valley). Habits: Found in dense wet evergreen forests. Common in areas with reed and bamboo. Not very common either in the plains or at very high altitudes. They fly low. Hosts: Larva feeds on bamboo. Status: Rare, south Indian endemic. 58. Caltoris philippina philippina Herrich-Schaffer (The Philippine Swift) (=Baoris philippina) Wynter-Blyth, Butterflies of the Indian Region, Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., p Description: The PHILIPPINE SWIFT measuring mm in expanse is dark brown above with semi transparent pale spots. Upper side of fore wing with decreasing discal spots in 2, 3, 153

163 and 4 and small apical spots in 6, 7 and 8. There is also a large round spot. Under side of hind wing overlaid with ochreous green scales. Distribution: Oriental region: India: Sikkim, Assam Nilgiris, Coorg and N. Kanara. Habits: It is mainly found in evergreen forests. Status: Rare. 154

164 4. Discussion 4.1. Butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and its Significance Butterflies are looked upon as organisms of great aesthetic value. They also have considerable ecological significance. The immature stages of butterflies or caterpillars are largely herbivorous in habits and thus form the primary consumers in the ecosystem. The solar energy trapped in the plants is made available to other organisms in the ecosystem through the caterpillars which form the food of various organisms such as spiders, parasitic wasps, mantids, birds, lizards and some mammals. Butterflies visit flowers for nectar leading to pollination of phanerogamic plants and therby assisting in the succession of plant communities. Butterflies thus constitute important elements in the functioning of natural ecosystems and food webs. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is known to be a biologically rich area in the whole of the Western Ghats. Studies carried out at various locations in the Nilgiri Biosphere have shown great diversity of insects particularly of butterflies. For instance, of the 330 species of butterflies recorded from the entire Western Ghats, 299 species have been recorded from the Nilgiris, over 100 species from Silent Valley and 133 species from the New Amarambalam Reserve Forest (Larsen, 1987 a, b, c & 1988; Mathew, 1999, 2002 & 2009). Considering the fact that the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve constitutes only 3.15% of the total area of the Western Ghats, occuurence of such a large assemblage of butterflies within such a small geographical area is very remarkable. In the present study, information pertaining to 282 species of butterflies found in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve has been summarized based on a critical examination of available literature and by conducting limited field visits (Appendix II) Threats to butterflies in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve As has been stated earlier, most changes to the ecosystem are brought about by human activities. Deforestation, agricultural conversion and intensification, alteration of pastures, industrialization and urbanization, pollution, introduction of exotics and commercial exploitation are the major threats to biodiversity (Spooner, 1963; Muggleton, 1973; Gardiner, 1974; Pyle, 1976; Sheldon, 1925; Mc Leod, 1979; Dempster and Hall 1980). For instance, large scale deforestation in India and Nepal, has led to a reduction in the populations of the beautiful Kaiser-I-Hind butterfly, Teinopalpus imperialis which is currently ranked as a species at risk. Anthropogenic disturbance involving forest cutting and poaching are the major threats to butterflies in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Conservation of butterflies of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Recent estimates place the butterfly fauna of India at 1501 species of which 507 species are ranked as rare (Table 4). The Western Ghats harbours 330 including 37 endemics and another 23 shared only with Sri Lanka (Gaonkar, 1996). A rough examination of butterfly fauna of Nilgiri Biosphere reserve indicates that over 100 species of butterflies found in this 155

165 Table 4. Number of rare and very rare species of butterflies in Indian Region (Varshney, 1986) Family Total no. of species No. of rare No. of very rare & sub species species species Amathusiidae Danaidae Lycaenidae Nymphalidae Papilionidae Pieridae Satyridae Total area are rare and about 40 species are either endemic or protected. The status of many species needs re-assessment. As has been rightly pointed out by Kunte (2008), a large proportion of endemic and endangered species found in this area are not listed under any schedules of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act. In fact, a strict evaluation of the survival status of various species would lead to the inclusion of many more species under the protected category. Considering the high proportion of rare and endemic species found in this area, it is essential to adopt appropriate conservation strategies to protect the rich biodiversity contained in this area. Some of the strategies adopted for butterfly conservation in India and other countries are discussed below Legislation The first step in conservation is usually some form of species protection based on legislative action against poaching or collection of rare and endangered species at international and national levels. The most important is the Convention on International Trade in Threatened and Endangered Species (CITES). Since not much information is available about most species to fulfill the requirements for listing, only a few butterflies are listed in CITES. So far, no butterflies are included in Appendix I of CITES and the birdwing butterflies (Ornithoptera, Trogonoptera and Troides) along with Parnassius apollo are listed in Appendix II of CITES. IUCN lists over 350 species and subspecies of butterflies and moths ranked from indeterminate status to possibly extinct. In order to bring as many species as possible under international conservation network to conserve the fauna found in such specialized habitats, we need to generate information pertaining to the distribution, habitat preferences, host associations and survival status of each species. The Government of India (GOI), under the Wildlife (Protection) Act (GOI, 1982) has extended legal protection to butterflies. Under the act, 114 species of butterflies (including subspecies) belonging to the families Papilionidae, Pieridae, Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae are listed in schedule I, 306 species (including subspecies) belonging to Papilionidae, Pieridae, Nymphalidae, Hesperiidae and Lycaenidae in schedule II and 19 species belonging to Pieridae, Nymphalidae, Hesperiidae and Lycaenidae in Schedule IV. The export of butterflies (dead or alive) and decorative articles from them are prohibited. As per Section 40 (92) of the 156

166 Act, no person can acquire, receive, to keep in control, custody or possession any of the species included in the above schedule without previous permission in writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or his authorised officer. Nevertheless, illegal trade in butterflies continues Captive breeding and reintroduction The principles emerging from the scientific research into ecology have led to the view that it is impossible to conserve a species in its wild state without conserving the whole environment. For the reasons just mentioned, current conservation strategy gives priority to protecting the entire ecological community rather than single species. In situ conservation programmes involving habitat enrichment and setting up of butterfly parks are very effective measures to conserve local butterfly fauna (Mathew, 2001). However, for conservation of single species under threat, ex situ conservation methods such as captive breeding and reintroduction of stock in the wild can be adopted. In such cases, urgent action is required to identify the causes of the threat and to modify the conditions that endanger the species (Sbordoni and Forestiero, 1985). For sustaining, re-establishing and reproducing organisms, we must have full knowledge of the biology and ecology of the organism. Captive breeding programmes have been successfully adopted for a number species such as the heath fritillary Melicta athalia, the large copper butterfly Lycaena dispar and the swallow tail Papilio machaon britanicus Enhancing public awareness on species conservation Active involvement of the community is one of the greatest resources available in managing biodiversity across all landscapes. Educating the community on the need for environmental conservation is very important to achieve the desired goals. For instance, in Victoria State in Australia, there are several Friends groups focusing on various fields of environmental conservation. One such group called Friends of Eltham Copper Butterfly focus on the conservation of the rare Eltham Copper Butterfly. The Threatened Species Network in Victoria has liaised with over 100 small community groups that focus on a particular threatened species or community. In India, although there are a number of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) involved in nature conservation, there are very few agencies that cater to the conservation of invertebrates. There is also no institution in the country to co-ordinate the activities on invertebrate conservation. Recently, Mathew (2001) made an attempt to set up butterfly parks in Kerala for promoting conservation awareness among the students and the public. Based on data generated at various locations in Kerala, Mathew and Mary Anto (2007) have shown the effectiveness of butterfly gardening in enhancing public awareness on environmental conservation. It may be noted that there are a number of butterfly parks and butterfly houses in various parts of the world successfully fulfilling this motive (Ehrlich, 1980). 157

167 5. Conclusions Due to the very complex ecological conditions produced as a result of interaction between the rainfall patterns, temperature and topographical features, the butterfly fauna of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is rich, varied and diversified. An analysis of the distribution pattern of various species indicates that the lowland evergreen forests have a good representation of south Indian species while the forest patches at higher altitudes as well as the sholas contain several species which bear close resemblance to that of Sundaland. As per Holloway (1974), the fauna of southern India is derived primarily by colonization of species from tropical south East Asian centres, with a few species derived from African regions via Arabia and Middle East, the latter being restricted to the arid habitats. This explains why the southern Indian fauna contains a high proportion of widespread species found in dry lowland forest and associated plains and ephemeral habitats bearing resemblance to African, Ethiopian, Australian and Palaearctic elements. On the contrary, several rare and endemic species showing affinities with Malayan elements and having marked wet forest preferences are found in secluded habitats at higher elevations and these species are supposed to have diverged from the Oriental stock in ecological isolation. Of the 282 species recorded in this study, 101 are rare, 21 endemic, and 17 protected, indicating the ecological significance of this region. The survival of a large number of rare, endemic and endangered species in this area is mainly due to the protection of forest tracts of this area. However, considering the rapid pace of urbanization leading to total destruction of butterflies originally confined to the natural forests, it is essential to assign greater priority for conservation of forest biota. Through legislation, proper monitoring, by adopting suitable in situ and ex situ conservation programmes and by creating public awareness on biodiversity conservation, the butterfly diversity of this great mountain ecosystem can be conserved. 158

168 6. References Bingham, C.T The Fauna of British India including Ceylon, Burma. Butterflies, 1: xxii + 511, 94 text figs., 10 pls. Taylor & Francis Ltd., London. Bingham, C.T The Fauna of British India including Ceylon, Burma. Butterflies, 2: viii p., 104 text figs., pls. Taylor & Francis Ltd., London. D Abrera, Bernard, Butterflies of the Oriental Region, Parts I-III, Hill House, Australia. Dempster, J.P. and Hall, M.L An attempt at re-establishing the swallowtail butterfly at Wicken Fen. Ecol. Ent., 5: Ehrlich, P. R., Murphy, D.D., Singer, M.C., Sherwood, C.B., White, R.R. and Brown, I.L Extinction, reduction, stability and increase: the responses of checkerspot butterfly (Euphydryas) populations to the California drought. Oecologia, 46: Evans, W.H The identification of Indian Butterflies, Part VIII. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 30(4): , pls. 29. Evans, W.H Identification of Indian Butterflies, ed. 2, x+454, 32 pls., 9 figs. The Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Feltwell, John, The natural History of Butterflies, Croom Helm Ltd., Britain, 133 p. Gardiner, B.O.C On vanishing butterflies. Bull. Amat. Ent. Soc., 33: Gaonkar, H Butterflies of the Western Ghats, India (including Sri Lanka): A biodiversity assessment of a threatened mountain system. Report to the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Bangalore, 51p. GOI (Government of India), The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, The Gazette of India (Extra Ordinary), Part II-Section (3), Sub Section (1), Amendment of the Act,1972. Gunathilagaraj, K., Perumal, T.N.A., Jayaram, K. And Ganesh Kumar, M Some South Indian Butterflies, 274 p. Nilgiri Wildlife and Environment Association, Nilgiris. Kunte, K Butterflies of Peninsular India. University Press, Hyderabad, 254 p. Kunte, K The Wildlife (Protection) Act and conservation prioritization of butterflies of the Western Ghats, southwestern India. Current Science, 94 (6):

169 Holloway, J. D The biogeography of Indian butterflies, p In: Mani, M.S. (ed.) Ecology and Biogeography in India. Junk, den Haag. Larsen, T.B a. The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of South India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): Larsen, T.B b. The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of South India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): Larsen, T.B c. The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of South India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): Larsen, T. B The Butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of South India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 85: Mathew, G Butterflies and moths of Silent Valley National Park, p In: Silent Valley-Whispers of Reason, Kerala Forest Department. Mathew, G Insect diversity of New Amarambalam, p In: Sharma, J. K., Nair, K.K.N., Mathew, G., Ramachandran, K.K.Jayson, E.A., Mohanadas, K., Nandakumar, U. N. and Nair, P.V.K Studies on the biodiversity of New Amarambalam reserved forests of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. KFRI Research Report, No. 247, 230 p. Mathew, G Insect diversity of New Amarambalam Reserve Forest in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India. Biosystematica, 3(2): Mathew, G Conservation of invertebrates through captive breeding: a study with reference to butterflies. KFRI Research Report, No. 220, 74 p. Mathew, G Insect diversity of New Amarambalam, p In: Sharma, J. K., Nair, K.K.N., Mathew, G., Ramachandran, K.K.Jayson, E.A., Mohanadas, K., Nandakumar, U. N. and Nair, P.V.K Studies on the biodiversity of New Amarambalam reserved forests of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. KFRI Research Report, No. 247, 230 p. Mathew, G. and Mary Anto In situ conservation of butterflies through establishment of butterfly gardens: a case study at Peechi, Kerala, India. Current Science, 93(3): Mathew, G. and Rahamathulla, V.K Studies on the butterflies of Silent Valley National Park. Entomon, 18 (384):

170 Mcleod, L A ban on collecting Lepidoptera in the department of the Alpes de Haute - Province, France. J. Variation, 91: Muggleton, J Some aspects of the history and ecology of blue butterflies in the Cotswolds. Proc. Brit. Ent.nat. Hist. Soc., 6: Pollard, E Population ecology and change in range of the white admiral butterfly, Ladoga camilla L. in England. Ecol. Ent. 4: Pyle, R.M Conservation of Lepidoptera in the United States. BioI. Conserv., 9: Satyamurty, T Descriptive catalogue of the butterflies in the collection of the Madras Government Museum. New Series-Natural History section Vol. VII (1), 272 p. Commissioner of Museum, Govt. of Tamil Nadu. Raup, D. M Diversity crisis in the geological past, p In: (Eds.) E.O. Wilson and F.M. Peter, Biodiversity, National Academy Press, Washington. Sbordoni, V. and Forestiero, S Butterflies of the World (Ed: Arnolodo Mondadori), Time Books, New York, 312 p. Sheldon, W.G The destruction of British butterflies. Entomologist, 58: Spooner, G.M On the causes of the decline of Maculinea arion Lin. (Lep. Lycaenidae) in Britain. Entomologist, 96: Talbot, G The Fauna of British India including Ceylon, Burma. Butterflies, 1, xxix p., 184 text figs., 2 pls., 1 map. Taylor & Francis Ltd., London. Talbot, G The Fauna of British India including Ceylon, Burma. Butterflies, 2, xv p., 104 text figs., 2 pls., 1 map. Taylor & Francis Ltd., London. Thomas, J.A Extinction of the large blue and the conservation of the black Hair- Streak (a contrast of failure and success). Annual Report, 1979, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, 19-23, London, HMSO. Varshney, R.K Threatened butterflies of the Indian region, p In: (Ed.) Trilok Chandra Majpuria, The Wildlife Wealth of India.Vijayakumaran Nair, P., Ramachandran, K.K. and Nair, C.T.S Action plan for the Kerala part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. KFRI Research Report (mimeo), 1986, 61 p. Wynter-Blyth, M.A Butterflies of the Indian Region, 523 p. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Bombay. 161

171 Appendix 1. List of larval host plants of some butterflies Sl Butterfly species Host Plant No. Common Name Scientific Name 1 Troides minos Cramer (Southern Birdwing) Eshwaramulla Karandavalli Alpam Aristolochia indica Aristolochia tagala Thottea siliquosa 2 Pachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius (Common Rose) 3 Pachliopta hector Linnaeus (Crimson Rose) 4 Graphium Sarpedon teredon Felder & Felder (Common Blue Bottle) 5 Graphium doson Felder (Common Jay) 6 Graphium agamemnon Linnaeus (Tailed Jay) 7 Pathysa antiphates Fabricius (Fivebar Swordtail) Eshwaramulla Aaduthodaapaala Eshwaramulla Alpam Aranamaram Kulamaavu Mulakunaari Karpooramaram Kaattuvazhana Karuva Ellukootti Kaanakaitha Aranamaram Kaanakaitha Karuva Kaattuvazhana Chembaka Aranamaram Narum paanal Chembaka Manoranjini Cherunedunaar Aathachakka Seethappazham Vazhana Aristolochia indica Aristolochia bracteolata Aristolochia indica Thottea siliquosa Polyalthia longifolia Persea macrantha Alseodaphne semicarpifolia Cinnamomum camphora Cinnamomum malabathrum Cinnamomum macrocarpum Litsea chinensis Miliusa tomentosa Polyalthia longifolia Miliusa tomentosa Cinnamomum macrocarpum Cinnamomum malabathrum Michelia chempaca Polyalthia longifolia Uvaria narum Michelia chempaca Artabotris hexapetalus Polyalthia cerasoides Annona reticulata Annona squamosa Cinnamomum sp. Annona elegans Annona lawii Annona zeylanica Miliusa sp. Uvaria sp.

172 8 Chilasa clytia Linnaeus (Common mime) 9 Papilio demoleus Linnaeus (Lime Butterfly) 10 Papilio polytes Linnaeus (Common Mormon) 11 Papilio polymnestor Cramer Blue Mormon 12 Papilio helenus Linnaeus (Red Helen) 13 Papilio liomedon Moore (Malabar Banded Swallowtail) 14 Papilio dravidarum Wood-Mason (Malabar Raven) 15 Papilio paris tamilana Moore (Paris Peacock) 16 Catopsilia pomona Fabricius (Lemon / Common Emigrant) Karappa Karpooramaram Karuva Ellukootti Kulamaavu Mulakunaari Koovalam Paanal Kariveppu Arootha Varimaram Naarakam Kaatunaarakam Koovalam Paanal Kariveppu Mullilam Naarakam Paanal Kaatunaarakam Kaatunaarakam Naarakam Mullilam Kakkathudali Kaattu rubber / Kanala Cherunaarakam Kaattu rubber / Kanala Vidukanali Paanal Kaattu rubber / Kanala Kakkathudali Naarakam Kovidaaram Plash / Chamatha Kanikonna Chakrathakara Manjathakara Aanathakara Cinnamomum zeylanicum Cinnamomum camphora Cinnamomum macrocarpum Litsea chinensis Persea macrantha Alseodaphne semicarpifolia Aegle marmelos Glycosmis arborea Murraya koenigii Ruta graveolens Chloroxylon swietenia Citrus sp. Atlantia racemosa Aegle marmelos Glycosmis arborea Murraya koenigii Zanthoxylum rhetsa Citrus sp. Glycosmis arborea Atlantia racemosa Atlantia wightii Citrus sp. Zanthoxylum rhetsa Thoddalia asiatica Evodia roxburghiana Citrus limon Evodia roxburghiana Acronychia pedunculata Glycosmis arborea Evodia roxburghiana Thoddalia asiatica Citrus sp. Bauhinia racemosa Butea monosperma Cassia fistula Cassia tora Cassia siamea Cassia alata

173 17 Catopsilia pyranthe Linnaeus (Mottled Emigrant) 18 Eurema hecabe simulata Moore (Common Grass Yellow) 19 Delias eucharis Drury (Common Jezebel) 20 Leptosia nina Fabricius (Psyche) 21 Prioneris sita Felder & Felder (Painted Sawtooth) 22 Cepora nerissa Fabricius (Common Gull) 23 Cepora nadina Moore (Lesser Gull) 24 Belenois aurota Fabricius (Pioneer) 25 Appias indra shiva Swinhoe (Plain Puffin) 26 Appias lyncida Moore (Chocolate Albatross) Kanikonna Chakrathakara Aanathakara Ponnaveeram Aavarthaki Manjakonna Nanjinaar Akathi Mullakathi Kanikonna Chakrathakara Aanathakara Vaaka Kaattukazhanji Ponnaamthakara Cherani Ithilkanni Aaryavela Manjavela Kareeram Karthotti Neermathalam Kaarthotti Kareeram Karthotti Kaakkathondi Kaattakathi Thottuvila Kaattakathi Kareeram Kaakkathondi Kaarthotti Malambayin Poothilanji Neermathalam Cassia fistula Cassia tora Cassia alata Cassia occidentalis Cassia auriculata Cassia siamea Gnidia glauca Sesbania grandiflora Sebania bispinosa Cassia fistula Cassia tora Cassia alata Albizzia sp. Moulluva spicata Cassia sophera Cassia mimosoides Dendrophthoe falcata Helianthes elestica Scurrula parasitica Viscum sp. Cleome rutidosperma Cleome viscosa Capparis spinosa Capparis zeylanica Crateva adansonii Capparis zeylanica Capparis spinosa Capparis zeylanica Capparis sepiaria Cadaba fruticosa Caparis moonii Capparis cleghornii Cadaba fruticosa Capparis spinosa Capparis sepiaria Capparis zeylanica Drypetes oblongifolia Drypetes roxburghii Crateva adansonii

174 27 Appias albina Felder & Felder (Common Albatross ) 28 Colotis eucharis Fabricius (Plain Orange Tip) 29 Ixias pyrene Fabricius (Yellow Orange Tip) 30 Pareronia valeria hippia Fabricius (Common Wanderer) 31 Hebomoia glaucippe Butler (Great / Giant Orange Tip) 32 Discophora lepida lepida Moore (Southern Duffer) 33 Melanitis leda leda Drury (Common Evening Brown) 34 Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Butler (Common Palmfly) 35 Lethe europa ragalva Fruhstorfer (Bamboo Tree Brown) 36 Mycalesis perseus typhlus Fruhstorfer (Common Bush Brown) 37 Mycalesis patnia junonia Butler (Glad Eye Bush Brown) 38 Zipoetis saitis Hewitson (Tamil Catseye) Malambayin Poothilanji Vellakkashavu Kaattakathi Kaakkathondi Kaarthotti Kaarthotti Thottuvila Kareeram Kaakkathondi Kaarthotti Neermathalam Mula Grasses Thengu Kavungu Kaattuthengu Chooral Eenthappana Ornamental palms Bamboos Grasses Grasses Eeta Drypetes oblongifolia Drypetes roxburghii Drypetes venusta Cadaba fruticosa Capparis sepiaria Capparis zeylanica Capparis zeylanica Caparis moonii Capparis spinosa Capparis sepiaria Capparis zeylanica Crateva adansonii Bamboos Graminae Cocos nucifera Areca catechu Arenga wightii Calamus rotang Phoenix sp. Graminae Graminae Graminae Ochlandra sp.

175 39 Orostriona medus mandata Moore (Nigger) 40 Ypthima huebneri huebneri Kirby (Common Four Ring) 41 Ypthima ceylonica Hewitson (White / Ceylon Four-Ring) 42 Ypthima baldus madrasa Evans (Common Five- Ring) 43 Eriboea mathamas Drury (Common Nawab) 44 Charaxes bernardus imna Butler (Tawny Rajah) 45 Charaxes solon solon Fabricius (Black Rajah) 46 Acraea terpsicore Linnaeus (Tawny Coster) 47 Cethosia nietneri mahratta Felder (Tamil Lacewing) 48 Vindula erota saloma Swinhoe (Cruiser) 49 Cupha erymanthis maja Fruhstorfer (Southern Rustic) 50 Phalanta phalantha Drury (Common Leopard) 51 Phalanta alcippe Drury Grasses Grasses Grasses Grasses Manjaadi Chappangam Kazhanji Karingaali Nenmeni vaaka Vaaka Inja Puli Kaanakaitha Puli Kaattukazhanji Passion fruit Muthukku Kaattupoovarash Poodappazham Passion fruit Muthukku Passion fruit Muthukku Vayankatha Karimulli Loovika Karimulli Vayankatha Kariyilanji Graminae Graminae Graminae Graminae Adenanthera pavonina Caesalpinia sappan Caesalpinia bonducella Acacia catechu Albizia lebbeck Albizia julibrissin Acacia pennata Tamarindus indicus Miliusa tomentosa Tamarindus indicus Moullava spicata Passiflora edulis Adenia hondala Hibiscus cannabinus Passiflora foetida Passiflora edulis Adenia hondala Passiflora edulis Adenia hondala Flacourtia montana Flacourtia indica Flacourtia sp. Flacourtia indica Flacourtia montana Smilax sp. Rinorea bengalensis

176 (Small Leopard) 52 Cirrochroa thais thais Fabricius (Tamil Yeoman) 53 Neptis jumbah jumbah Moore (Chestnut- Streaked Sailor) 54 Neptis hylas varmona Moore (Common Sailor) 55 Pantoporia hordonia hordonia Stoll (Common Lascar) 56 Athyma ranga karwara Fruhstorfer (Blackvein sergeant) 57 Moduza procris undifragus Fruhstorfer (Commander) 58 Parthenos sylvia virens Moore (Clipper) 59 Tanaecia lepidea miyana Fruhstorfer (Grey Count) 60 Euthalia aconthea meridionalis Fruhstorfer (Common Baron) 61 Byblia ilithyia Drury (Joker) 62 Ariadne merione merione Cramer (Common Castor) Marotti Kaattumarotti Kaattukazhanji Irul Poovarash Ungu Ilavu Irul Ilavu Idampiri valampiri Naaykurana Peenaari Vanpayar Kaattumathivaal Kizhangupayar Inja Vaaka Malayilangi Edana Kaattakathi Neerkadambu Vellila Kadambu / Aatuthekku Aatuvanji Vellathaalachedi Muthukku Chitamruthu Pezhu Athiraani Maavu Kashumaavu Vallichoriyanam Aavanakku Kodithoova Vallichoriyanam Hydnocarpus pentandra Hydnocarpus alpina Moullava spicata Xylia xylocarpa Thespesia populnea Pongamia pinnata Bombax ceiba Xylia xylocarpa Bombax ceiba Helicteres isora Mucuna pruriens Nothapodytes nimmomiana Vigna cylindrical Canavalia gladiata Vigna ungulata Acacia instia Albizia odoratissima Chionanthes mala-elengi Olea dioica Cadaba fruticosa Mitragyna parvifolia Mussaenda frondosa Neolamarckia cadamba Ochreinauclea missionis Wendlandia thyrsoidea Adenia hondala Tinospora cordifolia Careya arborea Melastoma malabathricum Mangifera indica Anacardium occidentale Tragia plukentii Ricinus communis Tragia involucrate Tragia plukenetii

177 63 Ariadne ariadne indica Moore (Angled Castor) 64 Junonia hierta Fabricius (Yellow Pansy) 65 Junonia orithya swinhoei Butler (Blue Pansy) 66 Junonia lemonias Linnaeus (Lemon Pansy) 67 Junonia almana almana Linnaeus (Peacock Pansy) 68 Junonia atlites atlites Linnaeus (Grey Pansy) 69 Junonia iphita pluvialis Fruhstorfer (Chocolate Pansy) 70 Vanessa indica pholoe Fruhstorfer (Indian Red Admiral) 71 Kaniska canace viridis Evans (Blue Admiral) 72 Vanessa cardui Linnaeus (Painted Lady) 73 Hyplolimnas bolina jacintha Drury (Great Eggfly) 74 Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus (Danaid Eggfly) 75 Kallima horsfieldi Kollar (Blue Oakleaf) 76 Cyrestis thyodamas indica Evans (Common Map) Aavanakku Kodithoova Vallichoriyanam Vayalchulli Parvathichedi Vayalchulli Paaramullu Chanam Vayalchulli Kurunthotti Kanjavu Parvathichedi Vayalchulli Nirthippali Parvathichedi Vayalchulli Parvathichedi Vayalchulli Karingurinji Aanaviratti / Angara Kattanplavu Kariyilanji Kaachil Kodithoova Uppucheera Kurunthotti Uppucheera Ooram Kaattuvenda Karimkurinji Kurinji Aal Ricinus communis Tragia involucrate Tragia plukenetii Hygrophila auriculata Barleria sp. Hygrophila auriculata Lepidagathis prostrata Lepidagathis keralensis Corchorus capsularis Hygrophila auriculata Sida rhombifolia Cannavis sativa Barleria sp. Hygrophila auriculata Phyla nodiflora Barleria sp. Hygrophila auriculata Barleria sp. Hygrophila auriculata Carvia callosa Girardinia diversifolia Urtica sp. Smilax sp. Dioscorea sp. Artemissia sp. Blumea sp. Laportea interrupta Portulaca oleracea Sida rhombifolia Portulaca oleracea Abutilon sp. Abelmoschus sp. Carvia callosa Strobilanthes callosus Ficus sp.

178 77 Parantica aglea aglea Cramer (Glassy Blue Tigre) 78 Tirumala limniace exoticus Gmelin (Blue Tiger) 79 Tirumala septentrionis dravidarum Fruhstorfer (Dark Blue Tiger) 80 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus Linnaeus (Plain Tiger) 81 Danaus genutia genutia Cramer (Striped Tiger) 82 Euploea core core Cramer (Common Indian Crow) 83 Idea malabarica Moore (Malabar Tree Nymph) 84 Castalius rosimon rosimon Fabricius ( Common Pierrot) 85 Caleta caleta Hewitson (Angled Pierrot) 86 Discolampa ethion vavsanus Fruhstorfer (Banded Blue Pierrot) 87 Tarucus ananda de Niceville (Dark Pierrot) Erikku Paalvalli Vallippaala Naagathumbi Ponnarali Erikku Vallippaala Vattakkakkakodi Vattakkakkakodi Erikku Ponnarali Paalvalli Ponnarali Aal Nannaari / Naruneendi Paalvalli Vallippaala Ilanji Ponnarali Arali Paarakam Cheri Maalatheelatha Ilantha Vanthudali Kottamullu Vanthudali Cheruthudali Kottamullu Ilantha Ithikkanni Kottamullu Calotropis gigantea Cryptolepis buchananii Tylophora indica Ceropegia bulbosa Asclepias curassavica Calotropis gigantea Tylophora indica Wattakaka volubilis Wattakaka volubilis Calotropis gigantea Asclepias curassavica Cryptolepis buchananii Asclepias curassavica Ficus sp. Hemidesmus indicus Cryptolepis buchananii Tylophora indica Mimusops elengi Asclepias curassavica Nerium odorum Streblus asper Carissa carandas Aganosma cymosa Ziziphus mauritiana Ziziphus rugosa Ziziphus xylopyrus Ziziphus rugosa Ziziphus oenoplia Ziziphus xylopyrus Ziziphus mauritiana Dendrophthoe fulcata Ziziphus xylopyrus

179 88 Syntarucus plinius Fabricius (Zebra Blue) 89 Azanus ubaldus Cramer (Bright Babul Blue) 90 Acytolepis puspa felderi Toxopeus (Common Hedge Blue) 91 Neopithecops zalmora dharma Moore (Quaker ) 92 Megisba malaya twaithesi Moore (Malayan) 93 Zizeeria maha ossa Swinhoe (Pale Grass Blue) 94 Zizeeria karsandra karsandra Moore (Dark Grass Blue) 95 Zizina otis decreta Butler (Lesser Grass Blue) 96 Zizula hylax hylax Fabricius (Tiny Grass Blue) 97 Freyeria trochylus putli Kollar (Southern Grass Jewel) 98 Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Fabricius (Gram Blue) 99 Lampides boeticus Linnaeus (Pea Blue) Nenmeni vaaka Thumbakoduveli Amarichedi Karivelam Chengaringali Irul Poovam Paanal Poovam Kulappunna Mukkannan pezhu Puliyaarila Kozhinjil Kurinji Cherucheera Kaalakomban Ooshappayar Mullakathi Vayalchulli Konginipoo Puliyaarila Pattanippayar Thaamara Chamatha Naayvenga / Thermaram Pattanippayar Vanpayar Mugampayar Chamatha Pattanippayar Chinapayar Kilukki Albizia lebbeck Plumbago zeylanica Indigofera sp. Acacia nilotica Acacia leucocephala Xylia xylocarpa Schleichera oleosa Glycosmis arborea Schleichera oleosa Hemigyrosa deficiens Allophylus cobbe Oxalis corniculata Tephrosia pauciflora Strobilanthes sp. Amaranthes viridis Zornia gibbosa Alysicarpus vaginalis Sesbania bispinosa Hygrophila auriculata Lantana camera Oxalis corniculata Pisum sativam Lotus corniculatus Butea monosperma Ougeinia oojeinensis Pisum sativam Vigna cylindrical Vigna trilobata Butea monosperma Pisum sativam Vigna sinensis Crotalaria sp.

180 100 Jamides celeno aelianus Fabricius (Common Cerulean) 101 Jamides bochus bochus Cramer (Dark Cerulean) 102 Talicada nyseus nyseus Guerin- Meneville (Red Pierrot) 103 Thaduka multicaudata kanara Evans (Many-tailed Oakblue) 104 Surendra quercetorum biplagiata Butler (Common Acacia Blue) 105 Spindasis vulcanus Fabricius (Common Silverline) 106 Loxura atymnus atymnus Cramer (Yamfly) 107 Bindahara phocides moorei Fruhstorfer (Plane) 108 Rathinda amor Fabricius (Monkey puzzle) 109 Zezius chrysomallus Hubner (Red Spot) Kunni Chamatha Ungu Ashokam Kuruvilingam Irul Elam Chamatha Ungu Kilukki Ilamulachi Paaramashi Pambarakumbil Venkaringali Mukkannan pezhu Kaaramullu Ilantha Puzhamulla Kaattakathi Kaachil Kariyilaanji Cherukurandi Chethi Poomaruthu Kashumaavu Pera Venga Abrus precatorius Butea monosperma Pongamia pinnata Saraca asoca Trichilia connaroides Xylia xylocarpa Elettaria cardamomum Butea monosperma Pongamia pinnata Crotalaria sp. Kalanchoe pinnata Kalanchoe laciniata Trewia nudiflora Acacia polycantha Allophylus cobbe Canthium coromandelicum Ziziphus mauritiana Clerodendrome inerme Cadaba fruticosa Dioscorea pentaphylla Smilax sp. Salacia sp. Ixora coccinia Terminalia paniculata Anacardium occidentale Psidium guava Pterocarpus marsupium

181 110 Rapala manea schistacea Moore (Slate Flash) 111 Curetis thetis thetis Drury (Indian Sun Beam) 112 Bibasis sena sena Moore (Orange Tail Awl) 113 Hasora taminatus Hubner (White-Banded Awl) 114 Badamia exclamationis Fabricius (Brown Awl) 115 Celaenorrhinus leucocera (Common Spotted Flat) 116 Tagiades gana Moore (Immaculated / Suffused Snow Flat) 117 Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa Moschler (Water Snow Flat) 118 Pseudocoladenia dan dan Fabricius (Fulvous Pied Flat) 119 Pseudocoladenia indrana indra Evans (Tricolour Pied Flat) 120 Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni Swinhoe (Common Small Flat) 121 Sarangesa purendra pandra Evans (Spotted Small Flat) 122 Spialia galba galba Fabricius Aasharippuli Theyila Nakshathramulla Thudali Inja Cheevaka Karinelli Kunni Ungu Ponnamvalli Vellakurandi Vaasanthi Ponnamvalli Ungu Thaanni Vellakkurandi Karimkurinji Odiyamadantha Neelakanakaambaram Kaachil Kaattukaachil Kaachil Kadalaadi Irul Kurangu manjal Kottakka Murikoottippacha Odivodukki Murikoottippacha Kurunthotti Antidesma acidum Camelia sinensis Quisqualis indica Ziziphus sp. Acacia pennata Acacia tora Antidesma ghaesembilla Abrus precatorius Pongamia pinnata Derris scandens Combretum latifolium Hiptage madablota Derris scandens Pongamia pinnata Terminalia bellerica Combretum latifolium Carvia callosa Ecbolium ligustrinum Eranthemum roseum Dioscorea oppositifolia Dioscorea oppositifolia Dioscorea sp. Achyranthes aspera Xylia xylocarpa Mallotus philippensis Grewia nervosa Asystasia sp. Blepharis asperima Asystasia sp. Sida rhombifolia Hibiscus sp.

182 (Indian Grizzled Skipper) 123 Gomalia elma albofasciata Moore (African Marbled or Mallow Skipper) 124 Ampittia dioscorides dioscorides Fabricius (Bush Hopper) 125 Iambrix salsala lutipennis Plotz (Chestnut Bob) 126 Psolos fuligo subfasciatus Moore (Coon) 127 Notocrypta paralysos alysia Evans (Common Banded Demon) 128 Notocripta curvifascia curvifascia Felder & Felder (Restricted Demon) 129 Udaspes folus Cramer (Grass Demon) 130 Suastus gremius gremius Fabricius (Indian Palm Bob) 131 Matapa aria Moore (Common Red Eye) 132 Gangara thyrsis thyrsis Fabricius (Giant Red Eye) 133 Borbo cinnara Wallengren (Rice Swift) Ooram / Vattoorakam Nellu Grasses Kookkila Inji Channakkoova Suganthi Chengazhaneerkizhangu Kaatinji Kaattumanjal Kasthoorimanjal Malamanjal Kaattumanjal Suganthi Inji Chooral Aanappana Thengu Eenthu Mula Chooral Aanappana Thengu Eenthu Ornamental palms Thina Aanapullu Nambeesan pullu Nellu Abutilon indicum Oryza sativa Stachyphrynium spicatum Zingiber officinalis Curcuma sp. Zingiber sp. Costus speciosa Hedychium coronarium Kaempferia rotunda Zingiber montana Curcuma decipiens Curcuma aromatica C. Pseudomontana Curcuma decipiens Hedychium coronarium Zingiber officinalis Calamus sp. Caryota urens Cocos nucifera Phoenix acaulis Bambusa arundinacea Calamus sp. Caryota urens Cocos nucifera Phoenix acaulis Setaria glauca Cymbopogon sp. Pennisetum sp. Oryza sativa

183 Appendix II. List of butterflies recorded from the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Sl. No. Family / Scientific Name Common Name Page No. Status Family: Papilionidae 1 Troides minos Cramer The Southern Birdwing 23 Common 2 Pachliopta pandiyana Moore The Malabar Rose 23 Endemic 3 Pachliopta aristolochiae Fabricius Common Rose 24 Common 4 Pachliopta hector Linnaeus Crimson Rose 25 Protected, Schedule I 5 Chilasa clytia Linnaeus Common Mime 25 Protected, Schedule I 6 Papilio demoleus Linnaeus Lime Butterfly 26 Very common 7 Papilio liomedon Moore The Malabar Banded Swallowtail 26 Protected, Schedule I 8 Papilio dravidarum Wood- The Malabar Raven 27 Endemic Mason 9 Papilio helenus Linnaeus The Red Helen 28 Common 10 Papilio polytes Linnaeus The Common Mormon 28 Common 11 Papilio polymnestor Cramer The Blue Mormon 29 Common 12 Papilio paris tamilana Moore The Paris Peacock 30 Rare 13 Papilio crino Fabricius The Common Banded 30 Rare Peacock 14 Papilio buddha Westwood The Buddha Peacock 31 Protected, Schedule II 15 Graphium sarpedon teredon The Common Bluebottle 32 Common Felder & Felder 16 Graphium doson Felder The Common Jay 32 Common 17 Graphium agamemnon Linnaeus The Tailed Jay 33 Common 18 Pathysa nomius Esper The Spot Swordtail 33 Rare 19 Pathysa antiphates Fabricius The Five Bar Swordtail 34 Rare

184 Family: Pieridae 20 Delias eucharis Drury The Common Jezebel 35 Common 21 Leptosia nina Fabricius The Psyche 36 Very common 22 Prioneris sita Felder & Felder The Painted Sawtooth 36 common 23 Artogeia canidia Evans The Indian Cabbage 36 Common White 24 Cepora nerissa Fabricius The Common Gull 37 Protected, Schedule II 25 Cepora nadina Moore The Lesser Gull 37 Protected, Schedule II 26 Belenois (=Anaphaeis) aurota The Pioneer 38 Common Fabricius 27 Appias indra shiva Swinhoe The Plain Puffin 39 Rare 28 Appias libythea Fabricius The Striped Albatross 39 Common 29 Appias lyncida Moore The Chocolate Albatross 40 Protected, Schedule II 30 Appias albina Felder & Felder The Common Albatross 40 Rare 31 Appias wardi Moore The Lesser Albatross 41 Protected, Schedule II 32 Colotis amata Fabricius The Small Salmon Arab 42 Common 33 Colotis etrida Boisduval The Little Orange Tip 42 Rare 34 Colotis eucharis Fabricius The Plain Orange Tip 42 Common 35 Colotis danae Fabricius The Crimson Tip 43 Common 36 Madais fausta fulvia Wallengren The Salmon Arab 44 Common 37 Ixias marianne Cramer The White Orange Tip 44 Common 38 Ixias pyrene Fabricius The Yellow Orange Tip 45 Very common 39 Hebomoia glaucippe Butler The Giant Orange Tip 45 Common 40 Pareronia valeria hippia Fabricius The Common Wanderer 46 Rare

185 41 Pareronia ceylonica Felder & The Dark Wanderer 47 Rare Felder 42 Catopsilia pomona Fabricius The Lemon Emigrant 47 Very common 43 Catopsilia pyranthe Linnaeus The Mottled Emigrant 48 Very common 44 Eurema brigitta rubella Wallace The Small Grass Yellow 48 Fairly common 45 Eurema laeta laeta Boisduval The Spotless Grass 49 Fairly common Yellow 46 Eurema hecabe simulata Moore The Common Grass 49 Very common Yellow 47 Eurema blanda silhetana The Three Spot Grass 50 Very common Wallace Yellow 48 Colias nilagiriensis Felder & Nilgiri Clouded Yellow 51 Common Felder Family: Lycaenidae 49 Spalgis epeus epeus Westwood The Ape Fly 52 Common 50 Castalius rosimon rosimon The Common Pierrot 52 Protected, Schedule Fabricius 1 51 Caleta caleta decidia Hewitson The Angled Pierrot 53 Rare 52 Discolampa ethion vavsanus The Banded Blue Pierrot 53 Common Fruhstorfer 53 Tarucus ananda de Niceville The Dark Pierrot 54 Common 54 Tarucus nara Kollar The Striped Pierrot 54 Common 55 Tarucus callinara Butler The Spotted Pierrot 54 Common 56 Syntarucus plinius Fabricius The Zebra Blue 55 Common 57 Azanus ubaldus Cramer The Bright Babul Blue 55 Common 58 Azanus jesous Guerin-Meneville The African Babul Blue 56 Common 59 Everes lacturnus syntala Cantlie The Indian Cupid 56 Common 60 Udara akasa mavisa Fruhstorfer The White Hedge Blue 56 Rare 61 Acytolepis puspa felder The Common Hedge 57 Common Toxopeus Blue 62 Acytolepis lilacea Hampson Hampson s Hedge Blue 57 Common

186 63 Celatoxia albidisca Moore The White-disc Hedge 58 Common Blue 64 Celastrina lavendularis Moore The Plain Hedge Blue 58 Common 65 Neopithecops zalmora dharma The Quaker 58 Common Moore 66 Megisba malaya twaithesi The Malayan 59 Common Moore 67 Zizeeria maha ossa Swinhoe The Pale Grass Blue 59 Common 68 Zizeeria karsandra karsandra The Dark Grass Blue 59 Common Butler 69 Zizina otis decreta Butler The Lesser Grass Blue 60 Rare 70 Zizula hylax hylax Fabricius The Tiny Grass Blue 60 Common 71 Chilades laius Cramer The Lime Blue 61 Very common 72 Chilades parrhasius Fabricius The Small Cupid 61 Common 73 Chilades pandava pandava The Plains Cupid 62 Common Horsfield 74 Freyeria trochylus putli Kollar The Grass Jewel 62 Common 75 Euchrysops cnejus cnejus Fabricius The Gram Blue 63 Protected under Schedule II 76 Catochrysops strabo strabo The Forget-Me-Not 64 Common Fabricius 77 Lampides boeticus Linnaeus The Pea Blue 64 Protected, Schedule II 78 Jamides bochus bochus Cramer The Dark Cerulean 65 Common 79 Jamides celeno aelianus The Common Cerulean 65 Common Fabricius 80 Jamides alecto alocina Swinhoe The Metallic Cerulean 66 Rare 81 Nacaduba pactolus continentalis Fruhstorfer 82 Nacaduba hermus hermus Felder & Felder 83 Nacaduba kurava canaraica Toxopeus 84 Nacaduba calauria evansi Toxopeus The Large Four Line Blue 66 Protected under Schedule II The Pale Four Line Blue 67 Protected, Schedule II The Transparent Six Line 67 Rare Blue The Dark Ceylon Six 68 Extremely rare Line Blue

187 85 Nacaduba beroe gythion The Opaque Six Line 68 Rare Fruhstorfer Blue 86 Ionolyce helicon viola Moore The Pointed Line Blue 68 Rare 87 Prosotas nora nora Felder & The Common Line Blue 69 Common Felder 88 Prosotas dubiosa indica Evans The Tailless Line Blue 69 Rare 89 Prosotas noreia hampsoni de The White Tipped Line 69 Very rare Niceville Blue 90 Petrolaea dana dana de The Dingy Line Blue 69 Rare Niceville 91 Anthene emolus emolus Godart The Ciliate Blue 70 Extremely rare 92 Anthene lycaenina lycaenina The Pointed Ciliate Blue 70 Common Hewitson 93 Talicada nyseus nyseus Guerin- The Red Pierrot 71 Common Meneville 94 Arhopala pseudocentaurus The Western Centaur 71 Common pirama Moore Oak blue 95 Arhopala amantes amantes The Large Oak Blue 72 Rare Moore 96 Arhopala canaraica Moore The Kanara Oak Blue 72 Very rare 97 Arhopala abesus indica Riley The Aberrant Oak Blue 72 Very rare 98 Thaduka multicaudata kanara The Many-Tailed Oak 73 Very rare Evans Blue 99 Surendra quercetorum Moore The Common Acacia 73 Rare Blue 100 Zinaspa todara todara Moore The Silver-Streaked 73 Extremely rare Acacia Blue 101 Iraota timoleon arsaces The Silver Streak Blue 74 Rare Fruhstorfer 102 Amblypodia anita dina Horsfield The Leaf Blue 74 Rare 103 Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus The Common Silver Line 75 Common Fabricius 104 Spindasis schistacea Moore The Plumbeous Silver 75 Endemic Line 105 Spindasis ictis ictis Hewitson The Common Shot Silver 76 Endemic Line 106 Spindasis elima elima Moore Scarce Shot Silver Line 76 Endemic

188 107 Spindasis abnormis Moore The Abnormal Silver 76 Very rare Line 108 Spindasis lohita lazularia Moore The long-banded Silver 76 Common Line 109 Catapaecilma elegans Druce The Common Tinsel 77 Protected, Schedule II 110 Loxura atymnus atymnus Cramer The Yam Fly 77 Common 111 Cheritra freja freja Fabricius The Common Imperial 78 Common 112 Rathinda amor Fabricius The Monkey Puzzle 78 Common 113 Horaga onyx cingalensis Moore The Common Onyx 79 Very rare 114 Horaga viola Moore The Violet Onyx 79 Rare. 115 Zezius chrysomallus Hubner The Red Spot 79 Rare 116 Ancema blanka argentea The Silver Royal 80 Rare Aurivilleus 117 Creon cleobis Godart The Broadtail Royal 80 Rare 118 Pratapa deva deva Moore The White Royal 81 Rare 119 Tajuria maculata Hewitson The Spotted Royal 81 Rare 120 Tajuria cippus cippus Fabricius The Peacock Royal 81 Protected, Schedule Tajuria jehana Moore The Plains Royal 82 Rare 122 Tajuria melastigma de Niceville The Branded Royal 82 Very rare 123 Rachana jalindra macarita The Banded Royal 82 Very rare Fruhstorfer 124 Hypolycaena nilgirica Moore The Nilgiri Tit 83 Rare 125 Chliaria othona othona The Orchid Tit 83 Rare Hewitson 126 Zeltus amasa amasa Hewitson The Fluffy Tit 84 Rare 127 Deudorix epijarbas Moore The Cornelian 84 Protected under Schedule Deudorix isocrates Fabricius The Common Guava Blue 84 Common

189 129 Deudorix perse ghlea Fruhstorfer The Large Guava Blue 85 Rare 130 Bindahara phocides moorei The Plane 85 Protected under Fruhstorfer Schedule II 131 Rapala lankana Moore The Malabar Flash 86 Extremely rare 132 Rapala manea schistacea Moore The Slate Flash 86 Extremely rare 133 Rapala melampus Cramer The Indian Red Flash 87 Rare 134 Curetis thetis thetis Drury The Indian Sun Beam 87 Rare 135 Curetis dentata dentata Moore The Dentate Sunbeam 87 Extremely rare 136 Curetis siva Evans The Shiva Sunbeam 88 Endemic Family : Erycinidae Sub Family : Libytheinae 137 Libythea myrrha carma The Club Beak 89 Rare Fruhstorfer Sub Family: Riodionidae 138 Abisara echerius prunosa Moore The Plum Judy 89 Common Family: Nymphalidae 139 Danaus chrysippus chrysippus The Plain Tiger 91 Very common Linnaeus 140 Danaus genutia genutia Cramer The Striped Tiger 92 Very common 141 Tirumala limniace exoticus The Blue Tiger 92 Very common Gmelin 142 Tirumala septentrionis The Dark Blue Tiger 93 Very common dravidarum Fruhstorfer 143 Parantica aglea aglea Cramer The Glassy Blue Tiger 93 Fairly common 144 Parantica nilgiriensis Moore The Nilgiri Tiger 94 Endemic 145 Idea malabarica Moore The Malabar Tree 94 Endemic Nymph 146 Euploea core core Cramer The Common Indian 94 Very common Crow 147 Euploea sylvester coreta Godart The Double Branded 95 Rare Crow 148 Euploea klugii kollari Felder & The Brown King Crow 95 Fairly common Felder 149 Byblia ilithyia Drury The Joker 96 Rare

190 150 Ariadne ariadne indica Moore The Angled Castor 96 Common 151 Ariadne merione merione The Common Castor 97 Very common Cramer 152 Cupha erymanthis maja The Rustic 97 Common Fruhstorfer 153 Phalanta phalantha Drury The Leopard Butterfly 97 Common 154 Cirrochroa thais thais Fabricius The Tamil Yeoman 98 Common 155 Vindula erota saloma Swinhoe The Cruiser 99 Rare 156 Argyreus hyperbius hybrida The Indian Fritillary 99 Common Evans 157 Cethosia nietneri mahratta The Tamil Lacewing 99 Endemic Felder 158 Junonia hierta Fabricius The Yellow Pansy 100 Very common 159 Junonia orithya swinhoei Butler The Blue Pansy 101 Very common 160 Junonia lemonias Linnaeus The Lemon Pansy 101 Very common 161 Junonia almana almana The Peacock Pansy 101 Very common Linnaeus 162 Junonia atlites atlites Linnaeus The Grey Pansy 102 Rare 163 Junonia iphita pluvialis The Chocolate Pansy 102 Common Fruhstorfer 164 Vanessa cardui cardui Linnaeus The Painted Lady 103 Common 165 Vanessa indica pholoe The Indian Red Admiral 103 Common Fruhstorfer 166 Kaniska canace viridis Evans The Blue Admiral 104 Common 167 Hypolimnas misippus Linnaeus The Common or Danaid Egg fly 104 Protected, Schedule Hyplolimnas bolina jacintha The Great Egg fly 105 Very common Drury 169 Doleschallia bisaltide The Autumn Leaf 106 Rare malabarica Fruhstorfer 170 Kallima horsfieldi Kollar The South Indian Blue Oakleaf 106 Endemic 171 Cyrestis thyodamas indica Evans The Map Butterfly 106 Rare 172 Neptis jumbah jumbah Moore The Chestnut Streaked Sailor 107 Common

191 173 Neptis hylas varmona Moore The Common Sailor 107 Very common 174 Neptis clinia kallaura Moore Sailor 108 Extremely rare 175 Neptis nata hampsoni Moore The Clear Sailor 108 Extremely rare 176 Neptis soma palnica Eliot The Sullied Sailor 109 Rare 177 Neptis (=Lasippa) viraja kanara The Yellow Jack Sailor 109 Rare Evans 178 Neptis (= Phaedyma) columella The Short Banded Sailor 110 Rare nilgirica Moore 179 Pantoporia hordonia hordonia The Common Lascar 110 Common Stoll 180 Athyma nefte inara Doubleday The Colour Sergeant 110 Rare 181 Athyma selenophora kanara The Staff Sergeant 111 Rare Evans 182 Athyma ranga karwara The Black vein Sergeant 111 Rare Fruhstorfer 183 Athyma perius perius Linnaeus The Common Sergeant 112 Common 184 Moduza procris undifragus The Commander 112 Very common Fruhstorfer 185 Parthenos sylvia virens Moore The Clipper 113 Rare 186 Tanaecia lepidea miyana The Grey Count 113 Rare Fruhstorfer 187 Euthalia telchinia Menetries The Blue Baron 114 Rare 188 Euthalia lubentina arasada The Gaudy Baron 114 Common Fruhstorfer 189 Euthalia (=Dolpha) evalina The Red spot Duke 114 Rare laudabilis Swinhoe 190 Symphaedra nais Forster Red Baron 115 Rare 191 Rohana parisatis atacinus The Black Prince 115 Common Fruhstorfer 192 Euripus consimilis meridionalis The Painted Courtesan 116 Rare Wood-Mason 193 Polyura agraria agraria The Anomalous 116 Rare Swinhoe Common Nawab 194 Polyura schreiber wardii Moore The Blue Nawab 116 Extremely rare 195 Eriboea athamas Drury The Common Nawab 117 Rare 196 Charaxes bernardus imna Butler The Tawny Rajah 117 Extremely rare

192 197 Charaxes solon solon Fabricius The Black Rajah 118 Extremely rare 198 Acraea (= violae) terpsicore Linnaeus Family: Satyridae The Tawny Coster 119 Very common 199 Melanitis leda leda Drury The Common Evening 120 very common Brown 200 Melanitis zitenius gokala Moore The Great Evening 120 Extremely rare Brown 201 Melanitis phedima varaha The Dark Evening 121 Rare Moore Brown 202 Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Butler The Common Palm Fly 122 Rare 203 Lethe europa ragalva Fruhstorfer The Bamboo Tree Brown 122 Rare 204 Lethe drypetis todara Moore The Tamil Tree Brown 123 Endemic 205 Lethe rohria neelgheriensis The Common Tree 123 Rare Guerin-Meneville Brown 206 Mycalesis anaxias anaxias The White-bar Bush 124 Common Hewitson Brown 207 Mycalesis perseus typhlus The Common Bush 124 Common Fruhstorfer Brown 208 Mycalesis mineus polydecta The Dark-Brand Bush 125 Common Cramer Brown 209 Mycalesis visala visala Moore The Long- Brand Bush 125 Locally abundant Brown 210 Mycalesis visala subdita Moore The Tamil Bush Brown 125 Locally common 211 Mycalesis igilia Fruhstorfer The Small Long-Brand 126 Endemic Bush Brown 212 Mycalesis khasia orcha Evans The Pale-Brand Bush 126 Common Brown 213 Mycalesis adolphei Guerin- The Red Eye Bush 126 Common Menville Brown 214 Mycalesis patnia junonia Butler The Glad Eye Bush 127 Endemic Brown 215 Orostriona medus mandata The Nigger 127 common Moore 216 Zipoetis saitis Hewitson The Tamil Cats Eye 128 Endemic 217 Ypthima asterope mahratta The Common Three ring 128 Common Moore 218 Ypthima baldus madrasa Evans The Common Five ring 129 Common

193 219 Ypthima ceylonica Hewitson The Ceylon / White Four 129 Locally common ring 220 Ypthima huebneri huebneri The Common Four ring 130 Common Kirby 221 Ypthima avanta striata Hampson The Jewel Four ring 130 Rare 222 Ypthima chenui Guerin- The Nilgiri Four ring 131 Endemic Meneville 223 Ypthima philomela tabella The Baby Five ring 131 Extremely rare Marshall & de Niceville Family: Amathusidae 224 Discophora lepida lepida Moore The Southern Duffer 132 Protected under Schedule II Family: Hesperidae 225 Bibasis sena sena Moore The Orange Tail Awl 133 Extremely rare 226 Choaspes benjaminii The Indian Awl King 133 Common 227 Hasora chromus chromus The Common Banded 134 Common Cramer Awl 228 Hasora taminatus Hubner The White Banded Awl 134 Common 229 Hasora badra badra Moore The Common Awl 134 Common 230 Badamia exclamationis The Brown Awl 135 Rare Fabricius 231 Celaenorrhinus ambareesa The Malabar Spotted Flat 135 Common Moore 232 Celaenorrhinus ruficornis fusca The Tamil Spotted Flat 135 Endemic Hampson 233 Celaenorrhinus leucocera The Common Spotted 136 Common Flat 234 Tagiades japetus obscurus The Common Snow Flat 136 Common Mabille 235 Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa The Water Snow Flat 136 Common Moschler 236 Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni The Common Small Flat 137 Common Swinhoe 237 Sarangesa purendra pandra The Spotted Small Flat 137 Common Evans 238 Tapena twaithesi twaithesi Moore The Angled Flat 138 Rare

194 239 Pseudocoladenia dan dan The Fulvious Pied Flat 138 Common Fabricius 240 Pseudocoladenia indrana indra The Tricolour Flat 138 Common Evans 241 Odontoptilum angulata angulata The Banded Angle 139 Common Felder & Felder 242 Caprona ransonnetti potiphera The Golden Angle 139 Common Hewitson 243 Caprona alida vespa Evans The Indian Ace 139 Common 244 Iambrix salsala lutipennis Evans The Chestnut Bob 140 Very common 245 Notocripta curvifascia The Restricted Demon 140 Common curvifascia Felder & Felder 246 Matapa aria Moore The Common Red Eye 141 Common 247 Borbo cinnara Wallengren The Rice Swift 141 Rare 248 Borbo bevani bevani Moore The Bevan s Swift 141 Rare 249 Aeromachus pygmaeus Fabricius The Pygmy Grass Hopper 142 Rare 250 Ampittia dioscorides dioscorides The Bush Hopper 142 Rare Fabricius 251 Halpe porus Mabille The Moore s Ace 143 Common 252 Sovia hyrtacus de Niceville The Bicolour Ace 143 Endemic 253 Thoressa honorei deniceville The Madras Ace 143 Endemic 254 Thoressa astigmata Swinhoe The Ace 144 Endemic 255 Psolos fuligo subfasciatus The Coon 144 Common Moore 256 Notocrypta paralysos alysia The Common Banded 144 Common Evans Demon 257 Udaspes folus Cramer The Grass Demon 145 Common 258 Hyarotis adrastus Cramer The Tree Flitter 145 Rare 259 Arnetta mercara Evans The Coorg Forest Hopper 145 Endemic 260 Arnetta vindhiana nilgiriana Moore The Vindhyan Bob 146 Rare

195 261 Suastus gremius gremius The Indian Palm Bob 146 Common Fabricius 262 Suastus minuta bipunctus The Small Palm Bob 147 Rare Swinhoe 263 Baracus vittatus Felder & Felder The Hedge Hopper 147 Common 264 Gangara thyrsis thyrsis The Giant Redeye 147 Very common Fabricius 265 Telecota colon The Pale Palm Dart 148 Common 266 Telecota ancilla The Dark Palm Dart 148 Common 267 Oriens concinna Elwes The Tamil Dartlet 148 Rare 268 Oriens goloides Moore The Indian Dartlet 149 Rare 269 Taractrocera maevius Fabricius The Common Grass Dart 149 Common 270 Taractrocera ceramas ceramas The Tamil Grass Dart 149 Common Hewitson 271 Potanthus pseudomaesa The Pseudomaesa Dart 150 Extremely rare pseudomaesa Moore 272 Potanthus confucius diana The Confucian Dart 150 Extremely rare Evans 273 Potanthus pava pava Fruhstofer The Pava Dart 150 Extremely rare 274 Potanthus palnia Evans The Palni Dart 150 Extremely rare 275 Pelopidas subochracea The Large Branded Swift 151 Extremely rare subochracea Moore 276 Pelopidas mathias mathias The Small Branded Swift 151 Very common Fabricius 277 Pelopidas conjuncta narooa The Conjoined Swift 151 Extremely rare Moore 278 Polytremis lubricans lubricans The Contiguous Swift 152 Extremely rare Herrich-Schaffer 279 Baoris farri farri Moore The Paint Brush Swifts 152 Extremely rare 280 Caltoris kumara kumara Moore The Blank Swift 153 Extremely rare 281 Caltoris canaraica Moore The Kanara Swift 153 endemic 282 Caltoris philippina philippina Herrich-Schaffer The Philippine Swift 153 Rare

196 PLATE - I Papilionidae: 1. Troides minos; 2. Pachliopta pandiyana; 3. P. aristolochiae; 4. P. hector; 5. Papilio clytia; 6. P. demoleus; 7. P. liomedon; 8. P. dravidarum; 9. P. helenus; 10. P. polytes; 11. P. polymnestor; 12. P. paris.

197 PLATE - II Papilionidae: 13. Papilio crino; 14. Papilio budha; 15. Graphium sarpedon; 16. G. doson; 17. G. agamemnon; 18. Pathysa nomius; 19. P. antiphates; Pieridae: 20. Delias eucharis; 21. Leptosia nina; 22. Prioneris sita; 23. Artogeia canidia; 24. Cepora nerissa.

198 PLATE - III Pieridae: 25. Cepora nadina; 26. Belenois aurota; 27. Appias indra; 28. A. libythea; 29. A. lyncida; 30. A. albina; 31. A. wardi; 32. Colotis amata; 33. C. etrida; 34. C. eucharis; 35. C. danae; 36. Madais fausta fulvia

199 PLATE - IV Pieridae: 37. Ixias marianne; 38. Ixias pyrene; 39. Hebomoia glaucippe; 40. Pareronia valeria; 41. P. ceylonica; 42. Catopsilia pomona; 43. C. pyranthe; 44. Eurema brigitta; 45. E. laeta; 46. E. hecabe; 47. E. blanda; 48. Colias nilgiriensis.

200 PLATE - V Lycaenidae: 49. Spalgis epeus epeus; 50. Castalius rosimon; 51. Caleta caleta decidia; 52. Discolampa ethion; 53. Tarucus ananda; 54. T. nara; 55. T. callinara; 56. Syntarucus plinius; 57. Azanus ubaldus; 58. A. jesous; 59. Everus lacturnus syntala; 60. Udara akasa mavisa.

201 PLATE - VI Acytolepis puspa; 62. A. lilacea lilacea; 63. Celatoxia albidisca; 64. Celastrina lavendularis lavendularis; 65. Neopithecops zalmora dharma; 66. Megisba malaya twaithesi; 67. Zizeeria maha ossa; 68. Zizeeria karsandra; 69. Zizinia otis decreta; 70. Zizula hylax hylax; 71. Chilades laius; 72. C. parrhasius.

202 PLATE - VII Lycaenidae: 73. C. pandava pandava; 74. Freyeria trochylus putli; 75. Euchrysops cnejus cnejus; 76. Catochrysops strabo strabo. 77. Lampides boeticus; 78. Jamides bochus bochus; 79. J. celeno aelianus; 80. J. alecto alocina; 81. Nacaduba pactolus continentalis; 82. N. hermus hermus; 83. N. kurava canaraica; 84. N. calauria evansi.

203 PLATE - VIII Lycaenidae: 85. N. beroe gythion; 86. Ionolyce helicon viola; 87. Prosotas nora nora; 88. Prosotas dubiosa indica. 89. Prosotas noreia; 90. Petrolaea dana dana; 91. Anthene emolus emolus; 92. A. lycaenina lycaenina; 93. Talicada nyseus nyseus; 94. Arhopala pseudocentaurus pirama; 95. A. amantes amantes; 96. A. abesus indica.

204 PLATE - IX Lycaenidae: 97. Thaduka multicaudata kanara; 98. Surendra quercetorum; 99. Iraota timoleon arsaces; 100. Amblypodia anita; 101. Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus; 102. S. schistacea; 103. S. ictis ictis; 104. S. elima elima; 105. S. abnormis; 106. S. lohita lazularia; 107. Catopaecilma elegans; 108. Loxura atymnus atymnus.

205 PLATE - X Lycaenidae: 109. Cheritra freja freja; 110. Rathinda amor; 111. Horaga onyx cingalensis; 112. Zezius chrysomallus Ancema blanka argentea; 114. Creon cleobis; 115. Pratapa deva deva; 116. Tajuria maculata; 117. T. cippus cippus; 118. Tajuria jehana; 119. T. melastigma; 120. Rachana jalindra macarita.

206 PLATE - XI Lycaenidae: 121. Chliaria othona othona; 122. Zeltus amasa amasa; 123. Deudorix epijarbas; 124. D. isocrates; 125. Deudorix perse; 126. Bindahara phocides; 127. Rapala lankana; 128. R. manea; 129. R. melampus; 130. Curetis thetis thetis; 131. C. dentata dentata; 132. C. siva.

207 PLATE - XII Erycinidae: Riodinae 133. Abisara echerius prunosa; Nymphalidae: 134. Danaus chrysippus; 135. D.genutia genutia; 136. Tirumala limniace exoticus; 137. Tirumala septentrionis dravidarum; 138. Paranticaaglea aglea; 139. P. nilgiriensis; 140. Idea malabarica; 141. Euploea core core; 142. E. sylvester coreta; 143. E. klugii kollari; 144. Byblia ilithyia.

208 PLATE - XIII Nymphalidae: 145. Ariadne ariadne indica; 146. A. merione merione; 147. Cupha erymanthis maja; 148. Phalanta phalantha; 149. Cirrochroa thais thais; 150. Vindula erota saloma; 151. Argyreus hyperbius; 152. Cethosia nietneri mahratta; 153. Junonia hierta; 154. J. orithya swinhoei; 155. J. lemonias; 156. J. almana almana.

209 PLATE - XIV Nymphalidae: 158. J. atlites atlites; 159. J. iphita pluvialis; 160. Vanessa cardui cardui; 161. Vanessa indica pholoe; 162. Kaniska canace viridis; 163. Hypolimnas misippus; 164. H. bolina; 165. Doleschallia bisaltide malabarica; 166. Kallima horsfieldi; 167. Cyrestis thyodamas indica; 168. Neptis jumbh jumbah; 169. N. hylas varmona.

210 PLATE - XV Nymphalidae: 169. N. clinia kallaura; 170. N. nata hampsoni; 171. N. soma palnica; 172. N. viraja kanara; 173. N. columella nilgirica; 174. Pantoporia hordonia hordonia; 175. Athyma nefte inara; 176. A. selenophora kanara; 177. A. ranga karwara; 178. A. perius perius; 179. Moduza procris undifragus; 180. Parthenos sylvia virens.

211 PLATE - XVI Nymphalidae: 181. Tanaecia lepidea miyana; 182. Euthalia telchinia; 183. E. lubentina arasada; 184 Euthalina evalina laudabilis; 185. Symphaedra nais; 186. Rohana parisatis atacinus; 187. Euripus consimilis meridionalis; 188. Polyura agrarian agrarian; 189. P. schreiber wardii; 190. Eriboea athamas; 191. Charaxes bernardus imna; 192. C. solon solon.

212 PLATE - XVII Acraeidae: 193. Acraea terpsicore; Erycinidae: Riodinae: 194. Libythea myrrha carma; Satyridae: 195. Melantis leda; 196. M. zitenius; 197. Melantis phedima; 198. Elymnias hypermnestra caudate; 199. Lethe europa ragalva; 200. Lethe drypetis todara; 201. L. rohria nilgirensis; 202. Mycalesis anaxias anaxias; 203. M. perseus typhlus; 204. M. mineus polydectai.

213 PLATE - XVIII Satyridae: 205. M. visala visala; 206. M. visala subdita; 207. M. igilia; 208. M. adolphei; 209. Mycalesis patnia junonia; 210. Orostriona medus mandata; 211. Zipoetis saitis; 212. Ypthima asterope maharatta; 213. Y. baldus madrasa; 214. Y. ceylonica; 215. Y. ceylonica huebneri; 216. Y. avanta striata.

214 PLATE - XIX Satyridae: 217. Ypthima chenui; 218. Y. philomela tabella; Amathusidae: 219. Discophora lepida Hesperiidae: 220. Bibasis sena sena; 221. Choaspes benjaminii; 222. Hasora chromus chromus; 223. H. taminatus; 224. H. badra badra; 225. Badamia exclamationis; 226. Celaenorrhinus ambareesa; 227. C. ruficornis fusca; 228. C. leucocera.

215 PLATE - XX Hesperiidae: 229. Tagiades japetus obscurus; 230. T. litigiosa litigiosa; 231. Sarangesa dasahara davisoni; 232. S. purendra pandra; 233. Tapena twaithesi twaithesi; 234. Pseudocoladenia dan dan; 235. P. indrana indra; 236. Odontoptilum angulata angulata; 237. Caprona ransonnetti potiphera; 238. C. alida; 239. Iambrix salsala lutipennis; 240. Notocripta curvifascia curvifascia.

216 PLATE - XXI Hesperiidae: 241. Matapa aria; 242. Borbo cinnara; 243. Borbo bevani bevani; 244. Aeromachus pygmaeus; 245. Ampittia dioscorides; 246. Halpe porus; 247. Sovia hyrtacus; 248. Thoressa honorei; 249. T. astigmata; 250. Psolos fuligo subfasciatus; 251. Notocrypta paralysos alysia; 252. Udaspes folus.

217 PLATE - XXII Hesperiidae: 253. Hyarotis adrastus; 254. Arnetta mercara; 255. A. vindhiana; 256. Suastus gremius gremius; 257. Baracus vittatus; 258. Gangara thyrsis thyrsis; 259. Telecota colon; 260. T. ancilla; 261. Oriens concinna; 262. O. goloides; 263. Taractrocera maevius; 264. T. ceramas ceramas.

218 PLATE - XXIII Hesperiidae: 265. Potanthus pseudomaesa pseudomaesa; 266. P. Confucius diana; 267. P. pava pava; 268. Pelopidas subochracea subochracea; 269. P. mathias mathias; 270. P. conjuncta narooa; 271. Polytremis lubricans lubricans; 272. Baoris farri farri; 273. Caltoris kumara kumara; 274. C. canaraica.