SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF HOOF DISORDERS USING FUNCTIONAL HOOF TRIMMING IN ORGANISED DAIRY FARMS

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1 SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF HOOF DISORDERS USING FUNCTIONAL HOOF TRIMMING IN ORGANISED DAIRY FARMS BY MAHENDRA SHESHRAO BAGATE B. V. Sc. & A. H. (Registration No ) DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SURGERY AND RADIOLOGY COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE & ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY ANAND (GUJARAT) INDIA 2012

2 SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF HOOF DISORDERS USING FUNCTIONAL HOOF TRIMMING IN ORGANISED DAIRY FARMS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Master of Veterinary Science IN VETERINARY SURGERY & RADIOLOGY BY MAHENDRA SHESHRAO BAGATE B. V. Sc. & A. H. (Registration No ) DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SURGERY AND RADIOLOGY COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE & ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY ANAND (GUJARAT) INDIA 2012

3 Dr. D. B. PATIL Ph.D., FISVS Professor & Head Department of Veterinary Surgery & Radiology College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry Anand Agricultural University Anand (Gujarat) CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF HOOF DISORDERS USING FUNCTIONAL HOOF TRIMMING IN ORGANISED DAIRY FARMS submitted by MAHENDRA SHESHRAO BAGATE Reg. No in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of MASTER OF VETERINARY SCIENCE in the subject of VETERINARY SURGERY AND RADIOLOGY of the Anand Agricultural University is a record of bonafied research work carried out by him under my guidance and supervision and the thesis has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma or other similar title. PLACE: ANAND (D. B. PATIL) DATE: --/--/2012 MAJOR ADVISOR

4 C E R T I F I C A T E This is to certify that I have no objection for supplying to any scientist one copy of any part of the thesis at a time through reprographic process, if necessary, for rendering reference services in a library or documentation center. Place: Anand Date: / /2012 (MAHENDRA S. BAGATE) Research Scholar (D. B. PATIL) MAJOR ADVISOR

5 CONTENTS SR. NO. CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO. I INTRODUCTION 1-4 II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 5-30 III MATERIALS & METHODS IV RESULTS V DISCUSSION VI SUMMARY & CONCLUSIONS VII REFERENCES i xviii List of Plates

6 Plate No Title Housing systems in organised dairy farms visited (A) Head to head system on Pakka floor (B) Tail to tail system on Pakka floor (C) Semi intensive type of housing Housing systems in organised dairy farms visited (D) Kachha floor - free range system (E) Semi intensive type of housing (F) Housing with Kachha muddy floor Housing systems in Panjrapoles and Gaushala visited (A) Open shade loose housing system with pakka floor in panjrapole (B) Open shade loose housing system with kaccha floor in panjrapole (C) Head to head system with pakka floor in Gaushala Claw deformities (A) Initial stage of overgrown hoof involving lateral hind claw of a cow (B) Scissor claws in both fore limbs of a Gir cow (C) Sleeper claws in both fore limbs of a buffalo Claw deformities (D) Corkscrew claw of left hind limb in a HF cow (E) Corkscrew-overgrown medial claw of left hind limb in a buffalo (F) Bilateral Cork screw claws in both hind limbs of a cow Claw deformities (A) Sole horn separation at white line of medial claw in right limb of a buffalo (B) Punctured sole in right hind limb of a buffalo (C) Swollen coronary band and interdigital dermatitis of both the hind limbs Claw deformities (D) Overgrown claws of both fore limbs with laminitic lining in a buffalo (E) Interdigital fibroma/granuloma/corn in fore limb of a HF cow (F) Oedematous coronary band 8 Claw deformities (A) Cork screw claw forcing animal to bear weight on lateral hoof wall (B) Horn erosion at the typical site of sole ulcer (C) A typical sole ulcer is located in zone 3 at the junction of the After Page No

7 heel and sole Claw deformities (D) Pockets of soft powdery horn in the sole (E) White line impaction (F) Blackened necrotic mass with white line separation Claw deformities (A) Underrun toe in a HF cow (B) Yellow discolouration at toe and haemorrhage at zone 3 (C) Wound at the posterior aspect above the heel Claw deformities (D) Maggot wound with fresh blood (E) Dressing of the maggot wound (F) Heel ulcer Hoof trimming instruments (A) Hoof cutter (B) Different types hoof knives (C) Set of hoof knives with case Hoof trimming instruments (D) Hoof pick / knife metal handle (E) Hoof knife sharpening stone (F) i) Nail puller, ii) Hoof pincer, iii) Hoof tester Hoof trimming instruments (I) Electric angle grinder (J) Hoof rasper Hoof trimming (A) Hoof trimming with hoof cutter in standing position (B) Lateral recumbence of cattle for hoof trimming (C) Restraint of a cow in a Tip Chute for hoof trimming Hoof trimming (D) Overgrown hoof was cut after restraining animal in a Tip Chute (E) Hoof trimming using electrical angle grinder (F) Rasping of the hoof in a buffalo Hoof trimming (G) Before and after hoof trimming of right hind leg in cow (H) Before and after hoof trimming of right hind leg in cow (I) Adhesive bandaging of the hoof Functional hoof trimming using Tip Chute in lateral recumbence 33

8 List of Tables Table No. 3.1 Title Definition of foot lesions recorded during the survey Page No Number of affected animals with foot disorders following survey of cattle and buffaloes in organised dairy farms, university farm, Panjrapoles and Gaushala in and around Anand and Gujarat state Incidence of hoof disorders recorded during the survey Number of affected animals of hoof disorders observed in cattle and buffaloes under different management systems Incidence (%) of hoof disorders observed in cattle and buffaloes under different management systems Foot lesions recorded during the survey in cattle and buffaloes Breed wise incidence of hoof disorders in cattle Breed wise incidence of hoof disorders in buffaloes Prevalence of foot lesions based on lactation age in cattle and buffaloes Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle and buffaloes Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle and buffaloes Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (790) and buffalo (333) in organised dairy farms 47

9 Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (3533) and buffalo (954) in Panjrapoles Distribution of hoof lesions between inner and outer claws and between fore and hind limbs in cattle and buffaloes Affections of hoof as per feeding practices Concentration of glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, Ca, P, Mg, Na and K in the serum of cattle and buffaloes affected with hoof disorders (n=20) Concentration of Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca and P in the hoof shavings of cattle and buffaloes affected with hoof disorders (n=20) Average estimated levels of nutrients supplied to affected crossbred cows Average estimated levels of nutrients supplied to affected Kankrej cow Average estimated levels of nutrients supplied to affected buffaloes Breed wise comparison between different parameters of blood and hoof shavings 56 List of Figures

10 Figure No. Title Page No. 1 Hoof Anatomy Side View 8 2 Hoof Anatomy Bottom View 8 3 Right hand Tip Chute 34 List of charts Chart No. 4.1 Title After Page No. Incidence (%) of hoof disorders observed in cattle and buffaloes under different management systems Foot lesions recorded during survey in cattle and buffaloes Incidence of hoof disorders based on lactational age (n= 1029) Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (6282) and buffaloes (1616) 42 Percent involvement of medial and outer claws with different hoof lesions among affected cattle and buffaloes Affections of hoof as per feeding practices Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (790) and buffalo (333) in organised dairy farms Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (3533) and buffalo (954) in Panjrapoles 47

11 Abbreviations Cm IM IV ml kg mg gm SQ dl Lt. HF ppm Centimetre Intramuscular Intravenous Millilitre Kilogram Milligram Gram Subcutaneous Decilitre Litre Holstein Frisian Parts per million

12 SURGICAL MANAGEMENT OF HOOF DISORDERS USING FUNCTIONAL HOOF TRIMMING IN ORGANISED DAIRY FARMS Name of Student Major Advisor Mahendra S. Bagate Dr. D. B. Patil DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SURGERY AND RADIOLOGY COLLEGE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE AND ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY ANAND , GUJARAT (INDIA) ABSTRACT The present investigations were aimed at recording the incidence of different hoof lesions to undertake standardized treatment protocols for management of various foot disorders, to perform functional claw trimming of affected animals at farmers door step using Tip Chute, to collect the hoof shavings and blood samples of certain affected animals for certain laboratory estimations and suggest preventive measures to reduce occurrence of hoof disorders in 14 selected organised dairy farms, 2 university farms, 7 Panjrapoles and 3 Gaushala in and around Anand and Gujarat state. The information derived by surveillance was analyzed in relation to species, breed, age, sex, housing system and floor conditions. Surveillance of 6282 cattle and 1616 buffaloes revealed 1029 clinical cases of hoof diseases comprising of percent cattle and percent buffaloes. The overall average incidence of hoof diseases was percent, comprising of percent cattle and percent buffaloes. The incidence of different foot lesions included sole ulcer 26 (2.52%), white line separation 133 (12.92 %), white line abscess 13 (1.26%), punctured sole and pus 39 (3.79%), foreign body in sole 18 (1.74%), heel horn erosion 19 (1.84%), foul of the foot 24 (2.33%), interdigital

13 hyperplasia 37 (3.59%), interdigital foreign body 4 (0.38%), sole hemorrhages 72 (6.99%), horizontal fissure 34 (3.3%), sand crack 13 (1.26%), aseptic laminitis 27 (2.62%), cork screw horn 57 (5.53%), deep sepsis 7 (0.68%) and overgrown hooves 506 (49.17%). The breed wise distribution of hoof disorders revealed the highest incidence in H.F. crossbreds 716/5291 (13.53%) followed by Gir 78/587 (13.28%) and Kankrej 52/404 (12.87%). Similarly among buffaloes, highest breed incidence was recorded in Mehsana (20.63%), followed by Surti (17.28%), Murrah (14.15%), non-descript (14.28%) and Jafrabadi (9.64%). The condition of the housing was the main factor in occurrence of hoof problems in cattle and buffalo population. The overall prevalence rate was higher among cattle 263/1148 (14.56%) and buffaloes 127/1113 (11.41%) kept on the kachha floor; and with comfortable housing, the incidence in cattle (215/1951, 11.01%) and buffaloes (56/503, 11.13%) was less. In organised dairy farms the prevalence rate was higher among cattle 86/725 (11.86%) and buffaloes 39/331 (11.78%) tied permanently on pakka floor with no access to exercise and with limited housing area; and followed by cattle 4/65 (6.15%) and buffaloes 0/2 (0%) maintained on kachha floor with facilities of exercise and comfortable housing. In Panjrapoles the prevalence rate was higher among cattle 412/2770 (14.87%) and buffaloes 86/785 (10.95 %) on pakka floor with facilities of exercise. On kaccha floor with uneven surface, the incidence was higher in cattle (140/763, 18.34%) and buffalo (16/169, 9.46%). Hoof lesions were observed to be greater in hind limbs (638; 62.00%) with greater involvement of outer claw (396; 62.06%) than in fore-limbs (175; 44.75%) with more involvement of inner claw (216; 55.24%).

14 Hoof disorders observed were higher as the concentrate level in the diet increased. Out of 7898 animals, 1785 (22.60%) were maintained on higher concentrate (80-90%) feed in the diet, 2672 (33.83%) animals were on moderately high concentrate feed (65-80%), while rest (3441: 43.56%) on the normal concentrate feed (50-65%) in the diet. Manual hoof trimming was done in 150 animals with 60 animals in standing position and 50 in recumbency. 10 vicious animals required sedation for hoof trimming. Tip Chute was use in 40 animals for trimming. Out of biochemical parameters of blood (Glucose, Total Protein, Albumin, Globulin, Ca, P, Mg, Na, K) and hoof shavings (Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca, P) only 4 parameters (Total protein, Mg in serum and Zn, Cu in hoof shavings) showed significant difference between groups of cow breeds- H.F., Kankrej and Mehsana buffalo. Successful functional trimming of the hooves in 150 animals facilitated early detection of subclinical laminitic lesions and thus reduced the incidence of hoof lesions. Use of Tip Chute facilitated proper restraint and comfortable functional hoof trimming with less manpower and time.

15 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Hoof disorders are the most important health problems in cattle. The majority of hoof problems in the bovine species affect dairy cows. Claw disorders are frequently reported in dairy cattle all over the world. Claw diseases are consequently a highly important economical and animal welfare issue (Whay et al., 1998, 2003). Hoof lesions associated with excess wear and over loading were thus emphasized in the early literature on bovine health. The farmer s ignorance and practical difficulties associated with the examination and treatment of lame cows caused the negligence of bovine hoof health (Hess, 1904). In modern scientific reports, it has been stated that farmers exaggerate their respective herd s hoof health status (Mill and Ward, 1994; Whay et al., 2002) and avoid claw trimming, which is perceived as both perilous and intrusive (Seabrook and Wilkinson, 2000). The greatest increase in the incidence of lameness has taken place in high - producing intensively managed dairy herds. Problems resulted from greater confinement and increasing herd size. The restricted freedom of movement results from poor barn design. In modern dairy production, dirtiness in stalls and alleys remains a major problem (Hultgren et al., 1998). As herd size increases there is an increasing tendency for feedstuffs to be purchased from different sources, which results in the inconsistent quality of the feedstuffs and contributing to poor nutritional management. There has also been an increased incidence of subclinical laminitis and the disorders that complicate this condition (Greenough, 1962). Intensive cattle management drew attention to the hoof care in organized farms in recent past. The statistics on incidences of bovine lameness show increasing trend (Greenough et al., 1981). The several reports demonstrate 1

16 Introduction lameness in dairy cows as an economically important production disease (Kaneene and Hurd, 1990; Fourichon et al., 2001). The incidence of lameness is such that all herds should develop facilities for the safe and efficient handling of lame cows. Availabilities of good restraint facilities, foot care equipment, and training of personnel in foot care and claw trimming is essential particularly in larger herds. Apart from direct injury to the hoof, viz., punctures, ulcers, abscesses and lacerations, laminitis is the most common non-infectious lameness in cattle. Hoof problems (sole ulcer, white line abscess and solar haemorrhage) are typically one of the leading causes of lameness (Smilie et al., 1996). Hooves that are affected with laminitis also begin to grow at abnormal rates due to increased vascularization, altering the shape of the hoof and leading more discomfort to the animal. Severe chronic cases of laminitis are characterized by deformation of claw. The claw becomes flatted broad with a concave and furrowed dorsal wall. The white line becomes widened, soft and discolored. White line haemorrhages, double sole, ulcers at typical site are considered as possible consequence of laminitis (Ossent and Lischer, 1998). Yellow, soft horn, haemorrhages, double sole, white line disease, sole or toe ulcer, deformed claw are the results of chronic laminitis, which causes horizontal grooves, concave dorsal and abaxial wall and a bulged or dropped sole. In buffaloes, acute laminitis or similar lesions were rarely reported but however, scissors hooves and overgrown hooves may result in chronic laminitis was commonly encountered disorders in buffaloes. (Singh, 2001). When a cow becomes lame, she loses her status of dominance among the rest of the herd. She becomes less competitive for resources such as water, forages, and concentrates. Lameness also causes the interval between calving and 2

17 Introduction conception to increase. One of the reasons for this is that the associated pain reduces the ability of a lame cow to ride another during oestrus. This in turn will reduce the cowman s ability to detect heat. (Collick et al,. 1989). British researchers estimated that sole ulcers were responsible for the greatest economic loss ($ 627/case) followed by digital diseases such as white line disease and sole abscess, which accounted for losses of $ 257/case. Lameness is one of the most costly health problems affecting dairy cattle (Shearer and Van Amster, 2000). Nutrition also plays a key role in hoof health and maintaining proper growth rate. By keeping an animal well fed with proper nutrients such as zinc and biotin, it is much more likely that they will produce good quality hoof horn and have stronger feet. Trace mineral nutrition plays a critical role in building and maintaining strong, healthy feet. For example, zinc and copper are essential nutrients for developing healthy claw horn tissue, while zinc and manganese play a crucial role in wound healing. Research has shown that feeding a combination of trace minerals (Zn, Mn, Cu and Co) in a highly available complexed form helps decrease both the incidence and severity of common claw lesions. A well-maintained routine of cleaning and trimming animals' feet will lead to a far lower incidence of discomfort and lameness in animals. Routine claw trimming has a positive effect on hoof health and gives a good opportunity to obtain records of hoof health. Corrective paring is an essential prophylactic measure, used in many intensive husbandry systems where normal horn growth and wear are deficient. This time consuming, unpleasant and dirty work results into a reduced incidence of lameness cases and bigger profits. (Manson et al., 1988) 3

18 Introduction Thus, there has been extensive research work on the bovine foot diseases in western countries, but in India less work has been documented on hoof disorders of cattle and buffaloes. Looking to the importance of hoof disorders in the organised dairy farms and Panjrapoles in and around Anand and Gujarat State, the present study was proposed with the following objectives. 1. To record the incidence of different claw lesions in selected organised dairy farms and Panjrapoles in and around Anand and Gujarat state. 2. To undertake standardised treatment protocols for management of various foot disorders. 3. To perform functional claw trimming of affected animals at farmers door step using Tip Chute, wherever feasible. 4. To collect the hoof shavings and blood sample of affected animals for certain laboratory estimations. 5. To suggest preventive measures to reduce occurrence of hoof disorders in dairy farms. 4

19 Review of Literature CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Bovine foot lameness has emerged as one of the major causes of economic loss to the farmers due to decreased production and reproductive performance (Collick et al., 1989; Esslemont, 1990). Potter and Broom (1990), reported that welfare issue is another aspect of the bovine foot lameness as affected animal feels severe pain and discomfort. Recent developments in the field of extensive dairy management, increased owner's awareness, and new treatment techniques make hoof care an indispensable part of bovine health care. A comprehensive review of the literature relevant to the subject is presented under following heads and sub heads. 2.1 Normal anatomy and physiology of the bovine hoof Hoof anatomy in relation to care and management in livestock The biomechanics of weight-bearing 2.2 Incidence of hoof disorders in cattle and buffaloes 2.3 Economic importance of hoof disorders 2.4 Animal welfare related to hoof care and management 2.5 Predisposing factors of hoof disorders Hoof diseases related to production Effect of housing pattern pertaining to cow comfort and behaviour Role of diets and feeding in occurrence of claw diseases 2.6 Pathological alterations 2.7 Hoof lesions observed in cattle and buffaloes Laminitis Interdigital hyperplasia 5

20 Review of Literature Foul of the foot Heel horn erosion Claw conformation and overgrowth Sole ulcer Foreign body in hoof, hoof infection and hoof abscess Interdigital dermatitis Vertical fissures (sand cracks) Horizontal fissures (hardship grooves) 2.8 Prophylaxis and control Claw trimming Other surgical procedures 2.1 Normal anatomy and physiology of the bovine hoof Hoof anatomy in relation to care and management in livestock Sisson and Grossman (1955), Raghvan (1964) and Getty (1975) described in detail structural anatomy of bovine and bubaline hoof. They are cloven-footed animal and the two digits are analogous to third and fourth finger of the human hand. There is the outer, or lateral claw, and the inner, or medial claw. In cattle, the lateral claw is slightly larger in the back feet, while the medial claw is the larger claw in the front feet. The space between the two claws is called the interdigital cleft and the area of skin is called the interdigital skin. The horn is a hard surface, structurally similar to the human fingernail, but functionally like the epidermis of the skin. The cells that form the horn are produced by the tissue directly beneath the hoof wall, called the corium. The corium is a nutrient-rich tissue that contains many important blood vessels and nerves inside the hoof. Underneath the hoof is a slightly softer region called the sole, the tissue that makes up the sole is produced 6

21 Review of Literature from corium of the sole. The point where the hoof wall is bound to the sole is called the white line. The white line is a somewhat flexible junction between the sole and wall, allowing the hoof to be more flexible as the animal moves. The sole should be five to seven millimetres thick for the inside of the hoof to be protected properly. Directly above the sole is the corium, which is below the digital cushion. The digital cushion is a pad of fatty tissue that serves to protect the corium, as well as to aid in blood transport in the leg. It also serves as a shock absorber for the digital phalangeal bones. The pedal bone is attached to the corium by sensitive connective tissue called the laminar tissue, or laminae. The deep flexor tendon is attached to the back portion of the pedal bone, making it very important for locomotion and flexion of the foot. The segments of the claw capsule Weaver (1981) reviewed the disorders of the ruminant digit with proposal for anatomical and pathological terminology and recording. Claw segments are five different regions of the capsule together with the underlying associated dermis and subcutis. Therefore, each segment has a specific configuration of a dermal papillary body, specific modes of cornification, and specific architecture of claw horn. The claw can be divided into five segments: periople, coronary segment, wall, sole, and bulb (Greenough, 2007) The normal anatomical structures are depicted in the following schematic diagram. 7

22 Review of Literature (Source: Dr. Jan Shearer, University of Florida) Hoof Anatomy Side View (Source: Dr. Jan Shearer, University of Florida) Hoof Anatomy Bottom View 8

23 Review of Literature The biomechanics of weight-bearing Anatomically, the claws of the fore feet are identical to those of the hind limb. The fore claws are larger and the angle of the toe steeper than those of the hind limb. It is perplexing, therefore, to try to account for well over 90% of lameness-causing lesions to be found in lateral hind claws (Clarkson et al., 1996). Traditionally, it has been accepted that the fore limbs of cattle and horses bears approximately 60% of the weight of the animal. However, the high production dairy cow, particularly in peak lactation probably bears nearer to 50% of her weight on the hind claws. Hind claws which are significantly smaller than the fore claws (Scott et al., 1999). Shearer and Van Amstel (2000) explained biomechanics of weight bearing in cattle keeping in view the effect of housing condition (hard floors) on foot problems. During movement the distribution of weight within and between claw changes, despite movement, load-bearing on the inside claw is more even. Higher incidence of claw disorders involved the lateral claw. The situation for front feet is quite different. As a result the bio-mechanical forces associated with variable weight distribution are less pronounced in front feet and disorder leading to lameness less frequent. However, when lesions do occur they are more commonly associated with the inside claw. The shock absorption characteristics of the fore and hind limbs differ. The fore limb is suspended by the huge serratus ventralis muscle, there being no bony contact between the axial and abaxial skeleton. By contrast the hind limb is connected to the pelvic girdle by the coxofemoral articulation which has a limiting effect in the overall shock absorption function of the limb. However, the pattern of gait differs between the fore and hind limb. 9

24 Review of Literature The pool of blood in the foot acts as a further aid to shock absorption. Stagnation of blood in the foot in standing animals is prevented by the animal shifting the weight from one foot to another (Panchal et al., 2001). Meyer et al. (2004) demonstrated that the lateral hind claw consistently took the first impact of each step. Their own observations also suggest that the pattern of stride and first contact differs between fore and hind limb. 2.2 Incidence of hoof disorders in cattle and buffaloes Prentice and Neal (1972) discussed the incidence of lameness in dairy cattle in west Cheshire. They noted the average incidence of lameness in dairy cows on the farm investigated as 30 percent high incidence of lameness in May and October. Randhawa (2006) revealed 9% clinical lameness in lactating cattle and 2% in lactating buffaloes; however the subclinical lesions affecting hooves may reach 40 to 50% in both. Gogoi et al. (1981) reported 30.5 percent incidence of foot lesions in cattle of hot humid zone of India. The incidence was higher in animals of above three years of age group. Whitaker (1983) reported an average incidence of 25 per cent in a survey based on the number of treatment for lameness in dairy cows in England. Rama Rao (1985) investigated incidence, pathophysiology and etiology of foot diseases in dairy cattle of Andhra Pradesh. He reported 3.9 percent incidence of hoof diseases, which included slaughter house survey. The prevalent hoof diseases included overgrown hooves, punctured sole, sole abscess, Interdigital growth and foul in foot. 10

25 Review of Literature Shearer (1992) mentioned that the average incidence of lameness requiring treatment was 5.6 percent in cows. Of these, 88 per cent involved the foot. The majority of foot lesion (84%) involved the hind feet with 85 per cent occurring in the outer claw. Foot lesions, in order of descending occurrence were listed as; foot rot (16.3%); white line abscesses (15.6%); sole ulcers (13.6%); punctured sole with pus (10.4%), and underrun heel (8.7%). Smilie et al. (1996) in a study involving 13 Ohio dairy herd observed that 62 per cent of the evaluated cattle had hoof lesion associated with laminitis. Cook (2002) reported the 24.8 percent prevalence of lameness during the summer in 30 Wisconsin dairy herds. Kalasi et al. (2002) reported per cent incidence of foot lesions in cattle of Punjab state. Joshi (2006) reported 23.97% incidence of foot lesions in Panjrapoles of Gujarat state. Mahla (2010) reported 16.50% incidence of foot lesions in organized dairy farms in and around Anand district of Gujarat state. Veterinary practice figures (UK) indicate average annual incidence of 4 6% lameness in dairy cows. If treatment carried out by the farmer is included, however, the true incidence increased to 25 30%. The incidence may range from 3 100% on individual farms. Any farm with an incidence over 15% should be considered to have a lameness problem which requires systematic investigation. In the intensive agricultural enterprises common in Western Europe and North America: 95% of lame cattle are dairy breeds 80% of cases involve the digits 80% of digital lameness is located in the hind limbs 11

26 Review of Literature 50% of digital lameness involves the horny tissue and 50% the skin, mostly digital dermatitis 70% of the horny lesions involve the outer claw Weaver, (2005) reported three major digital lameness problems i.e. digital dermatitis, sole ulcer, and white line disease with similar incidence rates. The latter two may sometimes be related to a previous incident of laminitis. Jain et al. (2006) reported the overall incidence of hoof disorders as per cent in Pantnagar university dairy farm having 647 Sahiwal and HF x Sahiwal cattle. The incidence of all disorders increased with advancing age and was higher in animals above 3 years of age. 2.3 Economic importance of hoof disorders Shearer (1992) emphasized that the lameness severely limits milk production and reproductive performance. Cattle that become lame and are not attended can experience a 20 per cent loss in milk production over an entire lactation. Guard (2000) analysed that in addition to the economic impact; hoof disease is extremely painful, causing lameness in dairy cattle a serious animal welfare issue. Three primary groups infectious digital disease, laminitis associated claw horn lesions, and lesions caused by excessive hoof wear and trauma were of major concern. British researchers estimated that sole ulcers were responsible for the greatest economic loss, followed by digital diseases such as white line disease and sole abscess, which accounted for losses of $257/case. University of Florida's herd of 346 cows computes a loss of $58,266 due to clinical lameness during the 1-year study period. Individual cow basis, place cost per lame cow at $327, or $168/cow in the herd. Guard (2000) reported similar but slightly lower rates of economic loss 12

27 Review of Literature based on clinical observation and records of lameness in New York dairy herds. Based on an incidence rate of 30cases/100 cows/year, a fatality rate of 2%, an increase in day s open of 28 days, and costs for treatment and additional labour of $23/case, he estimated a cost of $9000/100 cows/year. Lameness is one of the most costly of health problems affecting dairy cattle (Shearer and Van Amstel, 2000). Weaver (2005) emphasized that cash loss due to a lameness successfully cured within 24 hours of onset may represent 1% of lactation yield. If treatment is delayed, loss may be 20% or more of lactation yield. The direct cost of each lameness case is about 150 ($270), but if such factors as prolonged calving interval, replacement costs and culling losses are included, the figure rises to approach 300 ($540) for each lame cow in a national herd of about three million dairy cows (UK). Losses are similar in USA. Losses are in terms of reduced milk yield, weight loss, disposals, deaths, replacement cost, infertility, prolonged calving interval, veterinary expenses, drugs and additional stockman s time (Weaver, 2005). 2.4 Animal welfare related to hoof care & management The welfare of an animal has been defined as its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment (Broom, 1996) or as the satisfaction of wants and desires (Duncan, 1996). There is no single measure for the welfare of dairy cows, especially not regarding how animals perceive their situation ( how they feel ). Instead, it has been suggested that welfare can be accessed from changes in stressphysiology, behaviour, mortality, health, productivity (Broom, 1991, 1996; McGlone, 2001). Lameness affects several of the above mentioned parameters. Hence, it is generally agreed that lameness is associated with severely decreased welfare (Albright, 1983; Logue, 1996; Webster, 1997). 13

28 Review of Literature Hassall et al. (1993) studied effect of lameness on the behaviour of cows during the summer and welfare implications of lameness in dairy cattle. They observed that lame cows entered the parlour later than normal cows and were significantly more restless on their feet while being milked. When cows were at pasture the lame cows lay down for longer and grazed for shorter periods than the normal cows. Analysing the behavioural differences between lame and normal cows indicated that lameness had serious effects on the welfare and productivity of lame cows. Margerison et al. (2002) studied 165 dairy cows in a cubicle herd over a 3 year period and found that lame cows ate lower number of meals per day, but had longer meal durations and larger meal sizes than non lame cows, where as the dry matter intake was unaffected. Excess lying time causes a functionally reduced access to feed; instead resources necessary for milk production were taken from body stores, resulting in a decreased body condition. In housed animals, increased lying times and lengths of lying bouts incur increased risks of decubital ulcers. Rutherford (2002) stated that the degree of lameness reflects the associated pain, is not possible to objectively access pain in animals. He further observed that changes in behaviour and physiological parameters have been used as indicators of pain, and has been suggested that by using a combination of such indirect parameters quantification of pain in animals might be possible. Whay et al. (2002) specified four key issues in preventing chronic pain and hyperalgesia related to lameness, viz., early detection of lame cows, prompt and effective treatment, and sympathetic care and use of analgesia. 2.5 Predisposing factors of hoof disorders Hoof diseases related to production 14

29 Review of Literature The increasing practice of dairy production at the end of the 19 th century was associated with an increase in the prevalence and severity of hoof lesions (Hess, 1904). Logue (1996) concluded that recently decreasing profit margins and general trends in society promote a further intensification of dairy production, which in turn incurs a risk for further decline in dairy cow health and welfare. Research has shown that lameness contributes to reduced milk production and reproductive failure. Furthermore, previously lame cattle are more prone to future reoccurrences (Nocek, 1997). Due to an unfavourable genetic correlation between milk yield and hoof lesions, the susceptibility to hoof lesions increases when selection pressure is put on milk yield. It has been speculated that the genetic capacity of high milk yield is associated with a disturbed perfusion of the corium and (or) diffusion of nutrients and oxygen to the horn-producing cells (Lischer et al., 2000). It has been shown that there is a relationship between a cow s unwillingness to lie down and lameness. About 3 litres of blood passes every minute through the udder of a standing cow, while about 5 litres will diffuse through the udder every minute when she is lying down. Lying down, therefore, improves udder function and possibly milk production as there is a direct connection between blood volume pumped through the udder and the volume of milk produced (Haley et al., 2001). Hirst et al. (2002) stated that in order to increase milk-yield to be costeffective, profits from increased production pressure and production efficiency have to cover the increased costs associated with a higher incidences of production disease. Production disease incur costs in a number of ways: through decreased milk yield, weight-loss, increased mortality and risk of culling and consequently 15

30 Review of Literature increased recruitment, impaired reproductive performance, increased risks of secondary diseases, costs associated with treatment and prevention, and loss of production potential. Moreover, several production diseases, such as lameness, have a high rate of reoccurrence, either due to permanently damaged tissue, persisting challenges or a genetic predisposition Effect of housing pattern pertaining to cow comfort and behaviour Weaver (1974) concluded that interdigital disease can accompany a general increase of limb injuries on the introduction of animals to slatted floors and may persist where there are faults of bad designs and bad husbandry such as overcrowding and unhygienic under foot condition. Weaver (1975) suggested that to prevent ulceration of sole in cattle, introduction of cattle to new forms of housing must be made gradually. He also stressed on nutrition and selection of cattle. Daily exercise, shown to be beneficial in preventing health disorders such as calving-related diseases and mastitis, are associated with a higher incidence of veterinary-treated lameness-cases (Gustafson, 1993). Leonard et al. (1994) illustrated the effect of prolonged standing due to uncomfortable stalls. They assessed lying time and sole-haemorrhage scores before and after the cows had been introduced to the free stall at calving. Heifers that were lying significantly longer in the more comfortable stall had significantly less sole haemorrhages. The sole haemorrhages thus reflected the longer standing time due to poor comfort that took place two months earlier. Bergsten and frank (1996) recommended deep bedding or rubber matting on hard flooring to minimize incidence of hoof diseases. 16

31 Review of Literature Clarkson et al. (1996) found that farmers who allowed their cattle to walk in single file had less lameness compared to farmers that pushed their cows to the parlour and back. Vermunt and Greenough (1996) also suggested that housing on concrete might contribute to the occurrence of sole haemorrhages in heifers. Standing for prolonged periods due to unfavourable housing causes the blood pressure inside the claws to rise and reduced perfusion of blood will follow. This will result in inadequate oxygenation and nutrition of the horn-producing tissues which will lose vitality. Reduced circulation of blood through the foot will decrease the removal of toxins (Bergsten, 2001). A cow that is lying down is more likely to ruminate and produce saliva than a standing animal. A cow produces litres (24 68 imperial gallons) of saliva each day. This is equivalent to 390 1,115g (14 40 ounces) of disodium phosphate and 1,134 3,234g ( ounces) of sodium bicarbonate. Saliva, therefore, reduces (buffers) ruminal acidosis (Kremer et al., 2004). Herds in which stalls (cubicles) are uncomfortable have a higher incidence of lameness. Heifers lying less and standing longer, due to uncomfortable stalls, have significantly more sole haemorrhages 1 month after calving and more sole ulcers 2 months after calving than the animals using comfortable stalls (Laven and Liversey, 2004). Greenough (2007a) concluded that cow comfort is the quality of environment, including housing, husbandry system, management, and hygiene on which a cow depends to enable it to reach its genetic potential utilizing the nutrients with which it has been supplied. Cattle should be able and willing to lie down for hours daily. The reason for increasing interest in cow comfort is 17

32 Review of Literature that it is now believed that negative factors in the environment, facilities, and management cause stress. Stress, in turn, predisposes a herd to diseases, including those causing lameness Role of diets and feeding in occurrence of claw diseases Berg and Loan (1975) also isolated Fusobacterium necrophorum subspecies necrophorum and porphyromonas levii from cases of interdigital phlegmon. They stated that risk of infection increase with the prolonged exposure to faeces that is caused by the relative stickiness of the lactating dairy cow's manure. Manson and Leaver (1988) compared 7 versus 11 kg of concentrate/day from 3 to 22 week into lactation. Cows fed high concentrates had more lameness of greater severity and duration with sole lesions being the major problem. However, cows fed more grain produced 3.2 kg more milk/day with.06 percentage units higher milk protein. Growth rates exceeding 1.0 kg/day have been implicated as a cause of laminitis and decreased future milk production (Little and Kay, 1979). The feeding of large quantities of concentrate has long been implicated as a cause of bovine laminitis and lameness. Feeding diets without dry hay was associated with a 2.2 times increase in risk of lameness in 45 Michigan dairy herds (Groehn et al., 1992). Livesey and Fleming (1984) showed that restricting forage in the diet resulted in 68% of the cows with clinical laminitis symptoms at calving and 64% of them got sole ulcers two to three months later. The control group fed the same amount of concentrates, but provided free access to forage had 8% clinical laminitis and 8% sole ulcers. The study also showed the association between clinical laminitis and sole ulcers. In a series of metabolic studies, a higher 18

33 Review of Literature concentrate-forage ratio, a higher concentrate amount (Manson and Leaver, 1988a) and a higher dietary protein intake (Manson and Leaver, 1988b), all resulted in higher lameness scores than in controls fed less intensive diets. The lesions associated with the lameness were sole ulcers and sole hemorrhages. Results of Frankena et al. (1992) showed that heifers fed hay and concentrates had less severe hoof lesions than those fed silage. The negative effect of feeding heifers silage relative to hay persists through the first lactation. Lameness is a multifactorial disease resulting from an array of factors inherent to dairy operations (Lischer and Ossent, 1994). Factors affecting lameness and locomotion include nutrition, feeding strategies, wetness, abrasive or slippery floor surfaces and health events causing production of poor quality horn (fever, age, off-feed, metabolic disturbances, toxins/mycotoxins). Vermunt and Greenough (1994) suggested that overfeeding during the dry period, which gives rise to hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia (two classic signs of insulin resistance) in early lactation appeared to predispose cows to laminitis. Green et al. (2002) reported that incidence of first lameness was highest three months after calving, suggesting that factors affecting horn growth during the dry period and in early lactation result in production of inferior horn and subsequent lameness in early lactation. British workers (Baggott et al., 1988) reported findings of lower Zn concentration in claws of lame cows than those with no history of lameness. Mülling (2000) reported that organic Zn like other trace elements minerals and vitamins is involved in numerous biochemical pathways during keratinisation including formation of keratin protein. Claws of lame cows were also softer than the non-lame individuals. This suggests an insufficiency of Zn or lack of adequate 19

34 Review of Literature vascular supply to the developing keratinocytes. On dairies with high incidence of foot problems, cows fed 2 to 3 g/d of ZnSO4 for 70 days had fewer claw problems than cows not receiving supplemental Zn. Moore et al. (1989) reported cows fed on additional 200 mg of zinc/day in the form of zinc methionine (ZM) had fewer cases of foot rot, heel cracks, interdigital dermatitis and laminitis than cows not fed ZM. Campbell and Miller (1998) reported that Zinc deficiency results in epithelial tissue disorders including parakeratosis, hyperparakeratosis and other epidermal changes associated with the claw horn and skin. Miller et al. (1993) reported that supplementation of mineral complexes (zinc, copper, manganese and cobalt) during stress periods was beneficial in reducing oxidative stress. Cattle suffering from a subclinical Cu deficiency are more susceptible to heel cracks, foot rot and sole abscesses (Puls, 1984). This response may be the result of insufficient cytochrome-c oxidase activity resulting in reduced respiration and oxidative phosphorylation and thus deficient energy supplies for differentiating keratinocytes (Linder, 1996). Larson et al. (1980) reported that dairy cows supplemented with 50 mg of injectable Se (over 6.6 x NRC requirement) during the dry period suffered severe claw problems in the postpartum period. They indicated that between 48 and 69% of cows receiving the supplemental Se injection had increased lameness, sore feet, deformed claws and loss of hair from the tail versus 28 to 30% claw problems in non-supplemented cows. Manganese also plays a role in activation of other critical enzyme systems, such as pyruvate carboxylase, an enzyme that catalyzes the first step of carbohydrate synthesis. This process is responsible for gluconeogenesis and production of cellular energy an essential component in production of quality horn tissue (Keen and Zidenberg-Cherr, 1996). 20

35 Review of Literature Mülling et al. (1999) proposed the analogy of building a brick wall to the effect of supplements such as biotin on hoof keratin formation. Zinc is needed for activation of the enzyme systems needed for formation of sound cellular structure, while biotin is needed for production of the intercellular cementing substance. The two together allow the keratinizing squamous cells to generate stronger horn with greater integrity that will better withstand environmental stresses. It is this ability to withstand environmental stress that ultimately determines the productivity and potential profitability of the animal. Vitamin D is required for control of Ca2+ reabsorption, absorption and mobilization/ accretion from bones (Norman, 1996). Cells exposed to oxidative stress (i.e. a laminitic insult) will show more rapid injury and necrosis when rendered vitamin E deficient (Sokol, 1996). Dairy cows fed low levels of vitamin E and subjected to undue stress at parturition incur higher than normal levels of lameness and production of poor horn tissue (Nocek, 1997). 2.6 Pathological alterations Nilsson (1966) attributed the cause of ulceration of hoof in cattle to a local injury to the corium brought about by mechanical pressure or by excessive tension in the flexor tendons. He found a close relationship between ulceration of the hoof and laminitis with abundant thrombosis in the digital vessels. Simon (1966) reviewed fractures and exostoses of the third phalanx, corkscrew claws, ulceration of the sole, and pressure atrophy and necrotic degenerations of the bone. The pathological alterations inside the rigid hoof capsule cause considerable pain and lameness, which is an animal welfare issue. Such lesions have a greater economic importance than infectious diseases (Kossaibati and Esslemont, 1997). 21

36 Review of Literature The pathogenesis of claw lesions in cattle has long been assumed to be associated with laminitis and, in analogy to the horse, to be due to a disturbance in the microcirculation of the corium of the claw with subsequent degenerative (and inflammatory) changes at the dermal-epidermal junction. Based on this assumption, a more detailed theory was developed in conjunction with the interpretation of post- mortem findings in the claws of animals with clinical laminitis (Ossent and Lischer, 1998). Epidemiological studies have shown that there is a higher tendency for sole lesions at the beginning of the first lactation (Boosman et al., 1991; Enevoldsen et al., 1991; Greenough and Vermunt, 1991; Smilie et al., 1999). Heifers had significantly less fat in the cushions and slightly more saturated fatty acids (SFA) than the cows. This indicates that the change from SFA to MUFA and the proliferation of fat occurs at first parturition and during the following lactation. Possibly these changes in the heifer's digital cushions make them less resistant. Berry (2001) described the nature of bovine laminitis in three phases. The pathological lesions in the hoof develop in third phase. Yellow soft horns, haemorrhage, double sole, white-line disease, sole or toe ulcer and deformed claws are the prominent changes observed in this phase. 2.7 Hoof lesions observed in cattle and buffaloes Many authors defined the hoof condition as follows. Foot abscess was indicated by the presence of swelling and high temperature in the claw causing severe pain. Bacterial infection through penetration of hoof wall or horny tissue of sole, especially the white line was commonly hypothesized (Blowey, 1990; Blowey and Weaver, 1991). Heel warts were generally believed to be an infectious, perhaps 22

37 Review of Literature bacterial or viral but still unknown (Read et al., 1992; Brizzi, 1993; Weaver, 1993). Interdigital hyperplasia was a mass of connective tissue projecting downward between the claws (Greenough et al., 1981). Ossent and Lisher (1998) observed white line haemorrhages, double sole, ulcers at typical site and considered as possible consequences of laminitis. Bakir et al. (2005) observed haemorrhage of the sole along with yellow discoloration of the sole. Foot abscess (possible synonyms: sole abscess, or white line abscess), heel warts (possible synonyms: dermatitis verrucosa, verrucosa granulose, Papilliform overgrowth, Interdigital papillomas, hairy heel warts, digital dermatitis, strawberry heels or digital warts) and interdigital hyperplasia (possible synonyms: vegetative Interdigital dermatitis, Interdigital fibroma, tylomas, fibromas or corns) were three important hoof problems in cows (Cynthia, 2005) Bovine laminitis Bovine lameness is a major health problem for the dairy industry. It is complex and in problem herds where incidence is high, lameness accounts for tremendous economic loss. Claw disorders (sole ulcers and white line disease) are the primary causes of lameness in most herds and are often attributed to chronic subclinical laminitis and housing or environmental conditions that contribute to poor cow comfort. Macroscopic lesions develop in the claw capsule in the form of horizontal "hardship" grooves may become visible at the proximal claw wall and with repeated grooves the toe wall eventually may become concave. Sole haemorrhages and sole ulcers results from continuous compression of the solar corium under the flexor tubercle (Smedegaard, 1964). 23

38 Review of Literature Interdigital dermatitis has been associated with mixed bacterial infections with dichlobacter andosus as an important component (Kasari and Scanlan, 1987). The critical link between nutrition, acidosis, and laminitis appears to be associated with altered haemodynamics of the peripheral microvasculature (Boosman, et al., 1989) Laminitis is a multi-factorial metabolic disorder that occurs in the acute, subclinical, and chronic forms (Ossent and Lischer, 1994). The weakened integrity of the horn in the white line allows for ascending infection and makes the area more susceptible to shearing forces that may cause white line fissures or abscesses (Budras et al., 1996). According to Ossent and Lischer (1998) laminitis lesions develop in phases, initially vasoactive substances such as histamine and endotoxins cause blood vessels in the corium to either constrict, resulting in hypertension, or paralyse and dilate resulting in haemostasis. The vessel walls are consequently subjected to damage and become permeable to blood and serous fluids. The increased intrangular pressure causes both a further reduction in blood flow and pain; hence, cows with acute laminitis may be severely lame Interdigital hyperplasia Weaver et al. (1981) considered the interdigital hyperplasia as a proliferative reaction of the interdigital skin and /or subcutaneous tissue, which is localised in the dorsal aspect of the interdigital skin but may extend to the palmerplanter areas. Blowey (1993) recommended formalin footbaths to reduce the incidence of interdigital hyperplasia. He further emphasised that when the protrusion of skin in the interdigital space is noticed at every stage, the rate of dermal proliferation may 24

39 Review of Literature be reduced or even prevented by regular claw trimming that involves removal of horn around the axial groove. Bergsten (1994) contributed potential risk factor of interdigital hyperplasia to incorrect claw trimming, poor claw confirmation and slippery uneven flooring. Entrapment of dirt between the claws causes interdigital skin irritation, thereby stimulating skin proliferation. Collick (1997) described excision of large lesions associated with severe lameness. He recommended sedation of cow with xylazine or acepromazine for operation in lateral recumbency or in the crush as for foot paring. After regional anaesthesia, the interdigital space is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. A tourniquet is applied above the hock. The fibromatous mass is grasped with tissue forceps and entirely removed using a wedge shaped longitudinal incision on both sides of lesion leaving a small margin of skin by the axial coronary band. Any protruding interdigital fat is removed with blunt scissors, avoiding the digital cruciate ligaments. After application of a topical antibacterial powder such as oxytetracycline to the wound, the two claws are bandaged tightly together and dressing changed after 5 days. The lesions heels in about 3 weeks Foul of the foot Gupta et al. (1984) inoculated a mixed culture of Fusobacterium necrophorum and Staphylococci and also necrotic material from field cases of foul-in-foot, in to the interdigital skin of healthy cattle, but lesions could not be developed when pure cultures of Fusobacterium necrophorum were used. The lesion associated with interdigital necrobacillosis is characterized by an interdigital skin fissure, 3-8 cm in length, that varies with breed and age of the cow and the extent of dermal necrosis present (Demertzis and Mills, 1973). 25

40 Review of Literature Berg and Franklin (2000) observed inflammation of the interdigital skin and underlying tissues caused by a mixed infection with Fusobacterium necrophorum and porphyromonas levii Heel horn erosion Heel horn erosion is defined as an "irregular loss of bulbar horn" (Collick, 1997). Bakir et al. (2005) identified and classified various types of lesions from 205 selected cases of dairy cattle in Turkey. They found solar haemorrhage (61.4%), yellow waxy discoloration (58.5%), heel erosion (23.9%) and white line separation (19%). Further, they indicated that the sole lesions in cattle were widespread both before and after calving Claw conformation and overgrowth A long toe and a shallow angel will both transfer additional weight to the posterior parts of the claw, and thus increase the risk for compression of the corium and sole lesions (Smedegaard, 1964). Under natural conditions, wear balances horn growth, whereas under intensive production conditions wear may be reduced in tie-stall housing or increased in cubicle. Proper claw overgrowth (i.e. increased claw measurements) primarily occurs in housing systems with little or no abrasion from flooring (e.g. deep-bedded straw packs and tie-stalls equipped with rubber mats) or no soft pasture. A genetic predisposition has also been suggested (Glicken and Kendrick, 1977). Scott (1988) observed that the weight of the animals is not evenly distributed over the four hooves; even during pregnancy the front hooves carry more weight. Uneven distribution of the weight over the four hooves cause hoof lesions. In the correctly shaped hoof (most often seen in heifers at pasture before first calving), 26

41 Review of Literature weight is approximately equally distributed over the two claws. Bovine hooves are designed to protect the distal extremity from wear and from contact with harmful substances and microbes, to facilitate walking by ensuring a good grip, and to act as shock absorbers. The distribution of load between and within claws is primarily influenced by body-, hoof-, and claw-conformation. It has long been recognized (Raven, 1989) that the increased weight bearing associated with such asymmetries predispose to claw lesions, such as sole ulcers. The sole concavity is restored when animals are turned-out at grazing on dry, nonabrasive grounds. Cows with over grown claws have an impaired gait compared to cows with well-shaped claws. The long shallow toe acts as a lever when the animal is walking, straining the insertion of the deep flexor tendon at the flexor tuberosity. A strained tendon-insertion might result in an irreversible exostoses; thus increasing the risk of future solar corium pinching a contributing cause for the high risk of reoccurrence of sole lesions (Alban et al., 1996) Sole ulcer Nilsson (1963) suggested an association between the occurrence of hoof ulcers and previous laminitic attacks. Shearer (1992) considered predisposing factor to sloping of soles during traditional claw trimming which encourage development of sole ulcers by shifting weight- bearing within the claw onto the typical place for sole ulcers to occur. Bergsten et al. (1998) recommended claw trimming twice in a year, as it helps to detect the lesion at an early stage before clinical symptoms or severe lesions develop. They also emphasized that the correct paring will prevent lesions due to loading. 27

42 Review of Literature Heel erosion (excessive loss of heel horn tissue) leads to loss of the normal shock absorbing properties of this structure. This causes additional strain and pressure on the heel/sole junction and exacerbates development of the lesion (Cynthia, 2005) Foreign body in hoof, hoof infection and hoof abscess Foot abscess, heels warts and interdigital hyperplasia were three hoof problems in cows (Cynthia, 2005) Interdigital dermatitis Interdigital dermatitis is a mild superficial infection of the skin between the claws. It is a benign condition rarely causing lameness and is not associated with a drop in milk yield, loss of body condition, or increase in body temperature. (Chivers, 1957) Interdigital dermatitis in cattle is caused by Dichelobacter (Bacteroides) nodosus. However, different genotypes of this same organism cause foot rot in sheep. (Laing and Egerton, 1978) Vertical fissures (Sandcracks) Vertical fissures are cracks that run down the abaxial border of the dorsal surface of the wall. The majority (68%) are found on an outside front claw. Although the incidence of this condition is high in mature Canadian beef cows (20%), the prevalence of lameness in affected cattle is low. Lameness occurs mostly when the crack becomes infected. (Goonewardene and Hand, 1995) Horizontal fissures (hardship grooves) A horizontal groove or any other of its various forms is caused by an interference with claw wall horn production. This short-term disruption in horn production can vary in degrees of severity. To complicate this issue, there is 28

43 Review of Literature considerable variation between animals in the degree to which they can adapt to the cause of the disruption. The mechanical strength of the claw capsule is influenced by changes in its shape and the degree to which the dorsal wall increases in concavity around hardship grooves. (Greenough, 1985) 2.8 Prophylaxis and control Claw trimming The need for claw trimming in the prevention of hoof lesions has long been emphasized (Anker, 1854; Hess, 1904; Rusterholz, 1920). There is no large-scale controlled study on the actual effects of claw trimming on hoof health of dairy cows has yet been conducted in India. Berry et al. (1998) showed that no lame cows with hoof lesions (dermatitis) might have both an altered lying-down and lying behaviour, possibly indicating a reduced welfare. If claws are not trimmed, the lack of wear in tied cattle causes deformed hooves and predispose to the cause, hoof lesions (Smedegaarrd, 1964). Schmoldt and Jautze (1971) used 10% copper sulphate bath and drove the cattle through it twice daily as a treatment of diseases of the foot of dairy cows housed loose in cow sheds with slatted floors. According to Hess (1904), cow should preferably be trimmed twice yearly, the frequency depending on how natural the dairy cows are kept. Davis (1982) reported that when the cows were made to walk through a shallow bath containing 1 % formaldehyde after each four successive milking, treatment being repeated once a week for 2 months reduced the occurrence of lameness in herds with high incidence of Interdigital lesions, heel erosions and sole ulcers. Baggott (1982) pointed out that because of the difficulty of providing successful, economic treatment in all cases, the aim should be limit to occurrence 29

44 Review of Literature of hoof lameness by instituting sound preventive measures. These must include regular and thorough foot inspection and hoof trimming. Peterse (1985) reported that use of a formalin footbath increased the thickness of the stratum cornium of claw horn. He speculated that this may severe protective function for claw horn from degeneration by the proteolytic enzymes of Diectobacter nodosus, a bacteria thought to be the causative agent of interdigital dermatitis. Corrective paring is an essential prophylactic measure, used in many intensive husbandry systems where normal horn growth and wear are deficient. This time consuming, unpleasant and dirty work results into a reduced incidence of lameness cases and bigger profits (Manson and Leaver, 1988). Bergsten et al. (1998) reported almost twice as many sole ulcers that occurred in animals trimmed once each year compare to those trimmed twice. An important purpose of claw trimming is to detect lesion at an early stage before clinical symptoms or severe lesions develop. The other function is to prevent lesions by correcting the loading Other surgical procedures Fritch (1966) delineated the contributory factors to sole ulcers. He suggested the use of resin material technovit as an artificial shoe in several foot conditions. Mieth and Ritter (1968) observed that the commonest lesion necessitating amputation of the claw was extension of infection into the pedal joints. 30

45 CHAPTER III MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Incidence The present study involved 14 selected organised dairy farms, 2 university farms, 7 Panjrapoles and 3 Gaushala in and around Anand and Gujarat state and having animal strength of more than 50 animals. The survey included records of animals with hoof disorders. Organised dairy farms Sr. Location Name of farm owner No. 1 Chikhodra Shrishbhai Patel 2 Chikhodra Chimanbhai Patel 3 Chikhodra Iswarbhai Patel 4 Chikhodra Mehulbhai Patel 5 Chikhodra B. D. Patel 6 Kheda Neelbhai Patel 7 Sinhol Vijaybhai Patel 8 Kanjari Rameshbhai Shah 9 Bedwa Sanjaybhai Patel 10 Samarkha Sohilbhai Vohara 11 Lingda Kamleshbhai Patel 12 Khambhat Jigneshkumar Dilipbhai Patel 13 Ravadapura Prakashbhai Patel 14 Napad Pintobhai Patel University farms Sr. Location Name of farm No. 1 Anand Livestock Research Station Farm 2 Anand Animal Nutrition Farm Panjrapoles Sr. Location Name of Panjrapole No. 1 Miagoan/Karjan Ashok/Paresh Shah Panjrapole 2 Vadodara Shri. Vadodara Panjrapole, Sayajipura Shakha 3 Linch Shri. Linch Maharaj panjrapole 4 Kadi Kadi Panjrapole Sanstha 5 Khandhali Pujya. Shivbapa, Hiraba Patel Panjrapole 6 Vichhiya Shri. Vinchhiya Panjrapole 7 Kapadvanj Kapadvanj Panjrapole Gaushala Sr. Location Name of Gaushala 31

46 Materials and Methods No. 1 Lakshmipura Shri. Hasti Keshar Gaushala 2 Dakor Ranchodraiji Gaushala 3 Botad Shri. Botad Mahajan Gaushala The animals showing gross lesions involving hooves and/or lameness were selected for complete clinical examination. Animals were restrained and all four claws were thoroughly cleaned using scrub brush and clean water. Gross lesions were noted to classify the condition. Claw trimming was performed (Greenough, 2007) to identify deeper lesions in the hooves. The detailed information about cattle and buffalo population of the village, cattle and buffalo herds and hoof problems were collected in the evolved proforma, depending upon the availability (Proforma- 1). 3.2 Technical programme Case history and hoof examination On visit of organised dairy farms or livestock owner's place, history regarding species, breed, age and sex of animal, date, origin, duration and progress of the persisting hoof problem, symptoms exhibited by the animal, details regarding hoof care such as regular cleaning of the hoof, nature of feed offered to the animal, type of housing and flooring in organised dairy farms, Panjrapoles and Gaushala visited (Plates 1, 2 and 3), details of previous treatment, if any and other relevant information were collected. 32

47 Materials and Methods Defining and recording of hoof lesions The clinical cases of hoof disorders observed during general survey were recorded and detailed examination was carried out on the same day or within a week depending upon the severity of case. For confirmatory diagnosis of the hoof disorders, animals were restrained and hoof trimming was carried out. Surgical intervention was done as per the need. The lesions were classified according to the definition adopted by Russel et al. (1982). (Table 3.1; Plate 4-11) Foot examination and surgical procedure For complete detailed examination, claw trimming and surgical manoeuvres of the hoof problems, the basic instruments used were hoof cutter, different types of hoof knives for hoof trimming, set of hoof knives with case, hoof pick / knife metal handle, hoof knife sharpening stone, nail puller, hoof pincer, hoof tester, electric angle grinder, hoof rasper and general surgical set. (Plates 12, 13 and 14) For trimming/corrective paring, paring knife or an electric angle grinder was used either for removing the horn from a place found to be sensitive, or to render the lesions visible and pair both the hoof surfaces Hoof trimming Anaesthesia and restraint for hoof trimming For routine claw trimming no sedation was required. However, intractable animals, sedation were achieved using 0.1 mg/kg 1 body weight. In organised dairy farms artificial insemination crate was used for functional hoof trimming, where as in most of the organised farms, for hoof trimming and prolonged surgical procedure lateral recumbency were preferred or Tip Chute was used. (Plates 15 and 18) 1 Xylaxin- Xylazine injection mg, 30ml, INDIAN IMMUNOLOGICALS, Guntur, India 33

48 Materials and Methods 3.3 Use of the Tip Chute in the functional hoof trimming Large animal Tip Chute used as a tip table during hoof trimming. RIGHT HAND TIP-CHUTE (SHANKS VETERINARY EQUIPMENT, INC.) 3.4 Functional hoof trimming Functional claw trimming, also referred to as the Dutch method, was developed by Dr. E. Toussaint Raven, a veterinarian with the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands. The following describes the Raven method The objectives of preventive claw trimming are Correction of the relative overgrowth that leads to overburdening of the claw (overgrowth is most significant for the outside claw of rear feet and the inside claw of the front feet). Restoration of the weight-bearing surface within each claw. Correction of claw lesions at an early stage. 34

49 Materials and Methods The technique of functional hoof trimming described by Raven (1989) and Berry (1999) was adopted as given below in six steps. 1. Trimming was started with the medial claw of the rear foot and the toe was trimmed to 3 inches (7.5 cm) from the end of tip of the toe. The medial claw was the most normal shaped of the rear claws with the sole thickness of at least ¼ inch (5-7mm). Trimmed the sole, making a flat weight bearing surface of the sole and wall. The plane of the flat surface was kept 90 degree to the leg and the heel was spared as much as possible. The heel was trimmed only if it was necessary to stabilize the claw and not to make the heel too thin. 2. The lateral claw was trimmed to the same length as the medial claw, using the medial claw as a guide (it may be slightly longer than 3 ). The sole and wall was pared to match the medial claw. The weight-bearing surface was made flat at the toe. 3. The sole was slopped slightly on axial (middle) part of the sole. The shaping opened up the interdigital space slightly and reduced the weight-bearing surface as little as possible. This also helped to reduce the pressure on the corium on the typical site for sole haemorrhage or ulcers. 4. The heels were balanced. The weight-bearing surfaces were made flat across the heels to facilitate even weight distribution between the claws. 5. If lateral claw was damaged, then the damaged area (usually near the heel) was pared down so that the sound claw supported more of the cow s weight. Sometimes, it was necessary to apply an orthopaedic block to the sole of the sound claw to rest the damaged claw until it healed up. 6. Loose horn was removed and any hard edges were pared away to decrease the irritation from foreign material packed in the loose places. Only healthy horn 35

50 Materials and Methods was retained, but care was taken to spare the medial claw as much as possible, especially at the heel. While trimming the front hooves, the same procedure was followed as with the rear claws, except that trimming was started with the lateral claw instead of the medial claw. (Plates 16 and 17) Corrective hoof trimming Corrective hoof trimming was done in clean environment. Routine paring was done in such a way so that: Weight is born on walls, especially lateral walls, toe and bulb. Sole area is smooth and slightly concave Angle of dorsal wall to bearing surface is about 50 degree (Fore limb) and 55 degree (hind limb). Pastern angle is degree (Fore limb) and degree (hind limb). Ratio of length of dorsal border ( coronet to toe) : Bearing surface = 2:1. Length of dorsal border (coronet to toe) in dairy cow is ideally about 7 cm. (Van Amstel and Shearer, 2006) 3.5 Postoperative evaluation of patient After trimming/corrective paring hoof was examined for classification of hoof disorders like, sole punctures, sole abscesses and lacerations, laminitis, sole ulcer, white line abscess and solar haemorrhage etc. (Russel et al., 1982). (Table 3.1) 36

51 Materials and Methods Table 3.1 Definition of foot lesions recorded during the survey SrNo Terms Description 1 Sole ulcer Circumscribed pododermatitis at sole-heal junction, with or without protrusion of granulation tissue through horn defect 2 Whiteline separation 3 Whiteline abscess 4 Punctured Sole and Pus 5 Foreign Body in Sole 6 Overworn Sole 7 Interdigital hyperplasia 8 Interdigital foreign body 9 Underrun Heel Breakdown of integument of whiteline, usually abaxially: and impaction of foreign material into the crack Breakdown of integument of whiteline, usually abaxially, and occurrence of septic laminitis of wall. Traumatic penetration of sole horn with infection of laminae and pus production. Presence of foreign body embedded in sole. Sole which obviously flex, horn usually not more than 3mm thick, often discoloured laminae due to haemmorhagic bruising. Thick interdigital skin folds, often with localized area of pressure necrosis or ulceration or ulceration as secondary feature. Entrapped foreign body in the interdigital space. Separation of heel horn axially towards sole-heel junction, usually with some exposure and infection of sensitive laminae; erosion of heel horn. 10 Aseptic laminitis Generalized digital pain and heat, often involving more than one foot and without break in integument. 11 Deep sepsis Bacterial infection of deep hoof tissues and accumulation of pus. 12 Overgrown hoof Overgrowth of the hoof covering towards toe giving the hoof appearance of slipper hoof 37

52 Materials and Methods 3.6 Postoperative treatment Postoperatively medicinal treatment with Fortivir (Enrofloxacin injection 10%), Chlorazin (Chlorpheniramine injection), Neoprofen (Ketoprofen injection) for five days was followed by dressing using Betadine (Povidone iodine solution 5% w/v), Lixen powder (Cephalexin 20g) and Negasunt dusting powder (Coumaphos, Propoxur and Sulphanilamide powder) in case of maggot infestation (Plate 11) and adhesive bandage (Plate 17). 3.7 Laboratory investigations 1. Hoof shavings were subjected to estimation of certain minerals like Calcium, Phosphorous, Zinc, Copper and Manganese using Atomic absorption spectrophotometer 2 2. Biochemical analysis consisted of estimations of Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium and Magnesium in blood, and Glucose, Total proteins, Albumin and Globulin in plasma using Semi-Automatic Analyzer 3 (Model 3000 EVOLUTION) of choral clinical systems and commercial kits Statistical Analysis Statistical analysis of breed through one way ANOVA test applied. The data generated during the experiment will be analyzed as per procedure described by Snedecor and Cochran (1994). 2 Electronic Corporation of India Ltd., Instruments and Systems Division, marketing, ECIL ( P. O), Hyderabad CREST BIOSYSTEMS. Division of Coral Clinical Systems Gitanjali, Dr. Antonio Do Rego Bagh, Alto Santacruz, Bombolim Complex P. O. Goa , INDIA. 4 CREST Bio systems, LTD., Goa. Indus. 38

53 Results CHAPTER IV RESULTS The present study included 14 selected organised dairy farms, 2 university farms, 7 Panjrapoles and 3 Gaushala in and around Anand and Gujarat state having strength of more than 50 animals animals were surveyed from to , out of which, 6282 were cattle and 1616 buffaloes. Out of 7898, 1029 animals affected with hoof disorders were selected for investigations (Table 4.1). Table 4.1 Number of affected animals with foot disorders following survey of cattle and buffaloes in organised dairy farms, university farms, Panjrapoles and Gaushala in and around Anand and Gujarat state C- Cattle, B- Buffalo, T- Total Sr Name of farm Animals surveyed Animals affected N o owner/farm/panjrapole/ Gaushala with location C B T C B T Organised dairy farms 1 Shrishbhai Patel, Chikhodra 2 Chimanbhai Patel, Chikhodra 3 Iswarbhai Patel, Chikhodra 4 Mehulbhai Patel, Chikhodra 5 B. D. Patel, Chikhodra 6 Neelbhai Patel, Kheda 7 Vijaybhai Patel, Sinhol 8 Rameshbhai Shah, Kanjari 9 Sanjaybhai Patel, Bedwa 10 Sohilbhai Vohara, Samarkha 11 Kamleshbhai Patel, Lingda

54 Results 12 Jigneshkumar Dilipbhai Patel, Khambhat 13 Prakashbhai Patel, Ravadapura 14 Pintobhai Patel, Napad Total University farms 1 Livestock Research Station, Anand 2 Animal Nutrition Farm, Anand Total Ashok/Paresh Shah Panjrapole, Miagoan/Karjan 2 Shri. Vadodara Panjrapole, Sayajipura Shakha, Vadodara 3 Shri. Linch Maharaj Panjrapole, Linch 4 Kadi Panjrapole Sanstha, Kadi 5 Pujya. Shivbapa, Hiraba Patel Panjrapole, Khandhali 6 Shri. Vinchhiya Panjrapole, Vichhiya 7 Kapadvanj Panjrapole, Kapadvanj Total Shri. Hasti Keshar Gaushala, Lakshmipura 2 Ranchodraiji Gaushala, Dakor 3 Shri. Botad Mahajan Gaushala, Botad Total Panjrapoles Gaushala Overall

55 Results Incidence Overall incidence The present survey covered 6282 cattle and 1616 buffaloes of which, 1029 clinical cases were of hoof disorders, comprising of percent cattle and percent buffaloes (Table 4.2). Table 4.2 Incidence of hoof disorders recorded during the survey Total number of animals Cattle Buffalo Total surveyed Clinical cases of hoof disorders Percentage (%) Prevalence rate (%) on the basis (846/6282) (183/1616) 2.31 (1029/7898) of overall population surveyed (846/7898) (183/7898) (1029/7898) The overall average incidence of hoof disorders was found to be percent, which comprised of percent cattle and 2.31 percent buffaloes under different managemental system. The frequency of hoof disorders in overall population was greater in cattle (13.46) as compared to buffaloes (11.32). Table 4.3 Number of affected cattle and buffaloes with hoof disorders under different managemental systems 41

56 Results Affected animals Management systems Cattle Buffalo Overall Organised dairy farms University farms Panjrapoles Gaushala Total Table 4.4 Incidence (%) of hoof disorders observed in cattle and buffaloes under different managemental systems Affected animals Management systems Cattle Buffalo Overall Organised dairy farms University farms Panjrapoles Gaushala Total Incidence based on hoof lesions A total of 6282 cattle and 1616 buffaloes were screened during surveillance, of which 1029 were found to have different foot lesions. The incidence of different foot lesions included sole ulcer 26 (2.51 %), white line separation 133 (12.92 %), white line abscess 13 (1.26%), punctured sole and pus 39 (3.79 %), foreign body in sole 18 (1.74%), heel horn erosion 19 (1.84%), foul of the foot 24 (2.33%), interdigital hyperplasia 37 (3.59 %), interdigital foreign body 4 (0.38%), sole haemorrhage 72 (6.99 %), horizontal fissure 34 (3.3%), sand 42

57 Results crack 13 (1.26 %), aseptic laminitis 27 (2.62 %), cork screw horn 57 (553 %), deep sepsis 7 (0.68 %) and overgrown hooves 506 (49.17 %) ; Table 4.5; Chart 4.2). Table 4.5 Foot lesions recorded during survey in cattle and buffaloes Condition/ Foot Cattle Buffalo Total lesion N % N % N % Sole ulcer White line separation White line abscess Punctured sole and pus Foreign body in sole Heel horn erosion Foul of the foot Interdigital hyperplasia Interdigital foreign body Sole haemorrhage Horizontal fissure Sand crack Aseptic laminitis Cork screw horn Deep sepsis Overgrown hooves Total

58 Results Species wise incidence Species wise prevalence of hoof problems was higher in cattle (13.46%) as compared to buffaloes (11.32%). The incidence of overgrown hooves was maximum both in cattle (47.87%) and buffaloes (55.19%). Deep sepsis, interdigital foreign body, foreign body in sole, aseptic laminitis and white line abscess were observed only in cattle and no case was recorded in buffaloes Breed wise incidence The breed wise distribution of hoof disorders in affected cattle revealed the highest rate of occurrence in H.F. crossbreds 716/5291 (13.53%) followed by Gir 78/587 (13.28%) and Kankrej 52/404 (12.87%; Table 4.6).Similarly among buffaloes highest breed incidence was recorded in Mehsana (20.63%), followed by Surti (17.28%), Murrah (14.15%), Non-descript (14.28%) and Jafrabadi (9.64%; Table 4.7). Table 4.6 Breed wise incidence of hoof disorders in cattle Breed HF Gir Kankrej Total crossbred Population surveyed No. of animals affected Percent (%)

59 Results Table 4.7 Breed wise incidence of hoof disorders in buffaloes Breed Population surveyed No. of animals affected Percent (%) Jafrabadi Mehsana Murrah Surti Non descript Total Age wise incidence of hoof lesions Age wise incidence of hoof lesions in cattle and buffaloes is presented (Table 4.8). The lowest incidence of hoof disorders (7.77%) was recorded in young animals (<1 st lactation) and the highest incidence (33.43%) in the adult animals (>3 rd lactation). In case of cattle maximum hoof lesions were observed in 2 nd lactation cows (30.85%), while in buffalo breeds more foot lesions were recorded in older animals (58.47%; Chart 4.3). Table 4.8 Prevalence of foot lesions based on lactational age in cattle and buffaloes Lactational Cattle Buffalo Total age N % N % N % < 1 st lactation st lactation nd lactation rd lactation >3 rd lactation Total N- Number, %- Percentage 45

60 Results Floor condition A survey about predisposing factors of the hoof diseases during anamnesis revealed that out of 1029 affected animals, 758/1029 (73.66 %) were maintained on kachha floor with poor hygienic condition and the rest 271/1029 (26.33 %) on pakka floor with good hygienic condition. (Table 4.9; Plates 1, 2 and 3) Table 4.9 Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle and buffaloes Flooring Kachha Pakka Total Species Cattle Buffalo Total Percent Table 4.10 Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle and buffaloes Species Kachha floor Pakka floor Overall N % N % N % Cattle 631/ / / Buffalo 127/ / / Total 758/ / / N- Number, %- Percentage Table 4.11 Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (790) and buffaloes (333) of organised dairy farms Kachha floor Pakka floor Overall N % N % N % Cattle 4/ / / Buffalo 0/2 0 39/ /

61 Results Total 4/ /10 56 N- Number, %- Percentage / Table 4.12 Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (3533) and buffaloes (954) of Panjrapoles Kachha floor Pakka floor Overall N % N % N % Cattle 140/ / / Buffalo 16/ / / Total 156/ / / N- Number, %- Percentage The condition of the housing was the main factor in occurrence of hoof problems in cattle and buffalo population. The overall prevalence rate was higher among cattle (631/4331; 14.56%) and buffaloes (127/1113; 11.41%) on the kachha floor. While with comfortable housing, the incidence in cattle (215/1951; 11.01%) and buffaloes (56/503; 11.13%) was less (Table 4.10). In organised dairy farms, the prevalence rate was higher among cattle 86/725 (11.86%) and buffaloes 39/331 (11.78%) tied permanently on pakka floor with no access to exercise as observed at densely populated organised dairy farms with limited housing area, and this was followed by cattle (4/65; 6.15%) and buffaloes (0/2; 0%; Chart 4.7; Table 4.11) maintained on kachha floor with facilities for exercise and comfortable housing. 47

62 Results In Panjrapoles, the prevalence rate was higher among cattle (412/2770; 14.87%) and buffaloes (86/785; %) on pakka floor with facilities for exercise. On kaccha floor with uneven surface, the incidence was higher in cattle 140/763 (18.34%) and buffaloes 16/169 (9.46%; Chart 4.8; Table 4.12) Distribution of foot lesions as per the anatomical location The maximum hoof lesions were observed in hind limbs (638; 62.00%) with greater involvement of outer claw (396; 62.06%), while in fore-limbs (175; 44.75%) the involvement of inner claw (216; 55.24%) was more (Table 4.13). Table 4.13 Distribution of hoof lesions between inner and outer claws and fore and hind limbs in cattle and buffaloes Species Fore limb Hind limb Total Lateral Medial Total Lateral Medial Total claw claw claw claw Cattle Buffaloes Total Percent (%) Feeding practices A survey about predisposing factors of the hoof diseases during anamnesis revealed that out of total 7898 animals, 1785 (22.60%) were maintained on higher concentrate (80-90%) feed, 2672 (33.83%) animals were maintain on moderately high concentrate feed (65-80%), while rest (3441: 43.56%) on the normal concentrate feed (50-65%; Table 4.14). Out of 1029 affected animals, 443/1785 (24.81%) were maintained on percent concentrate diet, 365/2672 (13.66%) on percent concentrate diet and 221/3441 (6.42%) animals on the percent concentrate feed. 48

63 Results Table 4.14 Affections of hoof as per the feeding practices Feeding practices No. of affected animals Population surveyed Percentage 80-90% concentrate % concentrate % concentrate Analysis of blood samples and hoof shavings of few selected cases of hoof disorders Animals affected with the different hoof disorders were examined for concentrations of glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, Ca, P, Mg, Na and K in the serum (n=20; Table 4.15) and concentration of Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca and P in the hoof shavings (n=20) of cattle and buffaloes (Table 4.16). Table 4.15 Concentrations of glucose, total protein (g/dl), albumin, globulin (g/dl), Ca (Mg/dl), P (Mg/dl), Mg (Mg/dl), Na (Mg/dl) and K (Mg/dl) in the serum of cattle and buffaloes affected with hoof disorders (n=20). K- Kankrej, M- Mehasana G TP A G Ca P Mg Na K 1 HF

64 Results 2 HF HF S.NO 71 Species Zn 3.20 Cu Mn Ca 176 P HF (ppm) 1.70 (ppm) (ppm) 2.10 (g) 2.00 (g) HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF K HF K HF K HF M HF M K M K K M M M Table 4.16 Concentration of Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca and P in the hoof shavings of cattle and buffaloes affected with hoof disorders (n=20) 50

65 Results K- Kankrej, M- Mehsana Nutritional status of cattle and buffaloes The average nutritional status of affected HF cow, Kankrej cows and Mehsana buffaloes are presented in Table 4.17, 4.18 and Seventy eight percent affected crossbred cows were overfed both for protein and energy, respectively. All affected Kankrej cow were adequately fed for protein and overfed 51

66 Results for energy. Similarly, 75% affected buffalo were adequately for protein and overfed for energy. Table 4.17 Average estimated levels of nutrients supplied to affected HF crossbred cows. B-Breed S.No B DMI (kg/d) Fat % 4% FCM yield (kg) Nutrient intake (kg/d) Nutrient requirement (kg/d) Intake (%) of requirement DCP TDN DCP TDN DCP TDN 1 HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF HF Table 4.18 Average estimated levels of nutrients supplied to affected Kankrej cow DMI (kg/d) Fat% 6% FCM yield (kg) Nutrient Intake (kg/d) Nutrient Requirement (kg/d)) Intake (% of requirement DCP TDN DCP TDN DCP TDN K K K

67 Results K- Kankrej cow Table 4.19 Average estimated levels of nutrients supplied to affected Mehsana buffaloes S.No DMI (kg/d) Fat% 6% FCM yield (kg) Nutrient Intake (kg/d) Nutrient Requirement (kg/d) Intake (%) requirement DCP TDN DCP TDN DCP TDN M M M M- Mehsana Buffalo Blood biochemical and micro-mineral profile of cattle and buffaloes The Ca, P, Zn, Cu and Mn level ranged between , % and , and ppm, respectively in the hoof shavings. The total protein, albumin, globulin, glucose, Ca, P, K, Na, and Mg level ranged between , , g/dl, , , , , and mg/dl in the blood of affected crossbred cows, respectively. 53

68 Results The Ca, P, Zn, Cu and Mn level ranged between , % and , and ppm, respectively in the hoof shavings. The total protein, albumin, globulin, glucose, Ca, P, K, Na, and Mg level ranged between , , g/dl, , , , , and mg/dl in the blood of affected Kankrej cows. The Ca, P, Zn, Cu and Mn level ranged between , % and , and ppm, respectively in hoof shavings. The total protein, albumin, globulin, glucose, Ca, P, K, Na, and Mg level ranged between , , g/dl, , , , , and mg/dl blood of affected buffaloes. The blood biochemical profile and micro-mineral levels were found within the normal range Breed wise comparison between different parameters of blood and hoof shavings. Out of biochemical parameters of blood (Glucose, Total Protein, Albumin, Globulin, Ca, P, Mg, Na, K) and hoof shavings (Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca, P) only 4 parameters (Total protein, Mg in serum and Zn, Cu in hoof shavings) showed significant difference between groups of cow breeds- H.F., Kankrej and Mehsana buffalo. (Table 4.20) 54

69 Results Table 4.20 Breed wise comparison of different parameters of blood and hoof shavings 55

70 Results Superscript indicates significant difference at 5 % level. Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Sr. No. Parameters H.F Cow (n=14) (Mean ± SE) Kankrej Cow (n=3) (Mean ± SE) Mehsana Buffalo (n=3) (Mean ± SE) 1 Glucose (Mg/dl) ± 3.10 a ± 2.02 a ± 5.13 a 2 TP (g/dl) 8.27 ±.14 b 7.06 ±.42 a 7.80 ±.43 ab 3 Albumin (g/dl) 2.60 ±.11 a 2.76 ±.12 a 2.76 ±.03 a 4 Globulin Mg/dl) 5.60 ±.23 a 4.30 ±.45 a 5.03 ±.40 a 5 Ca (Mg/dl) 7.59 ±.41 a 7.56 ±.38 a 8.43 ±.13 a 6 P (Mg/dl) 3.41 ±.45 a 2.50 ±.30 a 3.36 ±.20 a 7 Mg (Mg/dl) 2.15 ±.14 ab 1.43 ±.12 a b 8 Na (Mg/dl) ± 3.21 a ± 7.09 a ± 3.78 a 9 K (Mg/dl) 4.15 ±.29 a 4.46 ±.12 a 4.16 ±.18 a 10 Zn (ppm) ± 7.08 a ± b ± a 11 Cu (ppm) ± 2.14 a ± 7.91 b ± 3.39 a 12 Mn (ppm) 2.74 ±.18 a 3.62 ±.54 a 2.60 ±.27 a 13 Ca (g).95 ±.03 a.93 ±.07 a.98 ±.06 a 14 P (g).05 ±.001 a.06 ±.01 a.05 ±.005 a 4.3 Hoof trimming On organised dairy farms, fuctional hoof trimming was performed in effective way in all animals in the lateral recumbency on ground and Tip Chute mostly. 56

71 Results In the present study, Manual hoof trimming was done in 150 animals with 60 animals in standing position and 50 in recumbency. 10 vicious animals required sedation for hoof trimming. Tip Chute was use in 40 animals for trimming. Regional analgesia was required for excision of interdigital hyperplasia Use of the Tip Chute in the functional hoof trimming The primary function of the Tip Chute is to lay the animal in its side, the Tip Chute can be also be used as a functional working chute. The Tip Chute floor supported the animal during raising and lowering. Tip Chute adjusted in and out at the top to accommodate various sized animals and to hold the animals in a more secure position. Belts were very helpful in holding the animal more securely. Headboard prevented the animal from throwing its head and perhaps injuring itself. Tip Chute (Plate 18) used during the functional hoof trimming procedure in 40 animals facilitated quick restraint without sedation in lateral recumbency at proper height with less movement of the legs tied to the Tip Chute. The time taken for hoof trimming of one animal was nearly 20 minutes which was less as compared to hoof trimming without use of Tip Chute, wherein more time was required for the restraint and casting of the animal with the rope on the ground. The man power required for operating Tip Chute was one, contrary to three to four required whenever Tip Chute was not used. 4.4 Hoof care recommendations Advices regarding economic losses due to hoof problems were given to livestock owners. Importance of hoof care and benefits of hoof trimming and 57

72 Results surgical manoevours were also explained to them effectively. Regular hoof trimming every 6 months was suggested to the cattle owners at their doorsteps. 58

73 Discussion CHAPTER V DISCUSSION The present clinical study Surgical management of hoof disorders using functional hoof trimming in organised dairy farms involved 1029 clinical cases among the population of 7898 heads in 14 selected organised dairy farms, 2 university farms, 7 Panjrapoles and 3 Gaushala in and around Anand and Gujarat state having strength of more than 50 animals. The investigations were aimed at recording the incidence of different claw lesions in selected organised dairy farms and Panjrapoles, to undertake standardized treatment protocols for management of various hoof disorders, to perform functional claw trimming of affected animals at farmers door step using Tip Chute, wherever feasible, to collect the hoof shavings and blood sample of affected animals for certain laboratory estimations and to suggest preventive measures to reduce occurrence of hoof disorders in dairy farms. The information derived by surveillance was analysed in relation to species, breed, age, sex, housing system and floor conditions. The findings presented in different tables, charts and photographs are discussed in this chapter. 5.1 Incidence Overall incidence In the present survey among the cattle breeds - Gir, Kankrej, H.F cross breeds, and among buffalo breeds - Surti, Mehsana, Jafrabadi, Murrah and non descript predominated. Surveillance of 6282 cattle and 1616 buffaloes revealed 1029 clinical cases of hoof diseases comprising of percent cattle and percent buffaloes. The overall average incidence of hoof disorders under different managemental 59

74 Discussion systems was found to be percent, which comprised of percent cattle and 2.31 percent buffaloes. The frequency of hoof disorders in overall population was greater in cattle (13.46%) as compared to buffaloes (11.32%). These findings compared favourably with those of Rama Rao (1985) who conducted the slaughter house survey. However, the present incidence of percent in cattle is less than that of 25 to 38 percent reported in exotic dairy cattle (Prentice and Neal, 1972; Witaker, 1983; Shearer, 1992; Smillie et al., 1996, Cook, 2002) and even in zebu and cross bred dairy cattle of north India (Gogoi et al., 1981; Kalasi et al., 2002; Jain et al., 2006). Variable incidences of hoof disorders in overall population (4.65 to 16.50%) and amongst cattle (8.57 to 21.94%) and buffaloes (2.75 to 12.88%) were reported earlier under different managemental systems (Joshi, 2006) and commercial dairy farms (Mahla, 2010). Further, there are no detailed exclusive reports on foot disorders in buffaloes of this region to compare the present findings. The higher (11.86 %) incidence of foot lesions in cattle of organised dairy farms can be related to concrete flooring and stall feeding, while organised dairy farms which had kachha floor and enough free space for movement and exercise showed lesser ( 6.15 %) incidence of hoof lesions. The percentage of hoof disorders in cattle and buffaloes surveyed under different managemental systems revealed that frequency of foot disorders was greater (63.55 %) in Panjrapoles. This can be attributed to the fact that Panjrapoles have cattle and buffaloes above third lactational age in dry state, mostly fed on 60

75 Discussion somewhat deficient feed stuffs, and housed on uneven surfaces with unhygienic floors Incidence based on lesion Out of 6282 cattle and 1616 buffaloes screened, 1029 were found to have different hoof disorders. The incidence of different foot lesions included sole ulcer 26 (2.52%), white line separation 133 (12.92 %), white line abscess 13 (1.26%), punctured sole and pus 39 (3.79%), foreign body in sole 18 (1.74%), heel horn erosion 19 (1.84%), foul of the foot 24 (2.33%), interdigital hyperplasia 37 (3.59%), interdigital foreign body 4 (0.38%), sole haemorrhage 72 (6.99%), horizontal fissure 34 (3.3%), sand crack 13 (1.26%), aseptic laminitis 27 (2.62%), cork screw horn 57 (5.53%), deep sepsis 7 (0.68%) and overgrown hooves 506 (49.17%).Almost similar findings were reported by Mahla (2010) in 25 commercial dairy farms. Our incidence of hoof lesions is less than that of sole ulcers (40%) and white line lesions (29%) observed by Murray et al. (1996) and solar haemorrhage (61.4%), heel erosion (23.9%) and white line separation (19%) reported by Bakir et al. (2005) Species wise incidence Species wise prevalence of hoof problems was higher in cattle (13.46%) than buffaloes (11.32%), which is less than that of reported by Mahla (2010) in cattle (21.94%) and buffaloes (12.88%) and also that of Joshi (2006) in cattle (60.20%) and buffaloes (39.80%). The incidence of overgrown hooves was maximum in both cattle (47.87%) and buffaloes (55.19%) and is less than that of reported by Joshi (2006) in cattle (34.11%) and buffaloes (46.29%); however, it is 61

76 Discussion almost similar to that of Mahla (2010) in cattle (47.84%) and buffaloes (55.92%). Deep sepsis, interdigital foreign body, foreign body in sole, aseptic laminitis and white line abscess was observed only in cattle and not a single case was recorded in buffaloes. The difference in the incidence of hoof disorders observed in the present study could be due to species specificity and variability in their susceptibility/resistance to trauma, infection and damage to hooves Breed wise incidence The breed wise distribution of hoof disorders in affected cattle revealed the highest rate of occurrence in H.F. crossbreds 716/5291 (13.53%) followed by Gir 78/587 (13.28%) and Kankrej 52/404 (12.87%). Similarly, among buffaloes highest breed incidence was recorded in Mehsana (20.63%), followed by Surti (17.28%), Murrah (14.15%), non-descript (14.28%) and Jafrabadi (9.64%). Almost similar findings regarding breed distribution of hoof disorders in cattle and buffaloes was observed by Mahla (2010). Joshi (2006) reported highest incidence of hoof disorders in case of Kankrej cows (37.85%) and Surti buffalo (51.94%) which is comparatively more than our findings in Kankrej cows (12.87%) and Surti buffalo (17.28%) Age wise incidence Age wise incidence of hoof lesions in cattle and buffaloes, showed the lowest incidence of hoof disorders (7.77%) in young animals (<1 st lactation) and the highest incidence (33.43%) in adult animals (>3 rd lactation). In case of cattle maximum hoof lesions were observed in 2 nd lactation cows (30.85%), while in buffalo breeds more foot lesions were recorded in older animals (58.47%). Similar findings were observed by Mahla (2010) wherein the lowest incidence of hoof 62

77 Discussion disorders (6.88%) was recorded in young animals (<1 st lactation) and the highest incidence (42.45%) in the adult animals (>3 rd lactation). In case of cattle, maximum hoof lesions were observed in 2 nd lactation cows (30.94%), while in buffalo breeds more foot lesions were recorded in older animals (58.77%) Condition of floor A survey about predisposing factors of the hoof diseases during anamnesis revealed that out of 1029 affected animals, 758/1029 (73.66 %) were maintained on kachha floor with poor hygienic conditions and the rest 271/1029 (26.33 %) on pakka floor with good hygienic conditions. The overall prevalence rate was higher among cattle 263/1148 (14.56%) and buffaloes 127/1113 (11.41%) on the kachha floor, while under comfortable housing it was less in cattle (215/1951; 11.01%) and buffaloes (56/503; 11.13%). In organised dairy farms, the prevalence rate was higher among cattle 86/725 (11.86%) and buffaloes 39/331 (11.78%) tied permanently on pakka floor with no access to exercise as observed at densely populated organised dairy farms with limited housing area, and this was followed by cattle (4/65; 6.15%) and buffaloes (0/2; 0%) maintained on kachha floor with facilities for exercise and comfortable housing. In Panjrapoles, the prevalence rate was higher among cattle (412/2770; 14.87%) and buffaloes (86/785; %) on pakka floor with facilities for exercise. On kaccha floor with uneven surface, the incidence was higher in cattle 140/763 (18.34%) and buffaloes 16/169 (9.46%). Calves reared on unyielding floor surface were more prone to sole haemorrhages. In a study, 44.6 percent of calves reared on slotted concrete had sole haemorrhages compared to 4.6 percent reared in straw yards (Frankena et al., 63

78 Discussion 1992). In the opinion of Leonard et al. (1996), heifers reared on soft surfaces might be more susceptible to lesion when entering the dairy herd. A possible reason for this is that the horn growth in heifers is greater than in cows, and if the wear is not adequate, there is a risk of overgrowth and since the digital cushion is not yet fully developed at the time of the first calving (Lischer and Ossent, 2002). There is a pronounced need for external shock absorption through well-shaped claws. These are probably good reasons to trim the claws of heifers that have been reared on a soft surface and have overgrown soles before their first calving Distribution of foot lesions as per the anatomical location In the present study, hoof lesions were observed to be greater in hind limbs (638; 62.00%) with greater involvement of outer claw (396; 62.06%) than in forelimbs (175; 44.75%) with greater involvement of inner claw (216; 55.24%). Hoof growth is relatively slow at about 5 mm per month. Shape of the hoof is a product of the rate of growth versus the rate of wear. Overgrowth is more or less a natural consequence of feeding and housing conditions common to intensive dairy production. The effect of hoof overgrowth is overloading, particularly of the lateral claws of rear and the medial claws of front feet. Overgrowth is manifested primarily at toe. If hoof horn is harder, growth is more rapid and the rate of wear is less at the toe. In contrast, if hoof horn is softer, growth is slower and the rate of wear (weight bearing is greater) is more rapid at the heel. The end result is a lengthening and rising of the toe with corresponding lowering of the heel. The angle of the front wall may be altered from a normal of 45 to 30 degree or less. Overgrowth also occurs on the sole. Cows don t develop calluses, but they produce more horn on the soles of the weight bearing claws (i.e. lateral claw of rear and medial claw of front feet). (Getty, 1975; Weaver, 1986) 64

79 Discussion Claw lesions were common among cows in Swedish dairy herds Thomas (2002). The most common lesions were overgrown hooves (49.17%), white line separation (12.92 %), cork screw horn (5.53%), sole haemorrhage (6.99%) and less prevalent lesions were; punctured sole and pus (3.79), interdigital hyperplasia (3.59%), white line abscess (1.26%), sole ulcer (2.52 %), foreign body in sole (1.74%), heel horn erosion (1.84%), foul of the foot (2.33%), interdigital foreign body (0.38%), horizontal fissure (3.3%), sand crack (1.26%), aseptic laminitis (2.62%), deep sepsis (0.68%). The herd specific animal-level prevalence of animals affected with any hoof lesions varied between 44 to 100 percent. The prevalence of lesions is comparable to that of other studies (Vaarst et al., 1998; Smits et al., 1992). In general, it can be concluded that the hind feet were more affected than the fore feet. The difference may be explained partly by the fact that the fore feet can move easily in vertical plane parallel with the mid-line of the cow/ buffalo and can be placed with precision, whereas the hind feet are forced out of this plane by the udder and may be subjected to uneven loading and torsion. The hind feet are also more subjected to transitory loads associated with mountings and being mounted, are more prone to faecal contamination, and are more often abnormally shaped than fore feet. These differences between fore and hind feet in environment, use and shape clearly influence the distribution of different lesions to different degrees (Russell et al., 1982). The dermatitis and heel horn erosion are often associated with a manure contaminated environment. The large difference between herd variations might be explained by different levels of hygiene in the hoof environment, due to housing design and management. Herds with a high prevalence of heel horn erosion also had a high prevalence of erosive and proliferative dermatitis, interdigital 65

80 Discussion hyperplasia and double sole (Bergsten and Pettersson, 1992; Hultgren and Bergsten, 2001). Smit et al. (1986) studied the hoof health in 81 Dutch dairy herds and found a significantly less severity of dermatitis in herds with slatted floors than in herds with a solid floor, or with combinations of two types of floors. Elevated separate feeding places in cubical housings have been suggested as a means of reducing exposure of the hoofs to manure (Bergsten, 2001) Sole haemorrhage The prevalence of sole haemorrhage (6.99%) is less than presented by Bergsten and Frank (1996) in 21 heifers calved in April- May and housed since November with a significant increase in sole haemorrhages after calving. Late pregnancy and calving is associated with marked growth of foetus, mammary gland development, hormonal functions and onset of lactation conveying a concurrent transient hypocalcaemia and hypophosphataemia (El-Ghoul et al., 2000); concurrently, changes in feeding, housing (especially for autumn-calving heifers), and social environment when entering the milking herd challenges the hoof health integrity. It is generally agreed that abrupt introduction to concrete surfaces, mixing of animals and addition of new animals to existing hierarchies contributes to the development of haemorrhages (Greenough and Vermunt, 1991). Sole lesions are found to be more common in those primiparous cows introduced to the dairy environment at service, instead of just preceding calving, indicating that the length of exposure might be more important in the development of lesions than a long adaptation period. (Vermunt and Greenough, 1996) 66

81 Discussion The less positive effect of claw trimming on the risk of haemorrhages than for sole ulcers and separations indicates that trauma associated with overgrown claw might be of relatively less importance to the development of haemorrhages than intrinsic (circulatory) disturbances in the corium, and that trimming prevents contusion of the solar corium following a secondarily weakened dermal-epidermal junction. Heifer rearing on soft surfaces such as deep litter has earlier been reported to result in less saviour haemorrhages in the heifers (Frankena et al., 1992). It was suggested that high yielding dairy cows would benefit from being kept on a softer surface (Straw yard) the first 4-8 weeks of lactation, before introduction to cubicles (Blowey, 1998) Sole ulcer The prevalence of sole ulcers (2.52 %) was lower than that of 14 percent reported by Andersson and Lundstrom (1981). Although sole ulcers were not associated with an increased risk of culling per se, sole ulcers were the most important cause of lameness, and lame cows were prematurely culled. Claw trimming significantly reduced the risk of sole ulcer. Andersson and Lundstrom (1981) estimated that 40 percent of dairy cattle were trimmed annually. The increasing habit of claw trimming is reflected in decreased prevalence of lesions (Hultgreen et al., 1998). The high risk of lameness in cows with sole ulcers is in agreement with the reports of Murray et al., (1996). The gradual onset and sometimes bilateralness of sole ulcers may be, because sole ulcers to go undetected until trimming (Logue et al., 1994). In one study, most sole ulcers (85%) disappeared after corrective trimming and, if necessary, application of a block to the unaffected claw. One- third of cows examined with a recorded sole ulcer in year 1 also had an ulcer in year 2; the risk 67

82 Discussion of reoccurrence was even higher (75%), if cow had repeated ulcer- records (both autumn and spring) in year 1 (Alban et al., 1996). Lischer (2000) explained the risk of recurrence by irreversible damage to tissue within the claw capsule Feeding practices Lameness is a multifactorial disease resulting from an array of factors inherent to dairy operations. Factors affecting lameness and locomotion include nutrition, feeding strategies, wetness, abrasive or slippery floor surfaces and health events causing production of poor quality horn (Lischer and Ossent, 1994). Feeding of large quantities of concentrate has long been implicated as a cause of bovine laminitis and lameness. The prevalence of hoof disorders were percent in those farms maintained on percent concentrate diet, percent in those maintained on percent concentrate diet and 6.42 percent in those on the percent concentrate feed in the diet. Our findings were similar to Groehn et al., (1992). Feeding diets without dry hay was associated with a 2.2 times increase in risk of lameness in 45 Michigan dairy herds. Manson and Leaver (1988) compared 7 versus 11 kg of concentrate per day from 3 to 22 wk into lactation. Cows fed high concentrates had more lameness of greater severity and duration with sole lesions being the major problem. However, cows fed more grain produced 3.2 kg more milk/day with 0.06 percentage units higher milk protein. Livesey and Fleming (1984) showed that restricting forage in the diet resulted in 68% of the cows with clinical laminitis symptoms at calving and 64% of them got sole ulcers two to three months later. The control group fed the same amount of concentrates, but provided free access to forage had 8% clinical laminitis and 8% sole ulcers. The study also showed the association 68

83 Discussion between clinical laminitis and sole ulcers. In a series of metabolic studies, a higher concentrate-forage ratio, a higher concentrate amount (Manson and Leaver, 1988a) and a higher dietary protein intake (Manson and Leaver, 1988b), all resulted in higher lameness scores than in controls fed less intensive diets, the lesions associated with the lameness were sole ulcers and sole haemorrhages. 5.2 Analysis of blood samples and hoof shavings of few selected cases of hoof disorders Animals affected with the different hoof disorders were examined for Glucose, Total Protein, Albumin, Globulin, Ca, P, Mg, Na and K in the serum of cattle and buffaloes affected with hoof disorders. Normal blood glucose level ranges from mg/dl in cattle and mg/dl in buffaloes (Brar et al., 2000) Nutritional status of cattle and buffaloes The average nutritional status of affected crossbred, Kankrej cows and buffaloes was presented in Table 4.17, 4.18 and Seventy eight percent affected crossbred cows were overfed both for protein and energy, respectively. All affected Kankrej cow were adequately fed for protein and overfed for energy. Similarly, 75% affected buffalo were fed adequately for protein and overfed for energy Blood biochemical and micro-mineral profile of cattle and buffaloes The Ca, P, Zn, Cu and Mn level ranged between , % and , and ppm, respectively in the hoof shavings. The total protein, albumin, globulin, glucose, Ca, P, K, Na, and Mg level ranged between , , g/dl, , ,

84 Discussion 7.20, , and mg/dl in the blood of affected crossbred cows. The Ca, P, Zn, Cu and Mn level ranged between , % and , and ppm, respectively in the hoof shavings of affected Kankrej cows. The total protein, albumin, globulin, glucose, Ca, P, K, Na, and Mg level ranged between , , g/dl, , , , , and mg/dl in the blood of affected Kankrej cows. The Ca, P, Zn, Cu and Mn level ranged between , % and , and ppm, respectively in hoof shavings of affected buffaloes. The total protein, albumin, globulin, glucose, Ca, P, K, Na, and Mg level ranged between , , g/dl, , , , , and mg/dl blood of affected buffaloes. The blood biochemical profile and micro-mineral levels were found within the normal range. Our finding of feeding large quantities of concentrate has long been implicated, as hyperglycaemia and hyper-insulinemia leads to laminitis and lameness. Similar findings were observed by Groehn et al., (1992). Normal values of calcium in the blood of cattle are mg/dl (Dukes, 1996). Our findings were higher than normal values mg/dl. (hypercalcaemia) in crossbred cows and in buffalo average value was less than that of cattle ( mg/dl). Calcium conditions zinc to such an extent that high calcium levels are associated with disorders of the claw capsule. Therefore for each additional 0.1% calcium in the diet the level of zinc should be raised by 16 ppm (Greenough 2007). 70

85 Discussion Breed wise comparison between different parameters of blood and hoof shavings. Out of biochemical parameters of blood (Glucose, Total Protein, Albumin, Globulin, Ca, P, Mg, Na, K) and hoof shavings (Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca, P) only 4 parameters (Total protein, Mg in serum and Zn, Cu in hoof shavings) showed significant difference between groups of cow breeds- H.F., Kankrej and Mehsana buffalo. 5.3 Assessing claw trimming procedure The fundamentals of hoof trimming were described by Raven (1989). In general, the objectives of functional hoof trimming are (i) correct the relative overgrowth that leads to overburdening of the claw (over growth is most significant for the outside claw of rear feet and the inside of front feet), (ii) restore the appropriate weight bearing surface within each claw, (iii) correct claw lesion at early stage. Raven (1989) gave a very important warning that If there is no lameness problem, trimming can produce it. Although foot care and claw trimming have an important role in the management of lameness conditions, experience has shown that in occasion claw trimming can be a cause of lameness. One of the most common errors in claw trimming is over-trimming. Therefore, it is important to know what constitutes normal claw size and confirmation. Functional claw trimming contributes to a maintained or restored correct weight bearing within and between the claws and protect the solar corium from 71

86 Discussion contusion through dishing-out of the sole, thus preventing hoof lesions. In restoring claw shape, trimming also contributes to the curing of existing mild lesions that are due to excess pressure on sensitive tissues (Weaver, 2005). The application of corrective trimming procedures was adopted with foot blocks for relief of weight bearing in diseased claws eg. Puncture wound, sole abscess, purulent arthritis, and white line separation which provided a sufficient difference in height between the two claws to relieve weight bearing and promote recovery of claw lesions. In the condition of several pains, to create sufficient difference in height between the two claws, additional elevation of the diseased claw was achieved by means of wooden block attached to the sound claw (Greenough, 2007b) Use of the Tip Chute in the functional hoof trimming Tip Chute (Plate 18) used during the functional hoof trimming procedure in 40 animals facilitated quick restraint without sedation in lateral recumbency at proper height with less movement of the legs tied to the Tip Chute. The time taken for hoof trimming of one animal was nearly 20 minutes which was less as compared to hoof trimming without use of Tip Chute, wherein more time was required for the restraint and casting of the animal with the rope on the ground. The man power required for operating Tip Chute was one, contrary to three to four required whenever Tip Chute was not used Treatment and prevention of claw lesions through trimming Feet and leg problems are a major health concern and as the trend toward confinement housing continues the incidence of lameness is likely to increase. The 72

87 Discussion causes and predisposing factors are many and include: nutrition and feeding; housing and environment; concurrent disease; management factors; and genetic influences. The majority of lameness (90%) occurs in foot. Routine examination of lame cows and of feet at the time of trimming can provide valuable information regarding subclinical laminitis. Regular foot care and hoof trimming is not a luxury provided to the cow, but is a must to achieve maximum productivity and longevity. It has been stated that most lame cows are not treated by veterinarians, rather by hoof trimmers or farmers, or are left untreated (Rusterholz, 1920; Witaker, 1983; Murray et al., 1996; Whay et al., 2002). The relatively little involvement of the veterinary profession in cattle lameness is probably time consuming and dirty nature of hoof work, a general lack of knowledge and interest in the area, a lack of proper equipment, and the associated cost for the farmers. In many countries, hoof trimmers treat many lame cows but are legally hindered from performing surgical interventions under analgesia rendering many lame cows remain untreated or treated without analgesia. In the present study, Manual hoof trimming was done in 150 animals with 60 animals in standing position and 50 in recumbency. 10 vicious animals required sedation for hoof trimming. Tip Chute was use in 40 animals for trimming. Most cows and buffaloes will benefit from trimming 1-2 times every year. There are few animals which may require hoof trimming more than twice per year. The majority of farmers trim cows one time per year at dry-off. It is obviously more risky to trim cows at mid lactation; however trimming at dry-off only assures that most cows will go well beyond one year. Claw trimming was primarily intended to shorten the claws, and tools were developed to do this in the standing 73

88 Discussion animal with no need for hoisting the feet (Hess, 1904). In the present study, looking to the temperament of the animal, sedation was given in 10 animals only; otherwise animals were secured without sedation in lateral recumbency. A common practice by many trimmers is to complete their job by grinding or chipping away wall horn near the weight- bearing surface. Cosmetically, the appearance may be more appealing, but in terms of function, the claw and its weight bearing surface are made weaker and potentially more vulnerable to diseases. Furthermore, removing the wall in this fashion not only reduces surface area for weight bearing, but also eliminates the hardest part of the weight bearing surface. It requires the cow to bear weight on the white-line, sole and heel only (Shearer, 2000). The magnitude of the beneficial effect of trimming was independent of when during lactation the trimming was performed. Intuitive effect of trimming should be optimised if cow were trimmed before the peak of challenges. Whereas the negative effect of an unhygienic environment probably is more or less cumulative through the housing season, the peak occurrence of laminitis-associated lesions at peak of lactation indicates that the relevant challenges to the claw health is most severe at the time around calving (Leach et al., 1997; Offer et al., 2001). Trimming should thus be aimed at correcting the external shock- absorption, while retaining sufficient sole depth at areas exposed to abrasion. In a smaller herd, where individual trimming-programs are impractical, it would probably be preferable to trim all cows at the onset of the housing season, and in February- March; or (if trimming three times per year) in January and in April. Hoof trimmers should clean and disinfect their tools and clothing between farms. 74

89 Discussion Although recommendable, the cleansing of trimming equipment between single animals within a farm is hardly practical (Greenough, 2007). 5.4 Hoof care recommendations The hoof is complex structure that plays a key role in many aspects of the animal s overall health and productivity. Healthy hooves lead to healthy animals, which raise productivity and income. When hooves are kept in good condition, it reduces the losses that stem from treating lame animals and production losses that result from their discomfort. A lame animal is not only in pain, but it is an extra expense that most producers can t afford. By maintaining a sound hoof management routine, animal owners can reduce their economic losses and increase their chances for profit in future. An effort was made to motivate the livestock owners for regular hoof trimming in all farms surveyed, which in turn prevents the economic loss from subsequent lameness in advanced stages. Advice regarding economic losses due to hoof problems was given to live stock owners. Importance of hoof care and benefits of hoof trimming and surgical manoeuvres were also explained to them effectively. Regular hoof trimming every six months was suggested to the cattle owners. Proper restraint and practical technique of claw trimming were demonstrated to the livestock owners at their door-steps. 75

90 Summary and Conclusions CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Cattle and buffaloes in India are precious animals for milk. Apart from several metabolic, infectious and non infectious diseases, lameness causes considerable impact on economy of livestock industry, but there exists a paucity of information on the prevalence in rural sector. The present surveillance was undertaken to understand the extent of hoof problems and its surgical management. The survey of the cattle and buffaloes was made by farms visits to examine hooves, detect the prevalence rate of specific hoof problems and also to perform functional hoof trimming in problematic cases. The data was generated and analysed for hoof problems in cattle and buffaloes of 14 selected organised dairy farms, 2 university farms, 7 Panjrapoles and 3 Gaushalas in and around Anand and Gujarat state having animal strength of more than 50 animals. Its occurrence based on species, breed, age and sex was recorded. Impact of housing pattern and condition of floor and management practices on prevalence of hoof problem was also recorded. During surveillance, a total of 6282 cattle and 1616 buffaloes were screened, out of which 1029 were found to have different foot lesions. The overall incidence of different foot lesions included sole ulcer 26 (2.52%), white line separation 133 (12.92 %), white line abscess 13 (1.26%), punctured sole and pus 39 (3.79%), foreign body in sole 18 (1.74%), heel horn erosion 19 (1.84%), foul of the foot 24 (2.33%), interdigital hyperplasia 37 (3.59%), interdigital foreign body 4 (0.38%), sole haemorrhage 72 (6.99%), horizontal fissure 34 (3.3%), sand crack 13 76

91 Summary and Conclusions (1.26%), aseptic laminitis 27 (2.62%), cork screw horn 57 (5.53%), deep sepsis 7 (0.68%) and overgrown hooves 506 (49.17%). Species wise prevalence of hoof problems was higher in cattle 846/6282 (13.46%) as compared to buffaloes 183/1616 (11.32%). The incidence of overgrown hooves was high in both cattle (47.87%) and buffaloes (55.19%). The breed wise distribution of hoof disorders revealed the highest rate of occurrence in H.F. crossbreds 716/5291 (13.53%) followed by Gir 78/587 (13.28%) and Kankrej 52/404 (12.87%). Similarly among buffaloes highest breed incidence was recorded in Mehsana (20.63%), followed by Surti (17.28%), Murrah (14.15%), non-descript (14.28%) and Jafrabadi (9.64%). Age wise incidence in cattle and buffaloes revealed the lowest incidence of hoof disorders (7.77%) in young animals (<1 st lactation) and the highest incidence (33.43%) in the adult animals (>3 rd lactation). In case of cattle maximum hoof lesions were observed in 2 nd lactation cows (30.85%), while in buffalo breeds more foot lesions were recorded in older animals (58.47%). The condition of the housing was the main factor in occurrence of hoof problems in cattle and buffalo population. Out of 1029 (100%) affected animals, 758/1029 (73.66 %) were maintained on kachha floor with poor hygienic condition and the rest 271/1029 (26.33 %) on pakka floor with good hygienic condition. The overall prevalence rate was higher among cattle 263/1148 (14.56%) and buffaloes 127/1113 (11.41%) on the kachha floor; and with comfortable housing, the incidence in cattle (215/1951, 11.01%) and buffaloes (56/503, 11.13%) was less. In organised dairy farms the prevalence rate was higher among cattle 86/725 77

92 Summary and Conclusions (11.86%) and buffaloes 39/331 (11.78%) tied permanently on pakka floor in limited housing area with no access to exercise; and followed by cattle (4/65, 6.15%) and buffaloes (0/2, 0%) maintained on kachha floor and comfortable housing with facilities of exercise. In Panjrapoles the prevalence rate was higher among cattle 412/2770 (14.87%) and buffaloes 86/785 (10.95 %) on pakka floor with facilities of exercise. On kaccha floor with uneven surface, the incidence was higher in cattle (140/763, 18.34%) and buffalo (16/169, 9.46%). The maximum hoof lesions were observed in hind limbs (638; 62.00%) with greater involvement of outer claw (396; 62.06%) while in fore-limbs (175; 44.75%) the involvement of inner claw (216; 55.24%) was more. Hoof disorders observed were higher as the concentrate level in the diet increased. Out of 1029 affected animals, 443/1785 (24.81%) were maintained on percent concentrate diet, 365/2672 (13.66%) on percent concentrate diet and 221/3441 (6.42%) on the percent concentrate feed in the diet. Out of biochemical parameters of blood (Glucose, Total Protein, Albumin, Globulin, Ca, P, Mg, Na, K) and hoof shavings (Zn, Cu, Mn, Ca, P) only 4 parameters (Total protein, Mg in serum and Zn, Cu in hoof shavings) showed significant difference between groups of cow breeds- H.F., Kankrej and Mehsana buffalo. Manual hoof trimming was done in 150 animals with 60 animals in standing position and 50 in recumbency. 10 vicious animals required sedation for hoof trimming. Tip Chute was use in 40 animals for trimming. Regional analgesia was required for excision of interdigital hyperplasia. 78

93 Summary and Conclusions Livestock owners were apprised regarding economic losses due to hoof problems. Importance of hoof care and benefits of hoof trimming and surgical manoeuvres were also explained to them effectively. Regular hoof trimming every 6 months was suggested to the cattle owners. Proper restraint and scientific technique of hoof trimming were demonstrated to the livestock owners on their dairy farms. Based on the modalities of techniques and technologies put to use and the achievements and constraints, following conclusions can be drawn. 1. Overgrown hooves characterized by slipper, scissors and cork screw hooves were the major components of the hoof diseases in cattle and buffalo population under study. 2. The incidences of foot lesions were highest in HF crossbreds in cattle and Mehsana breed in buffaloes. 3. The incidence of foot lesions were more in cattle and buffaloes above second and third lactational age, respectively. 4. Hoof lesions were observed to be greater in hind limbs with greater involvement of outer claw than in fore-limbs with greater involvement of inner claw. 5. Prevalence of hoof lesions were higher in the animals kept tied on concrete floor with limited space and poor hygienic conditions. The animals which were left loose for exercise regularly had less hoof problems. 6. Higher prevalence of hoof diseases was observed in farms animals fed with high concentrates. 79

94 Summary and Conclusions 7. Functional hoof trimming of the hoof facilitated early detection of subclinical laminitic lesions and found to be effective procedure for treating different hoof lesions. 8. Use of Tip Chute for the hoof trimming facilitated proper restraint and comfortable functional hoof trimming with less manpower and time. 80

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113 Chart 4.1 Incidence (%) of hoof disorders observed in cattle and buffaloes under different management systems Percentage Organised dairy farms Panjarapoles Management systems Cattle Buffalo Overall

114 Chart 4.2 Foot lesions recorded during survey in cattle and buffaloes PER CENT INCIDENCE Cattle Overall Buffalo TYPES OF HOOF LESIONS

115 Chart 4.3 Incidence of hoof disorders based on lactational age (n= 1029) Percentage Cattle Buffalo Overall 0 Chart 4.4 Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (6282) and buffaloes (1616) Percentage Cattle Buffalo Linear (Buffalo) Total

116 Chart 4.5 Percent involvement of medial and outer claws with different hoof lesions among affected cattle and buffaloes PERCENT INVOLVEMENT Medial claw Outer claw FORE LIMBS

117 Chart 4.6 Affections of hoof as per feeding practices Percent hoof disorders Hoof disorders % concentrate FEEDING PRACTICES Chart 4.7 Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (790) and buffalo (333) in organised dairy farms.

118 Percent Cattel Buffalo Kachha floor 0 Pakka floor Mean Chart 4.8 Distribution of hoof lesions in relation to flooring in cattle (3533) and buffalo (954) in Panjrapoles Percent Cattle Buffalo Kachha floor Pakka floor Mean