Veccia, a small Italian town that was strongly held by the Germans. Unknown to these soldiers,

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1 1 Gregory Segal Science, Technology, and Warfare Professor Hersch Fall 2013 Negotiation and Compromise with Nature: The American Use of Pigeons as a Communication Technology in World War II On October 18, 1943, the British 56 th infantry division called for an air strike to hit Colvi Veccia, a small Italian town that was strongly held by the Germans. Unknown to these soldiers, a British brigade (the 169 th ) had already entered the village and would be decimated by the attack. As the planes approached the runway, G.I. Joe, an American-trained pigeon, arrived at headquarters with a message from the 169 th that the unit had entered the city, cancelling the air strike a the last moment. Based on the time and location noted on the message, G.I. Joe had flown twenty miles in twenty minutes, flying approximately sixty miles per hour and saving hundreds of lives. For this heroic act, G.I. Joe became the first American animal to receive the Dickin Medal from Great Britain, the equivalent of the Victoria Cross medal for humans. 1 While the story of G.I. Joe may be the most famous tale of its kind, it does not capture the magnitude of the American use of homing pigeons in World War II. Over the course of the war, the U.S. Signal Corps Army Pigeon Service trained a total of 54,000 homing pigeons and used 36,000 of them overseas. 2 Pigeons were employed on all fronts of the war, from the forests of Europe and the deserts of North Africa, to the jungles of the Pacific. 3 In September 1944, the War Department estimated that 99% of the messages sent by pigeons in tactical operations were 1 Joseph F. Spears, The Flying Telegraph, National Geographic Magazine, April 1947, 2 Karen Jensen, For the BIRDS, World War II 23, no. 5 (Dec 2008/Jan 2009): 63, EBSCO MegaFILE. 3 U.S. War Department, FM11-80: Signal Pigeon Company (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 15 Sept 1944), 6-7,

2 2 delivered. 4 Without question, the U.S. Signal Corps used pigeons heavily in World War II, despite the increasing presence of mechanical technologies such as the radio. Nevertheless, one cannot ignore the defining reality of the use of pigeons as war technology unlike a machine, pigeons are live animals, with hunger, thirst, susceptibility to illness, instincts, and personalities. Accordingly, if pigeons were to be used as a military technology, these considerations could not be avoided if the birds were to be used as a reliable means of communication. The use of pigeons in World War II ties directly into broader scholarship on the human utilization of animals for the benefit of society. Similar to how pigeons were used for the military s gain, Virginia DeJohn Anderson s Creatures of Empire argues that livestock played a vital role in the establishment of the United States, inspiring the drive for new territory and defining early relations between Native American and colonists. 5 Anita Guerrini s Experimenting with Humans and Animals considers the moral questions that have accompanied the benefits gained from testing on live animals for centuries. 6 Substantial scholarship has also look at how advancements in technology have brought changes in how humans consider animals; for instance, Etienne Benson s Wired Wilderness draws a connection between animal tracking and the emergence of wildlife biology. 7 The use of pigeons in World War II is another example of humans using live animals for their own gain; thus, the treatment of the pigeons deserves close examination. This paper will build upon previous scholarship and look at the implementation of pigeons as a communication technology as a case study for the consequences of human utilization of animals. I will argue that the incredible use of pigeons by the U.S. Army Signal 4 Ibid Virginia DeJohn Anderson, Creatures of Empire (New York: Oxford UP, 2004), Anita Guerrini, Experimenting with Humans and Animals (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2003), Etienne Benson, Wired Wilderness (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2010), 1-4.

3 3 Corps was defined by efforts to both embrace and modify nature. To achieve military objectives, the inherent natural abilities of pigeons were indispensable, forcing the military to work hard to ensure the wellbeing of the pigeons so they could achieve their goals, while at the same time, they needed to train the pigeons to modify their instinctive behavior to optimize their utility. One of nature s creatures does better than man s mechanical inventions While there is evidence of the use of homing pigeons for civilian and military communication dating back centuries, the story of pigeons in the American military does not begin until the 1870s, when the U.S. saw how effectively they were employed in the Siege of Paris by defenders of the city. 8 Early American trials were unsuccessful: in 1878, Colonel Nelson A. Miles conducted the first military experiments, which failed due to the prevalence of hawks in the area that attacked the pigeons, while an attempt to establish a pigeon station in Key West, Florida in 1888 was cut short after only four years. 9 In World War I, after seeing how well pigeons were used by European powers, General John J. Pershing, Commander in Chief of the U.S. Expeditionary Forces, advocated for the creation of an American pigeon service. 10 While the U.S. would use 20,000 pigeons in World War I, 11 these capabilities were dramatically downsized after the war. Following its conclusion, only 35 of the 110 lofts at the Pigeon Breeding and Training Center in Fort Monmouth were left operational, while only eight would remain by In addition to the closing of lofts, little investment was put into the development of pigeons in the interwar years. 12 At this point in time, pigeons appeared to be obsolete 8 Robert M Hallett, "Pigeons: Heroic Messengers of a Hundred Wars," The Christian Science Monitor (July 21, 1941) 9 Rebecca Robins Raines, Getting the Message Through (Washington: Center of Military History, 1996), Spears, The Flying Telegraph, Hallet, Pigeons: Heroic Messengers of a Hundred Wars. 12 Dulaney Terrett, The Signal Corps: The Emergency (Washington: Center for Military History, 1994), 35

4 4 compared to newer, mechanized technologies. 13 By World War II, pigeons would not only prove not to be antiquated, but would take on dramatic importance in the war itself. To understand how pigeons would become so indispensable, it is first important to understand the inherent qualities of pigeons that made them an attractive communication technology. A January 1945 War Department Technical Manual (TM11-410), The Homing Pigeon, explains the purpose for using pigeons: The principle of using homing pigeons as messengers is based on their instinctive attempt to return to their home lofts whenever they are removed some distance and released. 14 Taking advantage of this natural homing ability, a pigeon could carry a message attached to its leg and return to its loft, bringing a message from the front to a unit s headquarters. 15 Pigeons could either be carried to the front by soldiers, or be dropped via parachute from planes to a unit to enable it to send a message back to headquarters. 16 These messages covered a wide range of subjects, from reporting on casualties, prisoners of war, or enemy troop movements, to requests for support or ammunition. 17 This innate homing ability was complemented by a variety of physical characteristics that made homing pigeons extremely effective on the battlefield. The pigeons trained by the army could fly an average of 37.5 miles per hour, with speeds up to fifty and sixty miles per hour frequently achieved in optimal conditions. 18 They could travel extremely far distances; most of the Signal Corps pigeons were trained to fly up to one hundred miles, though longer distances were very common. 19 In light to mild rain, pigeons could continue flying due to a natural white 13 Ibid. 14 U.S. War Department, TM11-410: The Homing Pigeon (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, January 1945), U.S. War Department, FM11-80: Signal Pigeon Company, Lorine Letcher Butler, "Pigeon Heroes," The Christian Science Monitor (Apr 29, 1944) 17 Gordon H. Hayes, The Pigeons that Went to War, U.S. War Department, FM11-80: Signal Pigeon Company, Ibid.

5 5 coating (called milt or bloom ) that protected their feathers. 20 Temperature was hardly a barrier to pigeons; because of their high body temperature (107.2 degrees Fahrenheit), pigeons could fly in extreme cold, 21 while pigeons were also released in temperatures as high as 120 degrees in the shade. 22 Well equipped for desert warfare, pigeons possessed a transparent third eyelid to protect their eyes from sand or dust storms. 23 Beyond these physical characteristics, pigeons possessed tremendous intelligence and persistence, qualities that made them extremely reliable for sending messages. As Technical Sergeant Clifford Poutre of the Pigeon Training and Breeding Center at Fort Monmouth commented, Pigeons are highly intelligent... We breed for intelligence first of all. Intelligence and stamina. Speed is not important.... What we want is a bird that will get back, one that won t get flustered, one that is intelligent enough to be self-reliant. 24 An April 1941 New York Times article on the training of pigeons commented on the ability of pigeons to cleverly maneuver themselves: The sound and flash of artillery don t seem to bother them. They don t seem to mind the roar in an airplane or the uproar in a tank. In the World War they would fly through a barrage without a qualm. They have good nerves. 25 Stories of pigeons heroically persevering to deliver messages after being injured were extremely common, perhaps none as famous as that of the pigeon Blackie Halligan, who was shot down by the Japanese on Guadalcanal, split open and bloodied, but took off again and delivered its message. 26 These inherent characteristics made the pigeons extremely effective on the battlefield. 20 Spears, The Flying Telegraph, Ibid. 22 U.S. War Department, FM11-80: Signal Pigeon Company, Spears, The Flying Telegraph, Ward West, "-- BUT THE PIGEONS STILL GET THROUGH," New York Times (Apr 27, 1941) 25 Ibid. 26 Spears, The Flying Telegraph, 531.

6 6 These natural traits were applied almost immediately to military strategy. To demonstrate this, one can look at how strategists envisioned using pigeons to counter the German Blitzkrieg tactic. One unnamed major at Forth Monmouth commented: The Blitzkrieg succeeds only when it cuts communications and spreads uncertainty and confusion. It will fail when it meets a defense that can maintain contact, know where its own forces are, where the enemy is, and what movements are under way. That s where the pigeons come in. The enemy can jam radio, cut phone lines, capture couriers. But if you have the right birds, properly trained, 95 per cent of your pigeon messages will get through. 27 In effect, because Blitzkrieg relied on its ability to interrupt modern communication technologies to disrupt the opposition, pigeons could quickly deliver messages and allow an army to resist a German attack. As one commentary published in the Los Angeles Times in 1941 commented on this subject, One of nature s creatures does better than man s mechanical inventions. 28 In a broader sense, those who advocated for the use of pigeons perceived a variety of circumstances where the use of pigeons had clear advantages over more modern and mechanical means of communication. Unlike radio, pigeon messages were much more difficult to intercept, as one British pigeon breeder commented, A message transmitted by radio can be intercepted; it s not secure. The one thing about a pigeon, Jack, it can t bloody talk, can it? 29 In addition, in situations where silent communication was necessary, a pigeon provided a means to send a message without any noise. 30 In the various locales where fighting occurred in World War II, the War Department identified clear difficulties in implementing traditional communication technologies; for instance, in mountains, while a pigeon can easily fly to headquarters, the 27 West, "-- BUT THE PIGEONS STILL GET THROUGH." 28 Army Pigeon Expert, Who Developed Two-Way Bird, Here to Get Lofts, Los Angeles Times (Aug ) 29 Jensen, For the BIRDS, Ibid.

7 7 topography made it difficult to lay wires and many dead spaces existed for radio reception. 31 In the jungle, despite the dangers posed to pigeons from heat, rain, and insects, the War Department still advocated for the use of pigeons due to poor radio reception and the many obstacles to visual signaling and runners. 32 By 1944, the War Department concluded: Practically all types of units have use for pigeons as a means of communication. 33 While newer mechanical technologies were quickly advancing, they still possessed clear vulnerabilities that cast doubt upon their reliability. Pigeons, due to their natural characteristics, could fill these gaps, giving them tremendous utility. As one publication commented, Homing pigeons belonged to an earlier tradition as much as the Army mule and, in a small way, were as persistently laughed at, yet made a very good agent of communication, as reliable as many and more discrete than most. The Army mule was not to be wholly displaced by mechanization; nor was the pigeon. 34 As a result, pigeons were an entirely viable and heavily used communication technology in World War II. The Preservation of their Physical Efficacy Nevertheless, these strategic benefits were entirely dependent on the wellbeing of the pigeons themselves and the fulfillment of their basic needs. If pigeons were hungry, thirsty, sick, or uncomfortable, they would not be able to perform at their full potential, if at all. Unlike the use of a machine, which does not have these physiological needs, using a pigeon, a live animal, required the military to address these natural drives. As Lieutenant Colonel Joseph F. Spears of the Signal Corps commented: Like race horses, prize fighters, football players, or any other athletic performer requiring physical endurance, homing pigeons must be kept in perfect physical 31 U.S. War Department, FM11-80: Signal Pigeon Company, Ibid Ibid Terrett, The Signal Corps: The Emergency, 83.

8 8 condition. 35 The record of World War II reflects the wide array of regulations and procedures put in place by the Signal Corps to this end and demonstrates the tremendous attention paid to the welfare of the pigeons to ensure they could achieve their peak performance. The most prominent of these measures was the tremendous advancement in the thinking about veterinary care for the pigeons to prevent them from falling ill. World War II saw the emergence of two key themes in veterinary care of the pigeons: one, that the health of an individual pigeon is extremely important and more measures for preventative care should be taken, and second, that a soldier working with the pigeons, or pigeoneer, should have an important role in veterinary care of pigeons. To demonstrate this shift, it must be noted that in August 1922, the Veterinary Division of the Surgeon General s office created a list of equipment and supplies to keep pigeon lofts maintained and sanitary. Despite these recommendations for preserving the health of the pigeons, the office did not give its support to preserving the health of the individual pigeon nor did it suggest that a pigeoneer should try to help a pigeon recover, writing, it is better to destroy a sick bird than to treat it unless a qualified veterinarian is available. 36 By World War II, this opinion had dramatically changed. In 1941, for the first time in the history of the Signal Corps, a Veterinary Corps officer was assigned to the Pigeon Breeding and Training Center at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey. As the U.S. Army Medical Department s Office of Medical History explains of the goal for this assignment: the objectives of the Army Veterinary Service concerned with signal pigeons became the protection of pigeon health, the preservation of their physical efficacy, and the safeguard against introducing or disseminating 35 Spears, The Flying Telegraph, U.S. Army Medical Department Office of Medical History, Army Signal Pigeons (June 18, 2009)

9 9 pigeonborne diseases affecting other animals and the human being. 37 By the end of the war, in the headquarters platoon of each signal pigeon company was a group of veterinary personnel tasked with diagnosing and treating sick pigeons, recommending treatment, observing the effect of the climate on the birds, and prescribing sanitary standards for the lofts. 38 World War II also saw the development and wide use of vaccinations for pigeons with the creation of a pigeon pox vaccine, preventing the birds from contracting one of their most common illnesses. 39 World War II also saw an increased role of the individual pigeoneer in maintaining the health of the pigeons. This is best displayed by the War Department s TM , which provided extensive detail to a pigeoneer on the physiology of a pigeon. In contrast to previous thinking, the manual highlights the importance of the pigeoneer in pigeon health, writing: Normal preventative methods usually protect pigeons from disease. If, however, these diseases are not detected immediately, they are likely to sweep through the loft, destroying or ruining most of the birds. It is necessary, therefore, that the pigeoneer be able to detect, correctly diagnose, and treat the more common pigeon diseases, in addition to taking preventative measures. 40 To this end, the eighty-page manual is covered in anatomical drawings of homing pigeons and detailed descriptions as to the various illnesses and injuries that can befall a pigeon, with a focus on how to recognize and treat them. The manual demonstrates how a pigeoneer was empowered to take on a larger role in the veterinary care of the pigeons. The nourishment and hydration of the pigeons was also greatly stressed by the Signal Corp to ensure the pigeons would be physically prepared for war. As TM notes, The health of a pigeon depends more upon pure drinking water than upon any other factor; therefore, 37 Ibid. 38 U.S. War Department, FM11-80: Signal Pigeon Company, U.S. Army Medical Department Office of Medical History, Army Signal Pigeons. 40 U.S. War Department, TM11-410: The Homing Pigeon, 67.

10 10 keep plenty of fresh water available at all times. 41 This was directly tied to military purposes; pigeoneers were required to give pigeons more water in hotter conditions to prepare them for longer flights in these circumstances. 42 The feeding of pigeons was also closely regulated as it was tied directly to a pigeon s performance, as TM describes, They will be alert, active, happy, and much more manageable if kept a little hungry. It is easy to overfeed pigeons so that they become sluggish and listless. 43 The exact compositions of pigeon feed and timing of feeding compose a large section of the training manual. 44 These tasks had other uses in caring for the pigeons; for instance, how pigeons behaved when being watered or fed could help identify sick pigeons, as the manual describes, their appetite reflects their general health and condition. Sick birds may be discovered by their failure to eat. 45 The safety of the pigeons was also vitally important. If pigeons were attacked while carrying a message, the recipient would not receive it. While there are instances of the enemy targeting pigeons, the greater threat to pigeons in World War II were their natural predators, especially predatory birds such as falcons, hawks, eagles, and kites. 46 As Lieutenant Colonel Spears describes, Generally, the pigeon can escape by use of its speed and evasiveness, but frequently one of our birds arrived at the loft torn and bleeding from such an aerial attack. 47 The War Department and Signal Corps thus placed a strong emphasis on protecting the pigeons from these predators. TM writes, Protect pigeons by destroying all hawks in the vicinity of the lofts with shotguns provided for that purpose. 48 A Field Manual published by the War Department in September 1944, FM11-80, lists the tools provided to a pigeon company for 41 Ibid Spears, The Flying Telegraph, U.S. War Department, TM11-410: The Homing Pigeon, Ibid U.S. Army Medical Department Office of Medical History, Army Signal Pigeons. 46 Spears, The Flying Telegraph, Ibid. 48 U.S. War Department, TM11-410: The Homing Pigeon, 2.

11 11 defense of personnel and equipment and also for defense of the pigeons against birds of prey, which include a carbine, a machine gun, a submachine gun, a rocket launcher, a grenade launcher, a rifle, a pistol, and a shotgun. 49 Beyond these basic needs, there is substantial evidence of efforts by the Signal Corps to account for the preferences and comfort of the pigeons. TM frequently recommends measures to be carried out to ensure the pigeons happiness, writing, Make the loft as attractive as possible because the pigeon prizes its home 50 or No other class of fowl, except the duck family, enjoys a bath as much as pigeons. 51 This was extended to the behavior of the pigeoneers themselves. As this training manual notes, the specifications for the selection of a pigeoneer was not merely skill and knowledge, but other personal traits. It writes, A pigeoneer who is boisterous and of a turbulent nature tends to frighten and upset pigeons and thus reduce their effectiveness. As a result, the following characteristics were emphasized: dependability, kindness, patience, and neatness, among others. 52 This shows a clear desire to make the pigeons comfortable to facilitate their upbringing and training. This shows the attention paid to the psychological needs of the pigeons, showing the nuanced way in which the military approached caring for the pigeons. A Revolutionary Idea in the Technique of Training Birds A pigeon s innate homing ability is remarkable, but is not automatically calibrated for military use. Not only would a pigeon need to be trained to deliver a message, but pigeons possess a variety of instincts that would limit their use in a war, like a fear of flying in darkness or over water. In addition, the increasingly mobile warfare of World War II limited the value of 49 U.S. War Department, FM11-80: Signal Pigeon Company, Ibid Ibid Ibid. 45.

12 12 a pigeon returning a message to a stationary loft, as a unit s headquarters would frequently be moving to new locations unfamiliar to the pigeons. Nonetheless, by the end of World War II, the Signal Corps developed innovative training techniques to overcome a pigeon s instincts and dramatically expand their functionality in the war effort. The training of a pigeon would begin when it was 28 days old. A pigeon would be brought a certain distance away from the loft, and released to return home, with each successive attempt starting from a further distance away. 53 To teach the pigeons to quickly return to the loft, pigeoneers would take advantage of a pigeon s drives for food and breeding. 54 As the previously mentioned New York Times article from 1941 stated, When they make it, they are rewarded with food. Soon they learn to associate food with the loft. Food plays a big part in early training. 55 In addition, since homing pigeons are monogamous, the desire they feel to return to the home loft is heightened as they seek to return to their only mate. 56 A major development in the training of pigeons was the ability to have pigeons return to their loft after it had been moved a far distance. The same pattern described above would be followed, but pigeons would be taught to identify a trailer, rather than a stationary loft, as their home. The trailer would moved incrementally in each successive round of training, forcing the pigeons to identify the loft itself as its home rather than the surrounding area. Eventually, the lofts would be moved miles at a time to prepare the pigeons for quickly changing battlefields. 57 The U.S. military built trailers that could carry up to fifty pigeons and be pulled by a jeep. 58 For the war effort, this was a dramatic development, as Lieutenant Colonel Spears wrote, This was a 53 West, "-- BUT THE PIGEONS STILL GET THROUGH." 54 U.S. War Department, TM11-410: The Homing Pigeon, West, "-- BUT THE PIGEONS STILL GET THROUGH." 56 U.S. War Department, TM11-410: The Homing Pigeon, West, "-- BUT THE PIGEONS STILL GET THROUGH." 58 Spears, The Flying Telegraph, 543.

13 13 revolutionary idea in the technique of training birds. Pigeons actually had become tourists, and their home was wherever the trailer and jeep might be parked. 59 In World War II, this new ability was essential for pigeons to be used heavily in the war. The military also found ways to alter a pigeons natural instincts to enable certain pigeons to operate in unorthodox circumstances. This was achieved by designating certain pigeons to be specialists who would be raised to overcome one of their inherent fears. For example, while pigeons have a natural aversion to flying at night, the Signal Corps trained pigeons to defy this fear in order to carry messages via pigeon at all hours of the day. From the first day of training, these pigeons would be trained at sunrise, with successive rounds of training occurring incrementally earlier until the surroundings were completely dark. Eventually, these pigeons would adjust to flying at night, as Sergeant Poutre explained, It s against pigeon nature. Their instinct is to come down when it gets dark. What we do is teach them self-confidence. We simply prove to them they can. 60 At the core of this project was making these pigeons specialists who only would fly at night; accordingly, they would never fly during the day and the windows of their lofts would be darkened so they would not be exposed to daylight. 61 Along similar lines, pigeons could theoretically be useful at sea, either to help ships communicate or to assist in amphibious operations; however, pigeons have a natural fear of flying over large bodies of water. 62 To address this instinct, the military would bring young pigeons onto a ship that would be taken far away from land. These pigeons would live in a loft on the deck so they could acclimate to having the water around them. Similar to the night pigeons, these pigeons were also specialists, as Lieutenant Colonel Spears noted, Never in their training career were they allowed 59 Ibid. 60 West, "-- BUT THE PIGEONS STILL GET THROUGH." 61 Ibid. 62 Spears, The Flying Telegraph, 554.

14 14 to fly over land. They were strictly amphibious birds. 63 As a result of these training efforts, the natural instincts of pigeons were rewired to increase their value in the war effort. Pigeons Can Win Battles By taking dramatic steps to ensure the optimal wellbeing of the pigeons and modifying their instinctive behaviors to maximize their usefulness on the battlefield, the Signal Corps revolutionized a centuries-old technology and made it fit into the American war effort in World War II. While the U.S. pigeons had been used previously in World War I, those employed in Second World War were materially different due to the efforts described in this paper. While the large scope of the American use of pigeons in World War II is initially surprising, the incredible intricacies of the program explain its success. As the unnamed major working at Fort Monmouth commented of the effectiveness of the program, Pigeons can win battles. 64 The developments seen in pigeon welfare and training in World War II provide an interesting lens to view animal-human relations in wartime. This is a fascinating case where humans were able to benefit from animals while taking large strides to ensure the wellbeing of the animal, be it the widespread use of veterinary care and use of vaccinations, or the attention paid to the psychological wellbeing of the pigeons themselves. In scholarship on the role of animals in American progress, this provides a fascinating case study of how animals could be used for tremendous benefit while humans went to remarkable ends to protect the animals themselves. As military technology increasingly transitioned away from pigeons and other live animals and toward more mechanized means, one cannot help but wonder what impact this shift has on the U.S. army and how it constructs a war effort. The use of pigeons in World War II 63 Ibid. 64 West, "-- BUT THE PIGEONS STILL GET THROUGH."

15 15 forced soldiers and strategists to think about the basic needs of small, dependent animals. What is lost when the military no longer needs to take steps to ensure the welfare or happiness of the tools it uses? As a person listens to stories pigeoneers would tell of the homing pigeons used during the war, one discovers the love and admiration felt by pigeoneers to the birds they trained. The attribution of characteristics such as brave, loyal, or loving to pigeons created a unique relationship between people and the technology they were using. What experience do soldiers lose when it is no longer possible to form such a relationship with their technology? Regardless, the story of the use of pigeons in World War II, while it may at times appear to be a story of negotiation and compromise with nature, reveals itself to be a very human moment in the history of American warfare.

16 16 Works Cited Anderson, Virginia DeJohn. Creatures of Empire. New York, NY: Oxford UP, Army Pigeon Expert, Who Developed Two-Way Bird, Here to Get Lofts. Los Angeles Times. August 7, Benson, Etienne, Wired Wilderness. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP, Butler, Lorine Letcher. "Pigeon Heroes." The Christian Science Monitor, April 29, Guerrini, Anita. Experimenting with Humans and Animals. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UP, Hallett, Robert M. "Pigeons: Heroic Messengers of a Hundred Wars." The Christian Science Monitor. July 21, Hayes, Gordon H. The Pigeons that Went to War San Pedro, CA: Gordon H. Hayes, Jensen, Karen. For the BIRDS, World War II 23, no. 5 (Dec 2008/Jan 2009) EBSCO MegaFILE. Raines, Rebecca Robins. Getting the Message Through. Washington, DC: Center of Military History, Spears, Joseph F. The Flying Telegraph, National Geographic Magazine, April 1947, U.S. Army Medical Department Office of Medical History. Army Signal Pigeons. June 18,

17 17 U.S. War Department. FM11-80: Signal Pigeon Company. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 15 Sept U.S. War Department. TM11-410: The Homing Pigeon. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, January West, Ward. "-- BUT THE PIGEONS STILL GET THROUGH." New York Times. April 27,