Taster Module Certificate III in Animal Studies v 1

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1 Certificate III in Animal Studies v 1

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3 Introduction This module is designed to help potential students that may be considering one of our Animal Science courses. It will provide a taster of the content and level of our Certificate III in Animal Studies and Certificate IV in Companion Services to help potential students decide if the course will be suited to them. This module includes introductory chapters on the following subjects that have been selected from some of our Animal Science courses Care of Dogs & Cats Welfare, Ethics & Legislation Animal Health Animal Nutrition & Feeding* Animal Behaviour Anatomy & Physiology* Working with Animals; Health & Safety * These are 2 of the more challenging modules included in the Certificate III in Animal Studies Please note that assessment methods in the modules can vary. For example some assessments may involve multiple choice quizzes whilst others may consist of a written assignment. Most modules include a worksheet at the end of each chapter which are designed to help students prepare for the assessments. Should you find this taster module particularly difficult it may be that the course is not at the right level for you. 2

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5 Module Instructions 1. Read the chapter and any reference material requested. Complete one chapter at a time. 2. Complete the worksheet questions at the end of each chapter. These do not need to be sent to us for marking. The answers can be found in the last section of this module Worksheet Answers. You can use this section to compare your answers and assess your understanding of the each chapter. Please note: this module is for your use only and is to give you an idea of course content before starting your course. The content here does not give you any credit towards your course. If you find the level of the course appropriate to you then you are ready to begin your studies with us. You can enrol in your first module by visiting our website 3

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7 CONTENTS Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Care of Dogs & Cats Page 7 Chapter 2 An Introduction to Animal Health Page 17 Chapter 3 An Introduction to Animal Behaviour Page 31 Chapter 4 An Introduction to Working with Animals; Health & Safety Page 43 Chapter 5 An Introduction to Welfare, Ethics & Legislation Page 57 Chapter 6 An Introduction to Animal Nutrition & Feeding Page 71 Chapter 7 An Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology Page 83 5

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9 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Care of Dogs & Cats Outline Introduction Identifying Breeds Dog Breeds Cat Breeds Instructions for this chapter Read all study materials in this chapter. Then complete the worksheet questions at the end of this chapter. You will find the answers at the end of the module. Assessment for this chapter Complete Worksheet 1

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11 Chapter One Outline Introduction Identifying Breeds What is a Breed? Dog Breeds Cat Breeds 9

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13 Introduction It is well known that domestic dogs have all descended from the grey wolf Canis lupus. Domestication is thought to have begun around 30,000 years ago, with the friendlier wolves coming into contact with humans and most likely their food. It is a big stretch to imagine the Chihuahua of today being a descendent of the grey wolf, however genetics proves it is so. The modern dog is known as Canis familiaris or Canis lupus familiaris. There are thought to be around 4 million dogs in Australia. An archaeological dig in Cyprus in 2004 found a cat buried with a human that dates back nearly 10,000 years. It seems that domestic cats have been with us for many thousands of years. Some historians think cats most likely become useful to humans when societies in the Middle East began to settle down around 12,000 years ago, and mice would infest grain stores. Cats of course could control mice numbers, and the relationship began. From genetic information it is believed all domestic cats have descended from a Middle Eastern wildcat, Felis sylvestris, which literally means "cat of the woods." Some geneticists suggest that domestic cats could have first appeared even more than 100,000 years ago. There are thought to around 2.5 million domestic cats in Australia (living with humans) and some government agencies estimate up to 20 million feral cats living in the wild. Figure 1.1 Our present day domestic dogs and cats have descended from the grey wolf (left) and Middle Eastern wildcat (right) 11

14 Identifying Breeds All organisms, animal and plant, are classified into groups according to certain characteristics that they have. For instance, all animals with a backbone are put into one group together and that group is further divided into sub-groups according to other characteristics (such as whether they feed their young from mammary glands, whether they eat meat and so on). All domestic dogs can be classified as follows: Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Animal Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Canidae Canis familiaris All domestic dogs have the scientific name Canis familiaris (note that the species name is always written with a lower case first letter, not a capital). Domestic cats are classified in the same way. Their classification is as follows: Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species Animal Chordata Mammalia Carnivora Felidae Felis catus What is a Breed? A breed, as defined by the Collins English Dictionary, is: A group of organisms within a species, especially a group of domestic animals, originated and maintained by man and having a clearly defined set of characteristics. 12

15 Man has created all breeds of dog and cat, over thousands of years, and the breeds are maintained by man. This can be seen on the show circuit where thousands of people worldwide adopt a certain breed and continue to develop desired characteristics through selected breeding. Theoretically all dog breeds can produce offspring from every other breed, although a Chihuahua female might have trouble with a male Great Dane!! None the less, if we were to use artificial insemination to get the female pregnant she would. Of course the pregnancy and delivery would likely kill the mum (bitch) due to the size of the pups. Although closely related, it is probable that a wolf and a dog could produce viable offspring; it is known that dogs and dingoes have bred. If you wanted to own a dingo in Australia we suggest that you contact the appropriate department in your state of residence regarding legislation to ascertain your position. Dog Breeds For showing purposes, and the organisation of dog shows, the various breeds of dogs are separated into a number of different groups. These groups are not fixed and a particular breed of dog may be in a different group in another country. These groups are very loosely based on the common ancestry, function (either original or present day) or physical build of the dogs. Breeds are often grouped together according to similar characteristics: For example the Toy Group contains the Chihuahua, the Maltese and Papillon and many others. The Australian National Kennel Club uses the following classifications to group dogs together. A few examples of breeds in each group are given. Toys Australian Silky Terrier King Charles Spaniel Pomeranian Working Dogs Australian Kelpie German Shepherd Welsh Corgi Terriers Australian Terrier Bull Terrier Fox Terrier Utility Boxer Pyrenean Mountain Dog Schnauzer Gundogs Cocker Spaniel German Short Haired Pointer Golden Retriever Non Sporting Dalmatian Poodle Shar Pei 13

16 Hounds Afghan Hound Beagle Greyhound Cat Breeds Cats are also divided into groups for show purposes, though there are not as many groups. Generally the different groups are characterised by coat length and body shape and features. The categories used are very broad. In Australia the groups used are: Group Description Examples Group 1 These are the longhair breeds Birman Persion Ragdoll Group 2 The oriental breeds. The Siamese being the most well know Siamese Balinese Group 3 Generally breeds without extreme features. Most are shorthaired Foreign White Abyssinian Cornish Rex Sphinx Group 4 The non-pedigree or household pets Those mixed breed companion pets; the Moggie Some further information on Animal Science Care of Dogs & Cats module This module is designed to provide the knowledge enabling people to be informed and effective caregivers to dogs and cats. Topics discussed include: Describe the origins of dogs and cats, discuss breeds and be able to identify individuals. Identify the behavioral characteristics of dogs and cats and apply methods of safe handling and restraint, appropriate to each animal feed and groom dogs and cats Describe and perform routine health care and prophylactic procedures for dogs and cats Describe and maintain dog and cat housing, equipment and the disposal of wastes Determine and record normal dog and cat biological data 14

17 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Care of Dogs & Cats Worksheet 1 Completing this study sheet will help you to assess your understanding of this chapter. You do not need to submit this worksheet. You will find the answers at the back of this module. 1. Name the species that all domestic dogs have descended from 2. The process of domestication is thought to have started how many years ago? 3. Name the species that all domestic cats are thought to have descended from 4. Approximately how many dogs are thought to be in Australia? 5. Approximately how many feral cats are currently living in the wild? 6. Give the scientific name for the domestic dog 7. Give the scientific name for the domestic cat 15

18 8. Provide a definition for the term breed 9. Fill in the table below with an example of 1 breed for each category Dog Breeds Cat Breeds Working Dogs Group 2 - Oriental Toys Group 3 Extreme Features Utility Group 1 - Longhair 16

19 Chapter 2 Introduction to Animal Health Outline Healthy & Unhealthy Animals Assessing the Health of Animals Instructions for this chapter Read all study materials in this chapter. Then complete the worksheet questions at the end of this chapter. You will find the answers at the end of the module. Assessment for this chapter Complete Worksheet 2

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21 Chapter Two Outline Healthy & Unhealthy Animals Physical Signs Physiological Signs Behavioural Signs Assessing the Health of Animals Disease The Systematic Approach 19

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23 HEALTHY & UNHEALTHY ANIMALS We often identify animals that are unwell, but how do we actually do this? What are the signs that indicate that an animal is not in a normal healthy state? Looking at a definition of health, and an approach to detecting signs of health can be useful. Several definitions exist, two that are commonly used are mentioned below. Health = A state of physical, mental and social well-being. Health = Free from disease. One method of looking at the signs of health (or disease) in animals is to consider: Physical signs Physiological signs Behavioural signs Physical signs These are signs associated with body structure and appearance. Some examples of good health include: Good body condition Normal movement No abnormal lumps Glossy coat Skin free from parasites No abnormal odours or discharges 21

24 Physiological signs These are signs associated with bodily functions and include : Normal eating and drinking Normal temperature, pulse and respiration Normal defaecation ( passing faeces ) and urination Normal mucous membrane colour ( gums, conjunctiva etc) Usual reproductive cycles. Behavioural signs These are the signs of how an animal relates with other animals and people. Of course different species of animals will have different normal behaviour. Some examples of normal behaviour include: Normal social interaction with other animals and people Lack of excessive aggression Normal sexual and mating behaviour Lack of vices ( excesses of behaviour such as wind sucking in horses, or tail chasing in dogs ) Disease ASSESSING THE HEALTH OF ANIMALS Ill health or disease represents a change to the normal healthy signs of an animal that we have already discussed. Various definitions of disease can be found, and they may be quite broad. They include: Disease = Any departure from normal health. Disease = Abnormality of structure and function. 22

25 Usually a disease will have a recognisable set of signs or abnormalities that indicate a particular condition. Some diseases are quite easy to recognise, for instance a common respiratory virus (colds and flu), a broken leg, or lice in the wool of a sheep. Other conditions are less easy to classify as a disease. Animals that do not reproduce as expected, poor production and some abnormal behaviour seen in animals, are examples of conditions that are difficult to consider as a disease. For example: Is a pet dog that refuses to mate, suffering from a disease? Is a cow that produces less than the normal amount of milk, suffering from a disease? The answer doesn t really matter. The definition is only academic, and it is clear that whether a broken leg, or a failure to reproduce, that it is a departure from normal health. To be thorough, a systematic approach to the determination of an animal s health should be used. The components of such an approach usually include the following - Systematic Approach History Distance Examination Close Examination Ancillary Tests 23

26 History - Taking a history refers to obtaining information about the animal and recording this information in a suitable format. Obtaining a history should by the first step in any assessment of an animal s health status and should include details that enable identification of the animal, details of its present health status, and any relevant details of its past health. A history can be taken without actually examining the animal, and should be done prior to any examination. A history may include: Animal s details Information such as name of the animal and its owner s details Species, breed, sex, age, Recent information General attitude (is the animal bright and alert?) Eating, drinking, urination, defaecation, Tolerance to exercise. Has the animal had contact with any new animals, or travelled away from its usual home? Past information Is the animal sterilised? Has it been vaccinated? Has it been treated for parasites? Any significant past illnesses. Any major illnesses of parents, if known. Information on current problems What are the signs of any current problems? How long have these problems been evident? Are they improving, not changing, or are they getting worse? Are any other animals affected with this problem? Each piece of data may provide valuable information about an animal s health. In the case of a problem, the information will assist in determining the particular problem and its likely outcome. Distant Examination - This is the next process, following the taking of a detailed history. It is used to gain information on the current status of the animal and should be done by looking at the animal, but not actually touching it. 24

27 The closeness to the animal will vary with the species (a cow in a paddock, or bird in an aviary or perhaps a cat on the sofa). You should be close enough to observe details of its condition and awareness, but far enough away to observe its movement and behaviour. Many of your observations will mirror those of the history, but often the history will be presented by someone other than yourself (the owner or carer if it is not your own). The examination is important to determine the current state of the animal. Some examples of information that may be obtained from a distance examination include: Alertness Body condition Breathing rate Discharges Posture Behaviour Any abnormal features It is important to be aware of normal behaviour in a particular species of animal before you can make a judgement about it. Some behaviour is similar in all species, for instance normal appetite and normal drinking. Aggressive behaviour towards other individuals may be normal in some species but is considered abnormal in others. Close Examination - This is the stage at which the animal would be physically examined. A hands on examination would be done. The animal would be felt all over and any areas of concern examined particularly thoroughly. The type of information that could be determined from this type of examination is: Detection of internal swellings Detection of painful areas Areas of discomfort the animal may groan when the abdomen is touched indicating an abdominal problem for instance. Temperature, Pulse, heart and respiration rates Heart and respiration rhythm Mucous membrane colour and capillary refill time Normality or abnormality of internal structures 25

28 Many different approaches exist, one useful and common one has the following components: 1. Hands on examination of animal - Here the animal is felt and examined carefully from head to toe, noting any abnormalities. On the head: ears, eyes, mouth and teeth are all carefully examined for abnormalities. The rest of the animal down to the tail, including the legs are carefully examined. 2. Temperature, Pulse, Respiration - These measurements can provide very important information about the health of an animal, and form part of a routine health examination. Figure 3.1 A close examination involves taking a hands-on approach and may also include taking measurements such as temperature, pulse and respiration rate Ancillary Tests - It may be necessary to perform tests that provide further information about the health status of an animal. Of course, these tests will need to be conducted by a Veterinarian and are used in cases where more information is required to determine the nature of a problem. Usually these tests require the use of specialised equipment, and may involve samples from the animal being sent to a laboratory. Examples of ancillary tests include - Taking X rays or scans Testing samples from the animal such as blood and urine 26

29 Clinical microbiology (cultivating microorganisms that may be found on/in an animal to identify them e.g. bacteria) Clinical chemistry (determining levels of body chemicals to ascertain if they are within normal parameters) Post mortem examination (examination of a dead animal to determine cause of death) Some further information on Animal Science Animal Health module This module is designed for students of animal science to provide them with knowledge of Animal Health. Topics discussed include: Hygiene: cleaning, antisepsis, disinfection, sterilisation and asepsis Physical environment of the animal Characteristics of healthy and unhealthy animals Cause, transmission and diagnosis of disease The animal s response to disease Treatment and prevention of disease/ Emergency treatment and first aid Medical Topics 27

30 Chapter 2 Introduction to Animal Health Worksheet 2 Completing this study sheet will help you to assess your understanding of this chapter. You do not need to submit this worksheet. You will find the answers at the back of this module. 1. Provide 2 definitions of health 2. Define the term physical signs 3. Explain what is meant by the term behavioural signs 4. Provide 1 definitions of disease 5. List the 4 stages of the systematic approach to determining if an animal has disease 28

31 6. List 2 pieces of information that may be collected when determining an animal s history 7. List 2 observations that may be made when performing as distance examination 8. Explain what is meant by a close examination of an animal 9. Explain what measurements might be taken as part of a close examination 10. Explain what is meant by the term ancillary tests and provide 2 examples 29

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33 Chapter 3 Introduction to Animal Behaviour Outline What is Behaviour? Reasons to know about Animal Behaviour Instructions for this chapter Read all study materials in this chapter. Then complete the worksheet questions at the end of this chapter. You will find the answers at the end of the module. Assessment for this chapter Complete Worksheet 3

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35 Chapter Three Outline What is Behaviour? Reasons to know about Animal Behaviour 33

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37 Introduction What is Behaviour?? A definition of behaviour is the action or response of an animal to internal and external stimuli It may be voluntary or involuntary. Or in other words, what an animal does and how it does it. It is a complex interaction between sensing the environment, the brain processing that information, modification by memories and experience, or hormonal influences, and movement and actions (motor function) to react to those stimuli. Most behaviour is coded for in the animal s genes because it is essential for a species survival in the wild and through evolution has been passed down from generation to generation. Figure 3.1 Behaviour is the action or response of an animal to internal and external stimuli actively seek a mate. In domestic animals (i.e. those species of animals that have been tamed for a human environment) this genetic basis for behaviour may have been modified by domestication and selective breeding. The animal s chemical and physical functioning of the body, or physiology, may affect the way in which they behave. For example, a dog with a painful arthritic condition may act aggressively, or a bitch on heat may Learning and memory can also influence behaviour which is discussed in more detail in the Animal Behaviour module. 35

38 BEHAVIOURAL EXAMPLES Normal behaviour A lamb s response to hunger (a stimulus) is to seek out its mother in order to suckle milk from her teats (a response) A bird feeding on the ground detects a cat crouching nearby, and its response is to escape by flying away Cats are fastidiously clean and will bury their faeces and urine Male dogs will detect the odour or scent of a bitch on heat (hormonal changes causing them to be ready to mate) and may roam for miles to seek her out Dogs will bark at intruders entering a house. BEHAVIOURAL EXAMPLES Abnormal behaviour A ewe will not allow her lamb to suckle (possibly a physical illness may prevent her from doing this, for example she may have painful, infected mammary glands- mastitis) A bird feeding on the ground detects a cat crouching nearby, and is not able to fly away (again a physical disease may prevent the bird from displaying normal behaviour) A cat may spray a stream of urine onto furniture or other objects in the house A dog barking excessively Reasons to know about Animal Behaviour There are many reasons why we should study animal behaviour, apart from our natural curiosity. These include: Animal welfare Well-being of pet owners Treatment or prevention of behavioural problems Animal husbandry and handling Economic benefits in production animals and veterinary practices. The study of behaviour is sometimes called ethology, and involves not only what an animal does but also when, how, why and where the behaviour occurred. 36

39 Animal Welfare Understanding the normal behaviour of animals allows us to maximize the well-being of animals. Each animal species has certain requirements that need to be fulfilled if we are to look after them humanely. For instance dogs require space in which to play and exercise, chickens require appropriate flooring in which to peck and scratch. It is essential that all people working in animal-related fields have a good grasp of animal behaviour. An animal s departure from normal behaviour may be the first sign of ill health, early recognition of this may prevent more serious disease. Having a sound knowledge of behavioural requirements will also assist in designing appropriate housing for both domestic and captive wild animals. These animal facilities need to meet the physical, social and psychological needs of animals. It will also enable animal husbandry to be conducted in a humane, safe and effective manner. Unwanted behaviour in pets, due to lack of understanding of their behavioural requirements, results in many of them being abandoned or euthanased. Figure 3.2 It is important to understand a species behavioural needs so that the animals well-being can be maintained More pets are euthanased for behavioural reasons than for all other reasons put together. It is estimated that 200, 000 dogs and cats are euthanased annually in animal shelters in Australia, only a small number for health reasons. Early intervention to prevent or minimize behavioural problems would decrease unwanted or antisocial behaviour, and help reduce euthanasia numbers. Some of these problems are associated with poor or little training, others from a lack of environmental enrichment resulting in animal behaviour that may be normal from the animal s perspective but objectionable to people. 37

40 Well-being of pet owners Possessing pets is not only a pleasurable experience but has shown to have many health benefits for people. However, pets with behavioural problems can cause stress to owners and in more serious cases may pose a physical threat. Treatment or prevention of behavioural problems Veterinarians and veterinary nurses spend a considerable time advising clients on behavioural issues. It has been estimated that 20% of a veterinarian s time is spent counselling clients on pet behavioural matters. Veterinary practices are best suited to offer behavioural education to clients since they often see pets at a very young age and animals are seen repeatedly. Behavioural consultants play an important role in helping to prevent behavioural problems in companion animals. Behaviourists may also provide a service in optimizing design of animalhandling facilities based on knowledge of that species particular behavioural habits and requirements. Animal husbandry and handling Improving animal husbandry through a knowledge of animal communication signals and social behaviour can: Decrease injuries to animals Improve the welfare of the animal, and Decrease injuries to people - frightened animals are more likely to rear up or injure people. Increase productivity of farm animals. Figure 3.3 Understanding animal behaviour can help to improve animal husbandry and handling methods Economic benefits in production animals and veterinary practices From an economic perspective, a sound knowledge of animal behaviour will help reduce disease and injury in production animals, resulting in a more cost effective and higher quality product. For example, frightened animals in poorly designed yards are more likely to injure and bruise themselves. In Australia it has been estimated that bruising in beef cattle costs the industry $36 million annually. Different species of production animals may have quite different needs in regards to yard and facility design. For example, farmed deer behave much 38

41 more calmly if they are moved in runs that have solid sides that are above eye level. If deer are moved in more traditional yards with slatted rails, distractions from the other side of the race may cause them to panic and severely injure themselves. Establishing a behavioural service in veterinary practice can provide extra incomebehavioural problems that are not resolved may also mean a loss of income from clients seeking advice elsewhere for treatment. Both veterinarians and nurses can be involved in providing this service working with clients to the benefit of all. The pet s quality of life and life expectancy increase, clients benefit physically as well as psychologically, and veterinarians benefit by the satisfaction of providing a service and often having patients that are more manageable. Figure 3.4 Many vets and vet nurses now offer behavioural services to help clients deal with any problem behaviours they may be experiencing 39

42 Some further information on Animal Science Animal Behaviour module This module is designed for students of animal care and veterinary nursing to provide them with knowledge of animal behaviour. Topics discussed include: Concepts of animal behaviour Development of animal behaviour in terms of evolution, and adaptation. Human-animal interaction. The basis of animal behaviour, including types of learning, and how this relates to animal husbandry. Practical applications of animal behaviour 40

43 Chapter 3 Introduction to Animal Behaviour Worksheet 3 Completing this study sheet will help you to assess your understanding of this chapter. You do not need to submit this worksheet. You will find the answers at the back of this module. 1. Provide a definition of Behaviour 2. Briefly describe how an animal s physiology can affect the way in which they behave 3. Provide 1 example of normal behaviour in an animal species of your choice 4. Provide 1 example of abnormal behaviour in an animal species of your choice 5. Describe 3 reasons to know about animal behaviour 6. Name the term used to describe the study of animal behaviour 41

44 7. Briefly explain how having a knowledge of animal behaviour can help when it comes to animal handling 42

45 Chapter 4 Introduction to Working with Animals; Health & Safety Outline Introduction Workplace safety Instructions for this chapter Read all study materials in this chapter. Then complete the worksheet questions at the end of this chapter. You will find the answers at the end of the module. Assessment for this chapter Complete Worksheet 4

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47 Chapter Four Outline Introduction Defining Risks & Hazards Workplace Safety Identifying the Hazard Risk Assessment o Control the Risk o Eliminate the Risk o Substitute the Risk o Isolate the Risk o Engineering Controls o Administrative Controls o PPE 45

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49 INTRODUCTION In Australia approximately 300 people die each year from work related accidents and approximately 150,000 Australians are injured at work each year. In various other countries similar situations occur and the cost of lost production, health care and compensation associated with these accidents is huge and a cost to all in the community. Unfortunately there are many hazards involved working in the animal care industry. It is essential that both employers and employees are aware of the risks involved, and also the protocols and procedures necessary to reduce these risks. It is also important to know the difference between a hazard and a risk. A hazard is defined as anything that causes bodily harm or damage. A risk is defined as the chance that something will cause harm or damage. Risk assessments should be evaluated frequently in order to control potential workplace hazards. Of course not all injuries are serious, however all care should be taken to minimize the risk of them occurring. Figure 4.1 There are many hazards when working in the animal care industry Listed below are some hazards associated with working in the animal care industry: Injuries inflicted by animals, such as bites, scratches and kicks Radiation Cuts from caging and equipment Falls Manual handling injuries Chemical injuries 47

50 Allergies Zoonoses (diseases spread from animals to humans and vice versa) Noise Electrical Emotional stress All of the hazards above may be grouped into three categories; Physical, Mental and, Biological Within each category there are further hazard groups, or types. It is usual to consider these hazard types when identifying work related hazards to make sure a wide range of potential hazards are considered. Listed below are some types of hazards together with some specific examples. Gravity falling objects, falls of people Kinetic energy projectiles, penetrating objects Hazardous substances Spills or splashes of chemicals on the skin or inhalation Thermal energy spills and splashes of hot matter Extremes of temperature effects of heat and cold Radiation ultraviolet, arc flashes, microwaves, lasers Sound hearing damage Electrical shock, burns Vibration to hands Biological micro-organisms Stress unrealistic workload and expectations Besides yourself, others are also at risk of being injured including employers and visitors. 48

51 Accident Personal injury Injury to visitors Injury to staff Possible Consequence Pain and suffering Loss of function or disfigurement Inability to work As above Poor reputation Business may suffer Prosecution under Health and Safety laws Liability for damages to person Loss of skilled assistance and productivity Every industry and workplace will have hazards specific to that environment and these hazards will be discussed in the following chapters. There are however, a number of hazards that are typically present in a wide range of workplaces. During the course of this module we will endeavour to expand on the above accidents and show not only the injuries which occur but how you can protect yourself against them. It is often said that if we understand the cause of many accidents then we can prevent them. Firstly one must make the workplace safe and be able to identify where the hazards exist. WORKPLACE SAFETY Workplace safety begins with three essential steps: 1. Identify the hazard 2. Complete a risk assessment 3. Control the risk 49

52 Identify the Hazard To identify hazards you need to: have discussions with employees have discussions with employers have someone watch the full progression of a job from start to finish and analyze it to assess potential hazards which could be avoided if injuries do occur read through any injury reports Risk Assessment A Risk Assessment is the likelihood of an injury or illness occurring from exposure to the hazard. Risks are usually described as low, medium or high risk. There are several factors that should be taken into account when doing a risk assessment. Severity (from minor injury and time off work to disabilities and death) Frequency (number of times this injury occurs); Intensity of the exposure (one exposure to high amounts of radiation is devastating, whereas exposure to small amounts for example having an x-ray yourself, is of minimal risk) Identify who may be affected The workplace should have an Occupational Health and Safety inspector/regulator. The person may come in to the workplace on regular intervals (eg. every 3 months) and have a checklist, monitoring every aspect of the job, making sure that every hazards are identified and prevented from occurring. Control the Risk Once the hazard has been assessed control options for eliminating or reducing the risk of exposure to the hazard must be considered. Controlling risks goes further than simply supplying protective clothing and equipment. The use of protective clothing and equipment makes sure that in the event of an incident for example, a spill of a hazardous chemical, the incident does not result in an injury or harm to health. They do not prevent the incident itself from occurring. Protective clothing and 50

53 equipment should always be the last choice, and only where it is not practicable to control the risk in any other way. There are a number of control options. However there is a preferred order of controls, often referred to as the hierarchy of controls, it is as follows: Eliminate the risk Substitute the risk Isolate the risk Engineering Controls Administrative Controls Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Figure 4.2 Controlling the risk is one step that can be taken Eliminate the risk This is the preferred control solution. It removes the risk from the workplace altogether for example: remove a noisy machine from an otherwise quiet area where a solvent has been used to remove oil from pressed parts coming out of a press, you remove the oil from the systems and you can eliminate the need for a solvent Modify the design of the workplace Substitute the risk This is the second preferred control solution. It substitutes the risk with a less hazardous one for example: use a non-flammable solvent in place of a flammable one; use a chemical in a paste form instead of dusty powders. 51

54 Isolate the risk Isolating or separating the hazard or hazardous work practice from people not involved in the work or the general work areas. For example: marking of hazardous areas; installing screens or barriers. Engineering Controls Where a risk cannot be eliminated or substituted the next preferred solution is to use engineering controls such as: modification of machinery, tools and equipment; use enclosures, guarding, local exhaust ventilation, or automation. Administrative Controls The next preferred control solution is to introduce work practices which reduce the risk. For example: reduce the period of exposure; rotate jobs; reduce the number of employees exposed to the hazard; provide training on the hazard; have a maximum number of hours allowed to work certain machinery Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) PPE should always be the last preferred solution for controlling risks. Even when PPE is used efforts should still continue to remove the safety and health risk using elimination, substitution, engineering and administrative controls in that order. PPE can often be uncomfortable (e.g. wearing masks) or restrict vision (e.g. wearing safety goggles), hearing (e.g. wearing ear plugs) or movement (e.g. wearing lead aprons when using an xray device). Because of the discomfort of some PPE it can be difficult to keep employees 52

55 using them. Because of this PPE should only be used where other measures are not practicable. Where PPE is used it must: be appropriate for the job fit the operator correctly be accompanied by training on its proper use be clean and functional be regularly serviced by appropriately trained staff Figure 4.3 PPE is one way of controlling risks when working with animals. For example wearing protective lead clothing when taking x rays Just as it is essential that employees participate in identifying and reporting hazards, so it is essential employees cooperate with the measures taken by their employer to control risks. 53

56 This module is designed to provide students with the practical skills and knowledge necessary for the provision and maintenance of a safe working environment in an animal care facility. Topics discussed include: Workplace hazards, accidents and safety Hazardous substances such as sharps, chemicals and radiation Control of zoonoses Workplace security Animal handling and manual handling techniques 54

57 Chapter 4 Introduction to Working with Animals; Health & Safety Worksheet 4 Completing this study sheet will help you to assess your understanding of this chapter. You do not need to submit this worksheet. You will find the answers at the back of this module. 1. Define the term Hazard 2. Define the term Risk 3. List 5 different hazards involved working in an animal care industry 4. Define the term risk assessment 5. Describe 3 factors that can be taken into account when conducting a risk assessment 6. In terms of risk control, give 2 examples on how to eliminate a risk 55

58 7.. In terms of risk control, give 2 examples on how to substitute a risk 8. Define the term PPE and provide 1 example 56

59 Chapter 5 Introduction to Welfare, Ethics & Legislation Outline Preface Introduction What is Animal Welfare? The Brambell Report Animal Sentience The Five Freedoms Instructions for this chapter Read all study materials in this chapter. Then complete the worksheet questions at the end of this chapter. You will find the answers at the end of the module. Assessment for this chapter Complete Worksheet 5

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61 Chapter Five Outline Preface Introduction What is Animal Welfare? A Brief History of Animal Welfare The Brambell Report Animal Sentience The Five Freedoms 59

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63 PREFACE This module is designed to provide an overview of animal welfare, the ethical issues surrounding welfare and the legislation that influences it. We will examine welfare from different angles, and many of the examples given with regards to the development of welfare have originated in the UK. As a highly developed country of the western world, many advances in welfare and the ethical treatment of animals have taken place in Europe and the United Kingdom and have gradually filtered through to other countries. As a result, we will be looking at many of these developments and how they have influenced animal welfare in Australia and globally. INTRODUCTION For centuries now animals have been used to accommodate human needs, and as a result many people have a view or opinion on how animals should be treated, whether it is a dog being kept as a domestic pet or livestock being bred in large numbers for meat production. As a result of this, many animals are totally dependent on humans for their welfare. However animal welfare can be a very complex subject, involving not only personal opinion, but also scientific reasoning and measurement. The term animal welfare is widely used in today s society, usually in terms of what ought to be done to protect animals, but what actually is animal welfare? WHAT IS ANIMAL WELFARE? One of the most widely quoted definitions of animal welfare is the state of an animal with regard to its ability to cope with its environment (Broom 1990). In simplified terms, this means that animal welfare includes not only the state of the animal's body (or health), but also its feelings or mental state and how this impacts on the animals ability to cope with the environment it is in. This definition can be applied, whether that is to a wild animal in its natural environment or a cow on a dairy farm. For example a wild lion is severely injured by a buffalo whilst trying to bring it down as prey. Even though the lion is in its natural environment and able to perform its natural behaviours, due to its injuries, the lion will be suffering from poor welfare. An alternative example may be: A lion in a zoo is given the highest level of healthcare and a quality diet. The lion is in good physical health, however due to the small size of its enclosure, the lion shows various stress-related behaviours such as 61

64 pacing. As the lion is experiencing a poor mental state, the lion is suffering from poor welfare. These examples demonstrate that both physical and mental health and well-being can have an impact on the animal s ability to cope with its environment. A Brief History of Animal Welfare The debate over the proper treatment of animals can be dated back as far as ancient Greece, at the start of the sixth century BC. During this time, animals were used in society in much the same way as they are today. Horses were used for transport, racing and warfare; oxen for tilling the agricultural land, sheep were kept for wool and cattle for milk and cheese Figure 1.1 The Famous Meat is Murder message production. Animals were also kept for scientific research, and Aristotle, one of the foremost natural historians of that time, maintained a collection of wild animals for research, which provided the basis of one of his works History of Animals including much information on animal husbandry and zoology. The famous Greek philosopher Pythagoras, better known for his contributions to mathematics, was one of the earliest radical voices who held strong views on the ethical treatment of animals. Pythagoras proposed close connections between humans and animals and is thought to have declared it was wicked as human bloodshed to draw a knife across the throat of a calf. Translated for today s society, this may be interpreted as meat is murder. 62

65 There is also much evidence throughout history since the days of ancient Greece that the debate over animal welfare continued. One clear example of this is shown by the British artist William Hogarth in the mid-1700 s in England. Hogarth created a series of engravings illustrating the use and abuse of animals, which was common on London streets during this time. Hogarth produced these engravings in coarse-grained style to allow them to be easily reproduced, which may have acted as a campaign of sorts, similar to animal welfare campaign posters seen today. Figure 1.2 William Hogarth s The Second Stage of Cruelty 63

66 THE BRAMBELL REPORT Despite early beginnings, one of the most influential events that went on to shape the future of animal welfare took place in the UK in 1960 s. A book by Ruth Harrison, a leading British animal welfare activist and author was serialized in English newspaper the Observer in The book Animal Machines gave a detailed insight into the practices that were common place in intensive livestock farming. This was the first time the general public had been exposed to the processes involved in much of the UK s meat production. The public outcry was so strong that the British government assembled a committee to investigate some of the alleged practices outlined in Animal Machines. The committee, headed up by Professor F.W.R Brambell consisted of a range of animal experts, including Harrison herself, and was referred to as the Brambell Committee. The result of the Brambell Committee s findings was a report in 1965 called The Brambell Report. Figure 1.3 Ruth Harrison s Animal Machines This report came to the conclusion that on the whole intensive husbandry methods should not themselves be regarded as objectionable but certain practices within these systems were detrimental to animal welfare. In summary the report stated that An animal should at least have sufficient freedom of movement to be able, without difficulty, to turn round, groom itself, get up, lie down and stretch its limbs in other words to be able to fulfil basic behavioural and physiological needs. This became known as Brambell s Five Freedoms, which will be discussed in detail later in this chapter. Some of the recommendations put forwards by the Brambell Report were implemented into British agricultural legislation. These recommendations centred largely around the prevention of unnecessary pain and distress and ensuring that livestock were adequately provided for in terms of suitable accommodation and husbandry requirements; a reflection of Brambell s Five Freedoms. 64

67 As an additional result of the Brambell report, an independent committee was set up in 1966 known as the Farm Animal Welfare Advisory Committee (which later became the Farm Animal Welfare Council in 1979). Their purpose was to provide advice on farm animal welfare matters, with Ruth Harrison a key member of this committee until her death in June The FAWC developed the concepts initially outlined in the Brambell Report and put forward the FAWC s Five Freedoms which acted as a code of recommendation for the keeping of livestock and has subsequently been highly influential in the development of animal welfare legislation and good practice globally. ANIMAL SENTIENCE In addition to the advances made by the Brambell Committee in animal welfare standards, another important development to animal welfare occurred in The issue of animals as sentient beings had long been debated and was to come to a conclusion. Sentient literally means the ability to feel, perceive or be conscious In order for animals to be able to experience pain and suffering, then they must be recognized as sentient beings. Many Eastern religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism have always recognized animals as being sentient, and this is a viewpoint that many animal-rights activists had long been arguing. In 1997 the concept of animal sentience was written into the basic law of the European Union. The legally-binding Protocol annexed to the Treaty of Amsterdam recognizes that animals are "sentient beings", and requires the EU and its Member States to "pay full regard to the welfare requirements of animals". 65

68 The laws of several states include certain invertebrates such as cephalopods (octopuses, squids) and decapod crustaceans (lobsters, crabs) in the scope of animal protection laws, implying that these animals are also judged to be capable of experiencing pain and suffering. Figure 1.4 A chimpanzee interacting with a zoo visitor 66

69 THE FIVE FREEDOMS As previously outlined, the welfare of an animal includes its physical and mental state, and good animal welfare implies both physical fitness, good health and a sense of well-being. The Five Freedoms, as set out by the Farm Animal Welfare Council, consist of five key points which, if met should result in an acceptable standard of welfare for the animal. The Five freedoms are : 1. Freedom from Hunger and Thirst By ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigour. 2. Freedom from Discomfort By providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area. 3. Freedom from Pain, By prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment. Injury or Disease 4. Freedom to Express Normal Behaviour 5. Freedom from Fear and Distress By providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animals own kind. By ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering. 67

70 This module is designed for students of animal care and veterinary nursing to provide them with knowledge of animal welfare, ethics and legislation. Topics discussed include: An introduction to animal welfare Animal welfare & ethics Animal welfare & ethics case studies Animal welfare legislation Working with animals 68

71 Chapter 5 Introduction to Welfare, Ethics & Legislation Worksheet 5 Completing this study sheet will help you to assess your understanding of this chapter. You do not need to submit this worksheet. You will find the answers at the back of this module. 1. Define the term Animal Welfare 2. To what period in history can the debate over the proper treatment for animals be traced? 3. Name the natural historian who kept a collection of wild animals for research 4. Describe the beliefs regarding the treatment of animals that Pythagoras was known for 5. Explain the purpose of William Hogarth s coarse-grained engravings and what they would represent in modern society 69

72 6. Explain what Ruth Harrison s book Animal Machines gave an insight into 7. Define Animal Sentience 8. Below are explanations of each of the five freedoms write in the correct freedom in the left-hand column to the correct explanation. The first one is done for you. Freedom from discomfort by providing an appropriate environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area. by ensuring conditions and treatment which avoid mental suffering. by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of the animal's own kind. by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigour. by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment. 70

73 Chapter 6 Introduction to Animal Nutrition & Feeding Outline Introduction Feeding Principles Suitability of Diets Common Myths How to Feed an Animal Instructions for this chapter Read all study materials in this chapter. Then complete the worksheet questions at the end of this chapter. You will find the answers at the end of the module. Assessment for this chapter Complete Worksheet 6

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75 Chapter Six Outline Introduction Feeding Principles Is the diet suitable? Some common myths about feeding animals Frequency of feeding How to Feed an Animal The Need for Energy Palatability Nutrient Requirements 73

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77 Feeding Principles INTRODUCTION Food that is eaten by an animal must meet two main needs: Energy requirements Nutrient requirements Animals must be able to eat sufficient food to satisfy these requirements. Most animals will eat enough to meet these needs, provided that the food is palatable (the taste is satisfactory) and they are able to physically consume the amount needed. As discussed earlier, a balanced diet is one that contains all of the nutrients required for normal health for that species. A proper feeding program is one that provides a balanced diet in sufficient concentration, to enable the animal to obtain its daily energy and nutrient needs by eating an amount within the limits set by its normal appetite. In other words, an animal will eat sufficient food as part of its normal feeding, to meet its energy and nutrient needs. The dietary needs of an animal may be satisfied by feeding a single food that is balanced in all aspects, or by a combination of foods with varying energy and nutrient properties. These foods may come from natural sources or may be prepared by companies selling pet and stock foods. 75

78 Is the diet being fed to an animal suitable? Frequently the question is asked about the suitability of a diet being fed to a particular animal. To determine if a diet is suitable, it does not really require complex calculations, but rather a good amount of common sense! It doesn t matter what species of animal you are interested in. Look at the animal closely. Ask these questions: Is the animal in good condition and looking healthy? Is the animal of normal body weight, not too thin or not too fat? Does the coat look well, shiny and not dull? Is the animal active, interested and generally enjoying good health? If the answer to all of these questions is yes, then the animal is very likely to be on a suitable diet. Some common myths about feeding animals It seems that almost everyone you talk to has an opinion about the best diet for a particular species of animal. The reality is that there is no best diet and most animals can thrive on great variety of different diets. Natural vs commercial foods: Many owners will swear that only natural foods are suitable for their animals, whilst many pet and stock food companies will swear their diets are the most suitable. Most animals fed on good commercial diets all their lives will live long and healthy lives. Most animals fed on good diets prepared from natural foods by their owners will live long and happy lives. There is no answer to which diet is best. Of course it is possible to feed an animal a poor diet that will result in illness and even death, but generally animals are fairly adaptable if fed a reasonable diet for them. (an example of a poor diet would be a vegetarian diet for a cat) 76

79 Animals must get a particular vitamin or mineral supplement in their diet: This of course is rubbish for healthy animals on a good balanced diet. A good diet will provide all the vitamins and minerals needed. Frequency of Feeding The frequency of feeding varies for different species. It is accepted that for adult dogs and cats, feeding once a day is acceptable. In reality cats tend to prefer to eat their food slowly over the entire day, whereas dogs tend to bolt their entire meal. Horses and other livestock if grazing should be able to feed all day. If not grazing it is best to feed several times a day. Some animals require feeding only every so often, this is particularly the case for reptiles. Most animals have reserves of energy and nutrients and are able to manage without food for short periods of time within reason. How to Feed an Animal It is beyond the scope of this module to consider how to feed every animal, but there are some basic guidelines that can help you through, and we will discuss a few specific examples. Imagine for a moment that you had to keep an animal at home that you have had no previous experience feeding. Perhaps a rat?? Where to start? The Need for Energy As previously stated, the main need of an animal in its diet is energy. The first step in feeding an animal is to determine its energy needs. This can be done fairly easily, by looking up tables in books or on the internet to determine the approximate needs for the particular animal. Bearing in mind of course that the needs may change with the physiological state (growing, lactation etc). 77

80 An example using available tables: Metabolisable Energy needs for adult male rat = 285 kj per day (197 kj for a female) Male rats eat about 19 gm of food per day and requires about 0.75 gm of protein in this food. Palatability This really is the next consideration. The animal must like to eat the food being offered. It is little use giving a rat food that meets the energy and nutrient needs, but will not be eaten. (mind you, rats will eat pretty well everything). Nutrient Requirements As with all animals, rats require nutrients and vitamins and minerals that meet its particular requirements. So how would you feed this animal something that is palatable and meets all the energy and nutrient needs? The easiest way is to find out what others have fed rats successfully. Again a little research will result in a lot of information about feeding rats. Most rat owners (including laboratories where many rats are kept) will use a commercial pelleted food and supplement this on a daily basis with a variety of suitable foods. The advantage of the commercial pellets is that it is dry and easily stored and will contain all the nutrients that a rat requires. This is a lot less bother than seeking out a variety of food sources yourself. 78

81 An example of one commercial pellet is shown below; FURRY FRIENDS RAT & MOUSE SUPPLEMENT 2Kg Product Description A complete diet for small rodents such as Rats, Mice and Hamsters. Nutrient enriched diet for long healthy life Directions: Feed at lib. Active Constituents: Grains (may include corn, wheat, soyabean, oats, vitamins and mineral premix). Approximate Analysis: Min Crude Protein 18% Min Fibre 4.5% Crude Fat 6% Max Salt (NaCl) 0.5% A quick analysis of the label will reveal that this diet is a mixture of seeds and approximately 18% protein. The manufacturers claim that this could be used as a complete diet, in other words, no other food would be necessary. This may well be the case, but most owners would supplement the diet with other foods, which probably makes life more interesting for the rat. If you were feeding the rat with homemade food and not using pellets, you would be advised to use a seed based diet and use a variety of vegetables and fruits to vary the diet. Meat products are not really needed by rats and would only be used occasionally. 79