Copyright 2005 Denise Johnson-Kula 1 Lillian Lieberman

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Cynthia Freeman
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1 Chloramine Facts 4/06 Chloramine Definitions Chloramine is a combination of chlorine and ammonia. Chloramine is used to disinfect water supplies like the Hetch Hetchy system. It also goes by the name monochloramine. Monochloramine never exists alone. It always exists as a combination of monochloramine, dichloramine and trichloramine. As a group, they are called chloramines. Chloramines are all respiratory irritants with trichloramine being the most toxic. Byproducts are chemicals formed when a chemical reacts with organic materials. Trihalomethanes (THMs) are byproducts that are formed when organic matter in the water combines with chlorine. Trihalomethanes (THMs) are possibly cancer causing byproducts. Trihalomethanes (THMs) are also formed with chloramine disinfection but at a lower concentration-- (1/3 less) than chlorine. To reduce trihalomethanes (THMs), the organic matter in the water should be filtered out BEFORE disinfection with chlorine. (Recommendation from the World Health Organization (WHO). To reduce trihalomethanes (THMs), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) offers other disinfection methods such as ultraviolet UV light treatment and ozonation. Characteristics of Chloramine Chloramine is a less effective disinfectant than chlorine. Chloramine does not dissipate easily compared to chlorine. Chloramine stays in the water distribution system longer than chlorine. Chloramine is difficult to remove. Chloramine cannot be removed by boiling, aeration (spraying), or by standing uncovered. Some disinfection byproducts of chloramine are even more toxic than those of chlorine, i.e. iodoacids. Chloramine vapors and its disinfection byproducts can accumulate in indoor air and concentrate in an enclosed area such as a shower stall, small bathroom, kitchen, or apartment. Inadequate Studies The EPA states that there are NO dermal (skin) and no inhalant (respiratory) studies. The EPA states that there are INADEQUATE cancer studies on humans or animals. In studies that do exist, one shows mononuclear cancer in female rats. Another study shows reproductive toxicity and reduced reproductivity in mice and hamsters. We are told by the SFPUC that chloraminated water is safe for humans to drink but we do not even know if it can cause cancer. Denise Johnson-Kula 1

2 Research to date only explores oral (such as drinking tap water) exposure. It leaves out exposure through bathing or inhaling indoor vapors. CCLHO The California Conference of Local Health Officers did not study the health effects of chloramine. They only reviewed previous studies mostly about chlorine and trihalomethanes. The CCLHO recommends that the exposed public be monitored. In other words, we are to be used as guinea pigs. Chloramine and its disinfection byproducts have not been studied and may be worse than that of chlorine. Chlorine and its disinfection byproducts have been studied extensively for years. Effects of Chloramine on Human Health Immune System Problems Chloramine cannot kill the pathogens in the water as well as chlorine. As a result, children under 6 months of age and people with suppressed immune systems must have their water boiled over ten minutes BEFORE use to kill the pathogens. Respiratory Problems Chloramine can cause and/or aggravate respiratory problems. Chloramine fumes can cause an individual to become congested and cause sneezing, sinus congestion, coughing, choking, wheezing, and asthma. An increase in asthma due to exposure from chloramine in indoor swimming pool areas was shown in a Belgium study from the Catholic University of Louvain. Chloramine damages mucous membranes. The lung damage in those exposed to chloramine in indoor pool air is similar to that of heavy smokers. Chloraminated vapor from showers, baths, hot tubs, and other household appliances contain volatilized chemicals that can enter our bloodstreams directly through the lungs. It bypasses the digestive tract where the SFPUC says it is broken down and excreted. The SFPUC says that, if monochloramine enters the bloodstream directly, it combines with hemoglobin (red blood cells) so it can no longer carry oxygen. The toxic exposure to chemicals in water is greater from taking a shower than from drinking the same water. Skin Problems Chloramine tap water can cause severe skin reactions: rashing dry skin itching flaking welting blistering chapping burning sensation cracking scarring bleeding pigmentation Chloramine can aggravate other skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis. Skin exposure to ammonia breaks down cell structural proteins, extracts water from the cells and initiates an inflammatory response, which further damages the surrounding tissues. Denise Johnson-Kula 2

3 Chloramine can cause bleeding lips, dry mouth and dry throat. Digestive and Gastric Problems Chloramine damages digestive mucosa. Chloramine can aggravate digestive disorders. It is suggested that monochloramine is responsible for gastric cancer. (Journal of Gastroenterology, 1997, Enhancement by Monochloramine of the Development of Gastric Cancers in Rats; a possible mechanism of Helicobacter, pylori-associated gastric carcinogenesis). Kidney and Blood Problems Persons with liver or kidney disease and those with hereditary urea cycle disorders are at increased risk for ammonia toxicity from the consumption of chloraminated water. Kidney dialysis patients cannot use chloraminated water in their dialysis machines because it will cause hemolytic anemia. Chloramine must be completely removed from the water in dialysis treatment using extensive carbon filtration and a reverse osmosis or Cation filtering system to remove both chlorine and ammonia from the water. Other Health Implications In a study by Zierler, et al, it was found that there was an increase in deaths from influenza and pneumonia in the communities that used chloramine. (Communities in Massachusetts that used chlorine for disinfection were compared to those that used chloramine). There are populations that are unusually susceptible to ammonia reactivity or toxicity due to factors such as genetic makeup, age, health status, etc. Filtration There is NO certified showerhead filter for chloramine. The large volume of water and high flow rate of water to remove chloramine through a showerhead renders a showerhead filter useless. (Note: The National Sanitation Foundation tests and certifies cold water, low-flow, drinking water filtration products only. Phone: ). A whole house filtration system would be needed to effectively remove chloramine and ammonia. Filtration for chloramine is very expensive compared to filtration for chlorine. A whole house filtration system could cost between $10,000 to $15,000 with $1,200 maintenance per year. For a 5-unit apartment building, the cost could be as high as $80,000 to $120,000 plus yearly maintenance. Even with a comprehensive filtration system, no filtration system engineer will guarantee complete removal of chloramine. Chlorine is by far easier to remove with inexpensive carbon filtration. Misleading Statements from the SFPUC Contrary to SFPUC s website, the NSF DOES NOT certify showerhead filters for chloramine. It only certifies cold-water, low-flow filters for drinking water. Denise Johnson-Kula 3

4 Contrary to what the SFPUC says, there IS a Material and Supply Data Sheet (MSDS) on monochloramine which can be found on website. Any chemical that may pose a hazard is listed and defined there. The SFPUC says that chloramine DOES NOT bioaccumulate in the body (Q 36) Then it contradicts itself (Q 30). See SFPUC Questions and Answers. Business Effects It is costly and time consuming for businesses that must filter out chloramine from their water for their use and processing needs. They include: chip manufacturers breweries medical suppliers photo labs Pharmaceutical companies biotech companies dialysis machine technicians pet stores with fish, amphibians, reptiles food businesses that use water (fresh or saltwater) The cost is often passed on to the consumer and the public at large. Plumbing Problems and Some Implications for Health Chloramine can cause leaching of lead from lead pipes, lead soldering and from so called lead free brass plumbing parts. Lead leached by chloramine can cause lead poisoning. Lead poisoning can cause neurological damage, health problems and even death in young children. Chloramine can cause pinhole pitting in copper pipes. Leaks from the pinholes can cause mold to grow. Some molds are highly toxic to humans and can endanger the health of individuals, often permanently. Chloramine can cause rubber corrosion of rubber plumbing parts like toilet flappers and rubber casings. Rubber corroded parts need to be replaced with chloramine resistant parts such as synthetic polymer. Rubber corrosion can be spotted as early as 6 months after chloramine has been added to the water supply. Signs of corrosion can be seen when little black specks appear in the water from plumbing parts. Environmental Effects Canadian EPA ruled chloramine toxic as defined in Section 64 of the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999, as a result of a study assessing the impact of high volume chloraminated water discharges entering the environment, particularly of fish. Chloramine is toxic to fish, amphibians, and water-based reptiles and marine invertebrates. Chloramine enters directly into the bloodstream of fish, and amphibians through gills and skin, respectively. Chloramine must be removed from the water with a GAC (granular activated carbon) filter followed by a reverse osmosis or Cation filter. Note: The GAC filtration filters out only the chlorine from the chloramine molecule leaving the ammonia behind. Denise Johnson-Kula 4

5 Chloramine run-off from water hydrants or broken mains that enter storm drains, streams, lakes, rivers, and creeks, endangers the lives of fish, amphibians, water invertebrates, and other sensitive marine animals. Chloramine must be filtered out BEFORE it reaches bodies of water. This includes wastewater released into the environment from wastewater treatment plants. CCAC Recommendations CCAC recommends that chloramine be removed from the water supply. The SFPUC should discontinue the use of chloramine as a water disinfectant until the appropriate scientific studies are done to test the safety and benefits of chloramine as a water treatment option. CCAC supports the prefiltration of organic matter before disinfection that the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends to control trihalomethanes (THMs). The use of prefiltration will allow us to continue to use chlorine (well tolerated for decades) as our water disinfectant thus eliminating all the harmful effects that chloramine is causing. Denise Johnson-Kula 5

Material Safety Data Sheet

Material Safety Data Sheet 12601 Twinbrook Parkway, Rockville, MD 20852 USA Phone Calls: 301-816-8129 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. EST Mon. - Fri. ATTENTION! USP Reference Standards are sold for chemical test and