Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and

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1 Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author.

2 Analysing gecko monitoring data and standardising monitoring procedures at Shakespear, Tawharanui and Whakanewha Regional Parks A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmental Management Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand Elizabeth Chamberlain 2015 I

3 Abstract Constant inventories of New Zealand gecko populations are important to monitor the status of the populations over time and allow diagnosis of declines in abundance. Long-term monitoring can also provide information on how effective different management schemes are for conserving a species. Populations of Pacific geckos (Dactylocnemis pacificus) are monitored at Shakespear and Whakanewha, and populations of forest (Mokopirirakau granulatus) and green geckos (Naultinus elegans) are monitored at Tawharanui and Whakanewha on a yearly basis. Whakanewha has a poison based regime for controlling predators, and Tawharanui and Shakespear are largely reliant on predator-proof fences. Visual encounter surveys (VESs) provide a relative abundance estimate of the gecko populations in terms of catch per unit effort (CPUE). There was no significant change in CPUE over the three years of monitoring ( ) for any of the gecko populations. It is a possibility this could be a result of small statistical power tests. Comparisons of abundance indices could not be made between parks due to the likely difference of detectability in different vegetation types. Despite the change in activity levels of some animal species during different phases of the moon, this study found that the same phenomenon does not occur for green and forest geckos. There was no significant difference in the CPUE of the gecko species from VESs conducted during the new and full moon. Therefore, there is no need to stratify VESs based on the moon phases in order to account for changes in the activity levels of the geckos when obtaining abundance indices. Tracking tunnels have proven an effective monitoring device for estimating the distribution and relative abundance of animal species and have increasingly been used to monitor lizard species. Its use for detecting arboreal geckos has not been completed II

4 with any great success. One Pacific gecko was detected in this study using tracking tunnels designed for arboreal geckos, a very low tracking rate. Cell foam retreats (CFRs) were also used for detecting geckos. They were able to detect the presence of all gecko species at the three parks that were detected by VESs except for one instance: CFRs failed to detect the presence of green geckos at Whakanewha. Therefore, it is advisable that they are not used exclusively for monitoring the gecko populations. III

5 Acknowledgements A big thank you to my supervisors, Manuela Barry and Dianne Brunton. Thank you so much Manu for all the knowledge and advice, and for introducing me to the logistics around the lab. Thank you for the support throughout the write-up, and helping me become familiar with the parks and the people who run them. Thank you for helping me to the end. Thank you Dianne for help with volunteers and for editing and providing feedback on my write-up. Thank you to Chris Wedding and Dylan van Winkel for taking me out on my first night spot and introducing me to the geckos for the first time. Special thank you to Chris for helping me become familiar with the parks and the monitoring pogramme and for answering my ongoing queries. Also a big thanks to Mark Delaney for coming out to Waiheke and helping me set up my transects. Thank you Su Sinclair for help out in the field and answering my questions about the monitoring programme. A totara thank you to Tommy for becoming my first volunteer especially during your exam time! I couldn't talk you out of it, and thanks for your ongoing help. Thanks for the little check lists you made for me and for always making me laugh. Thank you Bridgy for giving up your precious sleep and facing your fears to help me. Thanks for your inspirational notes and getting more excited about the geckos than me. Thank you for enquiring about my progress and for sitting with me during some tough times. Thank you Mum and Dad for coming out in the field and for your ongoing support till the end. Thank you especially for your help with all the menial work. Thanks Dad for your words of encouragement. It always surprises me how you can put into words exactly what I m going through. Just a heads up, you re in the right profession. Thank you Mum for caring so much. Thank you for your encouraging texts and phone calls while you were overseas; and for all the hugs and yummy meals when you came back IV

6 home. Thanks Bernie for your words of wisdom. Celebrate the small victories. Thank you for the driving lessons and for you and Darren helping me buy my first car and sort out all the problems that come along with it. I always felt better driving out to the parks at night knowing you two were a phone call away! Thanks for all the dinners and giving me a break from my flat! Thank you Josh and Jade for enquiring about the progress of my thesis even when it got old. Thank you Josh for your honest remarks that help bring everyone down to earth. Thank you Frank for making me understand what hard work is and for all your great quips I had to be quick to get. Thanks Annah for being so inquisitive. Thank you to all my niece and nephews for reminding me life isn t all serious. Thank you to all my family for sticking with me to the end, especially during the latter stages. Thank you to all the people at East Coast Bays parish for making me feel welcome and giving me rides! Thank you Shelley for getting me started and for the driving lessons! Thank you to Aaron, Carl, Jessica, Sarah, Jacqui, Stephanie, Su and Nick for providing aid in the field! A lot of time was saved with your help. Thank you so much! Thank you Aaron for helping edit my thesis. Thank you to the rangers, Matt Maitland, Maurice Puckett and Dan Beauchamp for giving me tours of the parks and for your help sorting out any problems. Thank you Dan at the navy base for keeping me safe and allowing me to come on the navy land. Finally, thank you to the bus drivers out on Waiheke! The research for this thesis was conducted under the Auckland Council Discretionary Use Permit Shakespear, Tawharanui and Whakanewha Regional Parks (application number CS54) and the Department of Conservation High Impact, Research and Collection Permit (AK FAU). Funding was provided by the Auckland Council. V

7 Table of Contents ABSTRACT. II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... IV TABLE OF CONTENTS VI LIST OF FIGURES IX LIST OF TABLES. X CHAPTER 1 Monitoring geckos for conservation Introduction The Auckland Council gecko monitoring programme Objectives of the monitoring programme Study species Study sites Tawharanui Regional Park Whakanewha Regional Park Shakespear Regional Park New Zealand lizards History of lizards in New Zealand Threats to lizards New Zealand geckos Importance of geckos to our ecosystem Long-term monitoring of geckos Management implications Characteristics of a good monitoring programme Standardising monitoring methods Importance of monitoring geckos Monitoring methods of New Zealand geckos Research Objectives 28 CHAPTER 2 Population parameters of the gecko populations at Shakespear, Tawharanui and Whakanewha Introduction Importance of baseline data Population health indicators Objectives Methods Auckland Council s baseline data for geckos Data analysis Difference in catch per unit effort between years Sex ratios Morphometrics Body condition index Scarring and tail loss Re-sighted geckos Possible sources of bias Microhabitat use Results Difference in CPUE between years Cell foam retreats Sex ratios Morphometrics.. 43 VI

8 2.4.5 Body condition index Scarring and tail loss Re-sighted geckos Possible sources of bias Microhabitat use Discussion Difference in CPUE between years Detection success of monitoring devices Sex ratios Population health Potential sources of bias Microhabitat use by species Management implications. 59 CHAPTER 3 Vegetation characteristics and gecko encounter rate Introduction Habitat effect on encounter rate Management implications Analysing vegetation structure Microhabitat use by geckos Boundary selection Auckland Council monitoring programme 67 CHAPTER 4 The effect of moon phase on gecko encounter rate Introduction The effect of moonlight on animal activity The effect of moonlight on microhabitat use Seasonal differences in the effect of the moon Confounding variables Management implications Objectives Methods Location Data collection Data analysis Results Differences in the encounter rate of geckos in the new and full moon Discussion The effect of the moon phase on gecko activity Management implications. 80 CHAPTER 5 The use of tracking tunnels to determine the distribution of arboreal geckos Introduction Monitoring devices for lizards Site occupancy Objectives Methods Captive study Field trial Tunnel set-up at Tawharanui Tunnel set-up at Shakespear. 93 VII

9 5.4 Results Gecko footprints Environmental variables Mice and weta footprints Discussion Seasonal differences Competing species. 97 CHAPTER 6 Conclusions Baseline data Standardisation of survey methods Site occupancy tools Future threats Recommendations Overall study outcomes 105 APPENDIX I APPENDIX II REFERENCES 108 VIII

10 List of Figures Figure 1.1 An Auckland green gecko (Naultinus elegans) on a flowering manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) Figure 1.2 A forest gecko (Mokopirirakau granulatus) on a dead frond of silver fern (Cyathea dealbata). 5 Figure 1.3 A Pacific gecko (Dactylocnemis pacificus) displaying the effectiveness of its camouflage on a tree.. 6 Figure 1.4 Map of New Zealand with a close-up of the Auckland Region showing the location of the three regional parks where geckos are monitored by the Auckland Council...9 Figure 2.1 Number of geckos sighted at each of the three parks..41 Figure 2.2 Body condition index (BCI) of forest geckos at Tawharanui plotted against snout-to-vent length (SVL).. 45 Figure 2.3 Body condition index (BCI) of green geckos at Whakanewha plotted against snout-to-vent length (SVL)..45 Figure 5.1 Gecko tunnel with a tracking card inside attached with bull clips. The tunnel is attached to the tree with malleable garden wire. Photo: Brigid Chamberlain 91 Figure 5.2 Samples of tracking cards with mice prints (left picture) and weta prints (right picture). Photo: Brigid Chamberlain.95 IX

11 List of Tables Table 2.1 Number of geckos of each species found under cell foam retreats at each of the parks during the 2012 and 2013 checks Table 2.2 Sex ratio (males to females) of Pacific geckos for each of the years of monitoring followed by actual numbers of each sex caught during the monitoring period of that year Table 2.3 Sex ratio (males to females) of forest geckos for each of the years of monitoring followed by actual numbers of each sex caught during the monitoring period of that year 42 Table 2.4 Sex ratio (males to females) of green geckos for each of the years of monitoring followed by actual numbers of each sex caught during the monitoring period of that year 43 Table 2.5 Results of Mann-Whitney U tests for differences in distributions of female and male snout-to-vent lengths (SVL) and weights from each of the gecko populations. Significant results (α = 0.05) are shown in bold 43 Table 2.6 Median weight(g) and snout-to-vent length, SVL(mm), of geckos captured at Shakespear, Tawharanui and Whakanewha. Sample sizes are listed in parentheses..44 Table 2.7 Relationship of the cube root of the mass of geckos and their snout-to-vent length for each gecko population explained with a linear regression model...42 Table 2.8 Date of capture, morphometrics and body condition (BCI) of re-sighted geckos as determined from photo identification.. 48 Table 2.9 Results from linear regression analyses of catch per unit effort of surveys and the number of surveyors conducting the searches. Brackets indicate degrees of freedom for test statistics. 48 Table 2.10 Results of two sample t-tests determining whether there is a significant difference (α = 0.05) between each species for each of three variables: the height in the tree a gecko was spotted, the height of the tree the gecko was spotted in and the distance from the path a gecko was spotted. Bold indicates significant differences between two species; t = t-statistic; df = degrees of freedom...49 Table 2.11 Mean height in tree a gecko was spotted, height of tree a gecko was spotted in and the distance from the path a gecko was spotted, all in metres. One mean was tabulated for each species from all geckos captured during the three years ( ) of monitoring and for which data were recorded. Numbers in brackets indicate total number of geckos...49 Table 2.12 Mean tree height at each of the parks. n is number of trees sampled.49 Table 5.1 Number of tracking cards with weta or mice prints from the 90 tunnels put out at each of the two parks..95 X