TRICHOMONIASIS IN A BONELLI'S EAGLE POPULATION IN SPAIN

Transcription

1 TRICHOMONIASIS IN A BONELLI'S EAGLE POPULATION IN SPAIN Authors: Joan Real, Santi Mañosa, and Elena Muñoz Source: Journal of Wildlife iseases, 36() : 64-7 Published By: Wildlife isease Association URL: BioOne Complete (complete.bioone.org) is a full-text database of subscribed and open-access titles in the biological, ecological, and environmental sciences published by nonprofit societies, associations, museums, institutions, and presses. Your use of this PF, the BioOne Complete website, and all posted and associated content indicates your acceptance of BioOne s Terms of Use, available at Usage of BioOne Complete content is strictly limited to personal, educational, and non-commercial use. Commercial inquiries or rights and permissions requests should be directed to the individual publisher as copyright holder. BioOne sees sustainable scholarly publishing as an inherently collaborative enterprise connecting authors, nonprofit publishers, academic institutions, research libraries, and research funders in the common goal of maximizing access to critical research.

2 Journal of Wildlife iseases, 36(),, pp Wildlife isease Association TRICHOMONIASIS IN A BONELLI S EAGLE POPULATION IN SPAIN Joan Real,,3 Santi Mañosa, and Elena Muñoz epartament de Biologia Animal (Vertebrats), Facultát de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, iagonal, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain epartament de Patologia i Producció Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 893 Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain 3 Corresponding author ( jreal@porthos.bio.ub.es) ABSTRACT: uring 98 97, trichomoniasis was detected in nestlings of Bonelli s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus in Catalonia (Spain). In 993 Trichomonas gallinae was isolated in 36% of nestlings (n 39) and affected 4% of broods (n ). Overall, trichomoniasis was one of the most important single nestling mortality factor, accounting for % of total chick mortality, and causing the death of % of chicks. Trichomoniasis deaths took place during the second half of the nestling period. The median age at death was 45.5 days. Although the presence of the parasite was not related to the composition of the diet or parental age, pairs that developed the disease ate more pigeons and included more often non-adult birds. At present trichomoniasis apparently has little demographic impact on the Bonelli s eagle population in Catalonia, but the eventual spread of this disease in chicks and its unknown effects on adults might be of concern. Key words: Birds of prey, Bonelli s eagle, Hieraaetus fasciatus, nestlings, survey, Trichomonas gallinae, trichomoniasis. INTROUCTION Feral pigeons (Columba livia) and other columbiform birds are the main primary hosts of Trichomonas gallinae, a sarcomastigophoran parasite that causes trichomoniasis in birds (Stabler, 95; Locke and James, 96). Most of the strains of the parasite are found in the upper digestive tract of their hosts and are considered to be non-pathogenic (Stabler, 969; Honigberg, 97). However, others are highly virulent and are responsible for proliferative lesions in the oropharynx that cause the death of a non-immune bird by starvation or secondary bacterial infections (Stabler, 954; Mesa et al., 96; Cooper and Petty, 988; Samour et al., 995). Trichomoniasis has been reported frequently in birds of prey from several areas (Stabler, 969; Keymer, 97; Beecham and Kochert, 975; Rettig, 978; Tangredi, 978; Stone and Nye, 98; Redig, 987; Pepler and Oettlé, 99; Samour et al., 995; Boal et al., 998), but there is little information on the prevalence of infection or disease incidence of this parasite in wild populations (Beecham and Kochert, 975; Cooper and Petty, 988; Kietzmann, 988; Boal et al., 998). The occurrence of trichomoniasis in this group of birds is related to the ingestion of infected pigeons (Stabler and Shelanski, 936; Stabler, 969; Boal et al., 998) or other infected birds (Halliwell, 979). In some species, there is increasing concern that the expansion of the disease in the population may impair or reduce population growth rate, or even put the population at risk (Cooper and Petty, 988; Boal et al., 998). The Bonelli s eagle (Hieraaetus fasciatus) is an endangered bird of prey whose populations have undergone a marked decline in Europe in recent years (Rocamora, 994; Real and Mañosa, 997). uring the last decades, in some areas the eagles have increased the consumption of feral pigeons as a consequence of the decline on wild prey and the increase of feral pigeon populations (Real, 99; el Hoyo et al., 994). This change increases the risk of exposure to T. gallinae and nestling mortality, which has been shown to entail the decline of some populations (Cugnasse, 989; Real 99; Fernández et al., 998). The objectives of this paper are to describe some cases of trichomoniasis in wild Bonelli s eagle nestlings, to quantify the prevalence of infection of T. gallinae among nestlings, and to analyze the influence of diet and eagle age on the presence 64

3 REAL ET AL.TRICHOMONIASIS IN BONELLI S EAGLE 65 TABLE. Cases of trichomoniasis detected in Bonelli s eagle chicks in Catalonia (Spain) during Case Year Sex Hatching order Weight (g) Age (days) Status at finding a Fate b Number of siblings and fate F M M F M F M,5 d, d,35 d,48, A A A F (dead at postnestling c ) (fledged) (case 5) (case 4) (dead at 3 days c ) a dead, A alive. b dead, F fledged. c Unknown cause of death. d Underweight. of the parasite and on the development of the disease. The potential impact of the disease in the Bonelli s eagle breeding success and conservation also is discussed. MATERIALS AN METHOS Between the breeding success of the Bonelli s eagle population was monitored in Catalonia (northeastern Spain), where about 7 pairs still remain (Real et al., 997). A preliminary monitoring scheme was conducted during involving only six pairs to determine nestling mortality and breeding success. From , an intensive study was undertaken on a large sample. uring these years, the nests of 4 breeding sites were regularly checked for hatching success and nestling survival. Nests were visited, 35, 55, and 65 days after hatching to determine the levels and causes of nestling mortality during the nestling period. When possible, the age and sex of the nestlings were determined following Mañosa et al. (995). Clinical trichomoniasis in nestlings (living or dead) was verified by visual inspection of the buccal cavity, where characteristic T. gallinae lesions can be observed (Cooper, 978; Ward, 986; Cooper and Petty, 988). The prevalence of infection by T. gallinae was assessed in nestlings aged 3 to 46 days from nests in 993. Culture specimens were obtained by swabbing the surface areas of the upper crop, pharynx, palatin region, and mouth with a cotton-tipped swab previously soaked in culture medium. The samples were immediately transferred to a 5 ml of CPLM (Cisteine, Peptone, Liver extract and Maltose) Trichomonas broth with CAF (Chloramphenicol) (Biolife, le Monza, Milano, Italy) medium, (supplemented with. g mycostatin,.6 g penicillin,. g streptomycin and 5 ml of inactivated rabbit serum/ ml). The cultures were stored at room temperature and taken to the laboratory the same day, where they were incubated at 36 C. Each sample was examined under an inverted microscope ( ) after 4 to 48 hrs of incubation and checked again after to 44 hrs. If no trichomonads were detected at this time, the sample was considered free of T. gallinae. The diet of nestlings was assessed by collecting prey remains and pellets in the nest, which were analysed and quantified following Real (996). Breeding birds were classified as adults (those with full adult plumage, 4-yrold) or non-adults ( 4-yr-old) based on plumage characteristics (Parellada, 984; J. Real, pers. data). We used chi-square and Fisher s exact tests for comparisons (Zar, 984). The level of was established at P.5. RESULTS Between 98 97, seven cases of trichomoniasis were recorded (Table, ). Of those cases, three involved females and four involved males. Of these nestlings, six died before leaving the nest, and the remaining fledged. The nestling period of Bonelli s eagle lasts for 65 to 7 days. Most deaths (five of six) associated with trichomoniasis occurred in the second half of this period, when nestlings were between 8-days and 58-days-old, usually after 4 days of life. The median age at death was 45.5 days (n 6). Three of five nestlings were underweight (Mañosa et al., 995) (Table, ). All the nestlings had buccal cavity nodular lesions of different size, usually more than cm long (Table ). These nodules caused

4 66 JOURNAL OF WILLIFE ISEASES, VOL. 36, NO., JANUARY TABLE. Characteristics of Bonelli s eagle chicks affected by trichomoniasis during in Catalonia (Spain). Case Nodule size Nodule position in buccal cavity Esophagus obstruction External swelling Weight loss Rotted food into the mouth eteriorated plumage 3 cm Lower jaw and laterally Total Yes Yes Yes No 3 cm Lower jaw and laterally Important Yes Yes No No 3 3 cm Superior jaw and posterior Important No Yes No Yes 4 3 cm Lower jaw Total Yes? No 5 cm Lower jaw and posterior Little No No No 6 cm 3 nod. Lower jaw and posterior Important Yes? No No 7 cm Lower jaw near glottis No No No No No

5 REAL ET AL.TRICHOMONIASIS IN BONELLI S EAGLE 67 TABLE 3. Causes of nestling Bonelli s eagle mortality in relation to age during Causes days 4 days 4 6 days Total chicks Trichomoniasis Starvation Hatching asynchrony Predation Accident Other diseases Unknown 4 Total moderate to severe occlusion of the esophagus and prevented the passage of food. One nestling may have died by asphyxia caused by a large nodule on the inferior surface of the tongue, which occluded the glottis. This chick was in good physical condition and the crop and stomach were full of recently ingested food. One of the underweight nestling showed deficient feather growth (remiges, tail feathers and coverts), consisting in bands without cornial deposits as a result of malnutrition (Grubb, 995). The other underweight nestlings did not have deteriorated plumage but one had delayed development of the feathers. The presence of T. gallinae was checked in broods in 993; one had 3 chicks, 5 had, and 6 consisted of one, involving males and 8 females. The parasite was isolated in 3 live nestlings and diagnosed in one dead nestling (36%, 7 males and 7 females), corresponding to 9 broods (4%) (two single broods and seven double broods). Only two (5%) of these 4 infected chicks had lesions clearly related to the disease and only one (3%) died. For the 5 broods checked in the intensive study period, involving 79 nestlings, trichomoniasis caused the death of % of chicks, accounting for % of total nestling mortality (Table 3). Mortality affected % of chicks and broods in 986 (n 8 chicks, and n 5 broods), 988 (n 8, and n ), 989 (n 4, and n 8), 99 (n 4, n 9), and 99 (n 3, n 8) respectively, % of chicks (n 54) and 3% of broods (n 3) in 993, 5% of chicks (n 4) and 8% of broods (n 5) in 99, and 6% of chicks (n 7) and % of broods (n ) in 987. There were no differences in diet composition between broods that were positive or negative for T. gallinae in 993 ( , df 6, P.55) (Table 4). However, the development of the disease was related to the consumption of pigeons. Taking into account only the four pairs that developed the disease at least once between 98 to 997, and where dietary information could be collected, differences in the consumption of C. livia were ob- TABLE 4. iet of pairs of Bonelli s eagle monitored in 993 related to the presence of Trichomonas gallinae. Infected n % Uninfected n % European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) Other mammals omestic pigeon (Columba livia) Woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) Phasianidae Other birds Ocellated lizard (Lacerta lepida)

6 68 JOURNAL OF WILLIFE ISEASES, VOL. 36, NO., JANUARY served between three broods developing the disease (3%, n 6) and four broods without the disease (%, n 73) ( 4.87, df, P.4). No differences were detected in the consumption of C. palumbus, 4% and % respectively (.54, df, P.6). In 993 no difference of infection was found between adult or non-adult pairs (formed at least by one non-adult individual) (4%, n 5 and 43%, n 7, respectively, Fisher Exact Test, P.5). However, when we take into account only the five pairs in which trichomoniasis developed at any time from 98 97, we found that the disease developed more often when the breeding attempt involved a non-adult bird (83% n 6), than when both parents were adult (5%, n, Fisher Exact Test, P.5). ISCUSSION espite the high prevalence of T. gallinae in nestling Bonelli s eagles, only a small proportion developed clinical trichomoniasis and died during the nestling period. This may indicate that most strains of T. gallinae are non-pathogenic or that nestlings of Bonelli s eagle have certain immunity, as happens in pigeons (Stabler, 969; Honigberg, 97) or other raptors (Samour et al. 995; Boal et al. 998). In spite of that, trichomoniasis appears as one of the most important causes of chick death and might produce up to 6% nestling mortality in particular years. Although the presence of the parasite in a brood seems to be independent of the proportion of domestic pigeons or woodpigeons in the diet or parental age, the development of the disease in infected chicks is more frequent in broods consuming more domestic pigeons or where nonadult breeders are involved. This suggests that although most of the population is exposed to the protozoan (since most pairs consume pigeons to some extent), pairs consuming large amounts of domestic pigeons have a higher probability of being exposed to a virulent strain (Boal et al., 998). Also, the disease would mainly develop in broods raised by non-adult birds, which might be related to lower experience (Newton, 979), resulting in poor chick condition, or to non-adult birds consuming more feral pigeons than adult birds. Although the monitoring of Bonelli s eagle in Catalonia began in 98, trichomoniasis was not detected until 987, which might be related to the changes in feeding habits of Bonelli s eagles which took place in late 98s (Real, 99). Whatever the causes of these changes are (decline in wild prey populations, increased feral pigeon availability, increased proportion of non-experienced parents), increased consumption of feral pigeons may have led to an increased prevalence of the disease and chick mortality, since the prevalence of the parasite in rural pigeons C. livia from the area (9 to 97%) is far higher than that exhibited by woodpigeons C. palumbus (5%) (Muñoz, 995). Increased trichomoniasis prevalences in raptor populations consuming large proportions of columbiform birds have repeatedly been reported (Cooper and Petty, 988; Boal et al., 998). Although chick mortality associated with T. gallinae in Catalonia is low at present and may have low demographic effects (Real and Mañosa, 997), it may be of future concern if natural prey continue to be replaced by infected prey such as domestic pigeons in eagle s diet. In Portugal, where Bonelli s eagle consume large amounts of domestic pigeons (Palma et al. 984), nestling mortality as high as 4% associated with the disease has been reported (L. Palma, pers. comm.). Future monitoring and research is needed to understand the susceptibility of adult birds to trichomoniasis, as well as the ecological factors and kind of prey related to the spread of the disease. In the mean time, the most sensible measure to be undertaken must be the restoration of wild prey populations (rabbits and red-legged partridges), in order to ameliorate the

7 REAL ET AL.TRICHOMONIASIS IN BONELLI S EAGLE 69 availability of food to the eagles and to reduce the risk of exposure to the parasite. Further studies should indicate the eventual need of feral pigeon control and prophylaxis in some areas where prevalence of the disease is high. ACKNOWLEGMENTS We are grateful to J. Codina,. Molina and R. del Amo for helping in the field. Four anonymous reviewers gave very useful comments that improved the manuscript. Field work was carried out with the financial support of Fundació Miquel Torres of Vilafranca del Penedès (Catalonia, Spain). LITERATURE CITE BEECHAM, J. J., AN M. N. KOCHERT Breeding biology of the golden eagle in southwestern Idaho. The Wilson Bulletin 87: BOAL, C. W., R. W. MANNAN, AN K. S. HUELSON Trichomoniasis in Cooper s Hawk from Arizona. Journal of Wildlife iseases 34: COOPER, J. E Parasites. In Veterinary aspects of captive birds of prey, J. E. Cooper (ed.). The Standfast Press, Cherington, UK, pp , AN PETTY, S. J Trichomoniasis in free living goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) from Great Britain. Journal of Wildlife iseases 4: CUGNASSE, J. M Schutztrategien für den Habichtsadler (Hieraaetus fasciatus) im Französischen Languedoc-Roussillon. Laufener Seminarbeiträge, : EL HOYO, J., A. ELLIOTT, AN J. SARGATAL Handbook of the birds of the world, Vol.. Lynx Edicions. Barcelona, Spain, 638 pp. FERNANEZ, A., J. ROMAN, J.A.E LA TORRE, L.M. ANSOLA, J.SANTAMARIA,R.VENTOSA,F.ROMAN, AN C. PALMA emografía y conservación de una población de águilas perdicera Hieraaetus fasciatus en declive. In Holarctic birds of prey, Proceedings of an International Conference, B. U. Meyburg, R.. Chancellor and J. J. Ferrero (eds.). Adenex-WWGBP, Badajoz, Spain, pp GRUBB, T. C Ptilochronology. A review and prospectus. In Current ornithology, Vol... M. Power (ed.). Plenum Press, New York, New York, pp HALLIWELL, W. H iseases of birds of prey. Veterinary Clinics of North America 9: HONIGBERG, B. M. 97. Trichomonads. In Immunity to parasitic animals, Vol.. G. J. Jackson, R. Herman and I. Singer (eds.). Appleton-Century- Crofts, New York, New York, pp KEYMER, I. F. 97. iseases of birds of prey. Veterinary Record 9: KIETZMANN, G. E Host parasite interactions of Trichomonas gallinae (Rivolta, 878). Ph.. Thesis, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, 44 pp. LOCKE, L. N., AN P. JAMES. 96. Trichomonad canker in the Inca dove, Scardafella inca (Lesson). The Journal of Parasitology 48: 497. MAÑOSA, S., J. REAL, AN J. COINA Age estimation and growth patterns in nestling Bonelli s eagles. Journal of Raptor Research 9: MESA, C. P., R. M. STABLER, AN M. BERTHRONG. 96. Histopathological changes in the domestic pigeon infected with Trichomonas gallinae (Jones-Barn strain). Avian iseases 5: MUÑOZ, E Estudio de la prevalencia y susceptibilidad a la infección por Trichomonas gallinae en aves domésticas y silvestres. Valoración de la sensibilidad del protozoo a diferentes derivados nitroimidazólicos. Ph.. Thesis. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola, Catalonia, Spain, 76 pp. NEWTON, I Population ecology of raptors. T & A Poyser, Berkhamsted, UK, 399 pp. PALMA, L, CANCELA, L., AN L. OLIVEIRA L alimentation de l aigle de Bonelli (Hieraaetus fasciatus) dans la côte portugaise. In Rapinyaires Mediterranis, Vol.. Centre de Recerca i Protecció dels Rapinyaires (eds.). Barcelona, Spain, pp PARELLAA, X Variació dels plomatges i identificació de l àliga cuabarrada Hieraaetus fasciatus. In Rapinyaires Mediterranis, Vol.. Centre de Recerca i Protecció dels Rapinyaires (eds.). Barcelona, Spain, pp PEPLER,., AN E. E. OETTLÉ. 99. Trichomonas gallinae in wild raptors on the Cape peninsula. South African Journal of Wildlife Research : REAL, J. 99. L àliga perdiguera Hieraaetus fasciatus a Catalunya: status, ecologia tròfica, biologia reproductora i demografia. Ph.. Thesis, University of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, 4 pp Biases in diet study methods in the Bonelli s eagle. The Journal of Wildlife Management 6: , AN S. MANOSA emography and conservation of western european Bonelli s eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus populations. Biological Conservation 79: ,, AN COINA, J El águila perdicera en Cataluña. Evolución demográfica y situación actual. Technical Report. University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain, pp. REIG, P Medical management of birds of prey. The Raptor Center. Technical Report. University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, 59 pp. RETTIG, T Trichomoniasis in a bald eagle (Haliaetus leucocephalus) diagnosis and succesful treatment with dimetridazol. Journal of Zoo Animal Medicine 9: 98. ROCAMORA, G Bonelli s eagle Hieraaetus fas-

8 7 JOURNAL OF WILLIFE ISEASES, VOL. 36, NO., JANUARY ciatus. In Birds of Europe. Their conservation status, G. M. Tucker and M. F. Heath (eds.). Birdlife International, Cambridge, UK, 6 pp. SAMOUR, J. H., T. A. BAILEY, AN J. E. COOPER Trichomoniasis in birds of prey (order falconiformes) in Bahrain. Veterinary Record 36: STABLER, R. M. 95. A survey of Colorado bandtailed pigeons, mourning doves, and wild common pigeons for Trichomonas gallinae. The Journal of Parasitology 37: Trichomonas gallinae: A review. Experimental parasitology 3: Trichomonas gallinae as a factor in the decline of the peregrine falcon. In Peregrine falcon population. Their biology and decline. University of Winsconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, pp , AN H. A. SHELANSKI Trichomonas columbae as a cause of death in the hawk. The Journal of Parasitology : STONE, W. B., AN P. E. NYE. 98. Trichomoniasis in bald eagles. Wilson Bulletin 93: 9. TANGREI, B. P Ocurrence of trichomoniasis on Long Island. New York Fish and Game Journal 5: WAR, F. P Parasites and their treatment in birds of prey. In Zoo and wild animal medicine, M. E. Fowler (ed.). Saunders, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, pp ZAR, J. H Biostatistical analysis. Prentice-Hall International, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 78 pp. Received for publication January 999.