BIOLOGY. CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Fourth Edition. Neil A. Campbell Jane B. Reece Lawrence G. Mitchell Martha R. Taylor. CHAPTER 15 Classification

BIOLOGY CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS Fourth Edition Neil A. Campbell Jane B. Reece Lawrence G. Mitchell Martha R. Taylor CHAPTER 15 Classification Modules 15.1 15.5 From PowerPoint Lectures for Biology: Concepts & Connections

Why should we classify organisms? Gives organization makes it easier to find and compare information Taxonomy science of classification, give each organisms a scientific name that is accepted by all scientists so that all are using the same name instead of using common names that might be different in each country.

Who started all of this? Carolus Linnaeus: Swedish botanist who lived during 18 th century. Developed a two-name naming system known as binomial nomenclature (still used today). Each organisms is given a scientific name with two parts (genus and species), the name is always italicized, first part (genus) is always capitalized and second part (species) is always lower case. Example wolf is Canis lupis

How does the Linnaean system work? Linnaeus system of classification consists of different hierarchical levels, which includes (from smallest to largest taxon, or group): Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Different numbers of kingdom systems Five kingdom system Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia Six kingdom system recently (past 5-10 years) the Monera were split because the two groups (Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) were found to be different. All other kingdoms same as fivekingdom system Domain system newer classification scheme that attempts to show evolutionary relationships between all life on earth. Has three groups that include the bacteria, archaebacteria and eukarya.

An example of classification taxa for the house cat. Table 15.10

Human Classification Domain Eukarya Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata (Subphylum Vertebrata) Class Mammalia Order Primates Family Hominidae Genus Homo Species - sapiens

SYSTEMATICS AND PHYLOGENETIC BIOLOGY 15.10 Systematists classify organisms by phylogeny Reconstructing phylogeny is part of systematics the study of biological diversity and classification Taxonomists assign a two-part name to each species The first name, the genus, covers a group of related species The second name refers to a species within a genus

Taxonomists often debate the particular placement of organisms in categories as they strive to make their categories reflect evolutionary relationships

SPECIES Felis catus (domestic cat) Mephitis mephitis (striped skunk) Lutra lutra (European otter) Canis familiaris (domestic dog) Canis lupus (wolf) GENUS Felis Mephitis Lutra Canis FAMILY Felidae Mustelidae Canidae ORDER Carnivora Figure 15.10

15.11 Homology indicates common ancestry, but analogy does not Homologous structures are evidence that organisms have evolved from a common ancestor In contrast, analogous similarities are evidence that organisms from different evolutionary lineages have undergone convergent evolution Their resemblances have resulted from living in similar environments

Example: California ocotillo and allauidia of Madagascar Figure 15.11

15.12 Molecular biology is a powerful tool in systematics Systematists increasingly use molecular techniques to classify organisms develop phylogenetic hypotheses Human Chimpanzee Gorilla Orangutan Figure 15.12B

Oligocene Miocene A phylogenetic tree based on molecular data Brown bear Polar bear Asiatic black bear American black bear Sun bear Sloth bear Spectacled bear Giant panda Raccoon Lesser panda Pleistocene Pliocene Ursidae Procyonidae Common ancestral carnivorans Figure 15.12A

15.13 Systematists attempt to make classification consistent with phylogeny Homologous features are used to compare organisms Cladistic analysis attempts to define monophyletic taxa

TAXA Outgroup (Reptiles) Ingoup (Mammals) Eastern box turtle Duck-billed platypus Red kangaroo North American beaver CHARACTERS Long gestation Gestation Hair, mammary glands Vertebral column 3 Long gestation 2 Gestation 1 Hair, mammary glands Vertebral column Figure 15.13A

Cladistic analysis is often a search for the simplest hypotheses about phylogeny Phylogenetic tree according to cladistic analysis Lizards Snakes Crocodiles Birds Phylogenetic tree according to classical systematics Lizards Snakes Crocodiles Birds Figure 15.13B, C

THE DOMAINS OF LIFE 15.14 Arranging life into kingdoms is a work in progress For several decades, systematists have classified life into five kingdoms MONERA PROTISTA PLANTAE FUNGI ANIMALIA Earliest organisms Figure 15.14A

A newer system recognizes two basically distinctive groups of prokaryotes The domain Bacteria The domain Archaea A third domain, the Eukarya, includes all kingdoms of eukaryotes BACTERIA ARCHAEA EUKARYA Earliest organisms Figure 15.14B

EVOLUTION, UNITY, AND DIVERSITY 1.4 The diversity of life can be arranged into three domains Grouping organisms by fundamental features helps make the vast diversity of life manageable for study Scientists classify organisms into a hierarchy of broader and broader groups

Most classification schemes group organisms into three domains: Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Figure 1.4A, B

Domain Eukarya Figure 1.4C-F

Kingdom Eubacteria Prokaryotic Single celled Lack true nuclei and internal membrane enclosed organelles. Lack a cytoskeleton Contain double stranded DNA that is circular. Get energy by Heterotroph feed on dead material (detritivores), by attaching and feeding on living things (parasite) Autotroph can synthesize their own food

Structure: Have cell walls made of peptidoglycans (type of carbohydrate and peptide), use gram stain to identify how thick the cell wall is and what type of bacteria. Gram positive cells have a thick wall that stains purple while gram negative cells have a thin wall that stains pink. Classified by appearance Cocci round Bacillus rods Spirillus - spiral

Kingdom Archaebacteria Have no internal membrane enclosed organelles Simple, circular DNA Relatively new group Usually found in harsh environments like hot springs that are similar to early earth conditions Different from Eubacteria in terms of membrane structure and membrane lipids.

Kingdom Protista Simplest of the eukaryotic organisms, may be the group that connects the prokaryotes and the rest of the eukaryotes. Mostly unicellular Some are motile and move with cilia, or flagella or pseudopodia (ameboid movement) Some use asexual reproduction and others use sexual reproduction. Examples include:

Amoeba Large unicellular organism with amorphous cell shape Use cytoplasmic streaming/cyclosis/ameboid movement and pseudopodia to get around Heterotrophs that get their food by engulfing/phagocytizing objects and digesting them with a food vacuole.

Paramecium Ciliated, unicellular organism whose cell surface is covered with cilia, Have a definite shape Contain daisy-shaped contractile vacuoles to maintain water balance Food enters through the oral groove Uses mitosis to reproduce

Slime molds May be either grouped with protists or fungi (depending on system) Some exist as independent cells, others might group together to form a multicellular mass under certain conditions. Heterotrophic

Algae Photosynthetic protists Mostly unicellular Includes: Diatoms single celled with shells of silica Dinoflagellates single celled with flagella Green, brown and red algae as well as giant kelp

Kingdom Fungi Heterotrophs, absorb their nutrients from environment, secrete enzymes from their hyphae (slender root-like filaments) onto the detritus and absorb digested food directly into their cells. Often detritivores and feed off dead organisms, help recycle materials. Cell walls made of chitin

Some Fungi:

Kingdom Plantae: Multicellular, eukaryotic, produce their own food through photosynthesis. Cell wall made of cellulose Nonmotile Have adaptations that allow them to gain the most light, air and water as possible First plants probably evolved from green algae near shallow water.

Bryophyta Nonvascular plants that also lack woody stems, usually small due to lack of xylem and phloem and also usually found in moist environments.

Tracheophyta - seedless Have vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) First members were seedless and used spores to reproduce. Examples include ferns and horsetails

Tracheophyta with seeds Evolution of seed was a major step for the plants, increased the ability to live in drier climates, uses male (pollen) and female (ova) gametes. Evolution of flower was next step.

Kingdom Animalia Multicellular and heterotrophic, have become more complex over time and with the accumulation of evolutionary adaptations and more complex body systems. Some are sessile and don t move very much (hydra)

Animals may have different types of body symmetry. Animals with radial symmetry have their body organized into a circular shape and may have their body cut along any plane from anterior to posterior end. This produces multiple ways to produce a mirror image of the organism s body. Examples of animals with radial symmetry include sea stars and jellies. Animals with bilateral symmetry have a right side and a left side. They only one plane in which their body can be cut and produce a mirror image. Examples of animals with bilateral symmetry include humans and dogs.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Frontal plane Transverse plane Dorsal Posterior Anterior Ventral

Animals have several different ways that their body cavity can form. Animals with only solid tissue between the gut wall and exterior of the Animal are called acoelomates. Animals with an incomplete space between the gut wall and exterior of The animal are called pseudocoelomates. Animals with a complete space between the gut wall and exterior of the Animal are called coelomates.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm Pseudocoel Coelomate Ectoderm Mesoderm Coelomic cavity Endoderm

Phylum Porifera (sponges): First evolutionary step between protists and animals Have no organs or tissues Only a small amount of specialization Can regenerate if separated into pieces Have flagellated cells that move water into the animal through body pores.

Phylum Cnidaria (formerly Coelenterata): Have radial symmetry Tentacles around a mouth Have two cell layers (endoderm=inner and ectoderm=outer) and a hollow body cavity (gastrovascular cavity or gvc) Have a simple nervous system (nerve net) Tentacles have nematocysts for stinging and immobilizing prey Start out as a polyp that lives attached to something and then becomes a free floating medusa. Can reproduce either sexually or asexually. Examples include hydra, sea anemone and jelly fish

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 32.06(TE Art) Gastrovascular cavity Epidermis Mesoglea Gastrodermis Medusa Tentacles Polyp Mouth Gastrovascular cavity

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 32.07(TE Art) Mouth Tentacles Sensory cell Gastrodermis Mesoglea Epidermis Cnidocyte Discharged nematocyst Hydra Cross- Section Trigger Stinging cell (cnidocyte) with nematocyst Undischarged nematocyst Filament

Fig. 32.11

Phylum platyhelminthes (flatworms): Ribbon-like with bilateral symmetry Have three cell layers Lack a circulatory system Have simple light receptors, an anterior ganglion (brain) and two nerve cords Can regenerate Are free living but many are internal parasites. Examples include planaria, flukes and tapeworms

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 32.13(TE Art) Eyespot Protruding pharynx Opening to pharynx Intestinal diverticulum Intestine Epidermis Circular muscles Testis Intestine Longitudinal muscles Parenchymal Nerve muscle cord Sperm duct Oviduct

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 32.14(TE Art) Hooks Sucker Scolex Repeated proglottid segments Uterus Genital pore Proglottid

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Raw, infected fish is consumed by humans or other mammals Fig. 32.15(TE Art) Metacercarial cysts in fish muscle Bile duct Liver Adult fluke Egg containing miracidium Cercaria Redia Sporocyst Miracidium hatches after being eaten by snail

Phylum nematoda (roundworms): Have three cell layers A complete digestive tract with two openings A pseudocoelom Lacking a respiratory and circulatory system they exchange materials directly with environment Can be free-living scavanging or parasitic species. Examples include Caenorhabditis elegans

Phylum annelida (segmented worms): Have segmented bodies A complete body cavity (coelom) filled with water Hydrostatic skeleton Have a nervous system with an anterior ganglion (brain) and a ventral nerve cord Exchange gases directly with environment Have a pair of nephridia (excretory structures) in each body segment Have a complete digestive tract Have a closed circulatory system with five hearts (aortic arches) Examples include earthworms and leeches

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 33.12(TE Art) Clitellum Segments Setae Hearts Pharynx Brain Mouth Esophagus Dorsal Blood vessel Intestine Septa Longitudinal muscle Male Nerve gonads cord Circular Female muscle gonads Ventral Blood vessel Nephridium

Fig. 33.15

Phylum Arthropoda: Have jointed appendages and an exoskeleton made of chitin Open circulatory system Has a separate system of tubes for gas exchange called tracheal tubes and Body openings in the abdomen called spiracles Have complex sensory structures including compound eyes One of the most abundant groups of animals on the planet Insects have three pairs of legs Arachnids have four pairs of legs Crustaceans have segmented bodies with a variable number of appendages, Have gills for gas exchange Examples include insects, arachnids (spiders, ticks and scorpions) And crustaceans

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 33.20(TE Art) Antenna Head Thorax Eye Air sac Malpighian tubules Abdomen Rectum Mouthparts Spiracles Midgut Sting Poison sac

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 33.22(TE Art) Compound eye Ocelli Antennae Spiracles Tympanal organ Ovary Malpighian Rectum Gastric Heart ceca tubules Crop Stomach Aorta Brain Mouth Nerve ganglia

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 33.23(TE Art) Tracheoles Trachea Spiracles Spiracles

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 33.25(TE Art) Cheliped Eye Cephalothorax Abdomen Antennule Antenna Telson Swimmerets Uropod Walking legs

Fig. 33.28

Phylum Mollusca: Have a muscular foot A mantle that secretes a shell and a rasping tongue called a radula Most are covered by a hard protective shell secreted by the mantle Some (squid and octopi) have a reduced internal shell known as a pen They are mostly aquatic and use gills enclosed in the mantle for respiration. Examples include clams, squid and snails

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Esophagus Muscle Radula Mouth

Fig. 33.08

Phylum Echinodermata: Have a spiny body surface Radial symmetry Water vascular system and the ability to regenerate lost body parts Are deuterostomes, have tube feet and a hard internal skeleton made of Calcium deposits. Examples include sea stars and sea urchins

Fig. 33.38

Fig. 33.40

Fig. 33.41

Phylum Chordata: Have a stiff solid dorsal rod called the notochord and gill slits during Embryonic development Have a dorsal hollow nerve cord A tail that extends beyond the anus (at some point in development) A ventral heart Examples include any of the vertebrates

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pharyngeal pouches Fig. 34.02(TE Art) Hollow dorsal nerve cord Postanal tail Notochord

Subphylum vertebrata (vertebrates): Have a notochord during embryogenesis that is later replaced by a bony Segmented vertebral column that protects the dorsal spinal cord and Provides anchorage for muscles Have a bony or cartilaginous endoskeleton Chambered heart for circulation and increasingly complex Nervous systems All internal organs are found in a body cavity called a coelom. Examples include fish, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Tail: Fig. Like all 34.09(TE chordates, column Art) vertebrates have a postanal tail at some point in their lives. A vertebral surrounds and protects the dorsal nerve cord. Skeleton: All vertebrates have an endoskeleton of cartilage or bone. Coelom: In many vertebrates, the coelom is subdivided into cavities housing the heart, the stomach, intestines, and liver, and, in some groups, the lungs. Head: All vertebrates have a brain, encased within a protective skull. All vertebrates possess a liver. All vertebrates possess endocrine glands. Limbs: All vertebrates exhibit great powers of movement, most utilizing fins or legs. Kidney: The excretory system of vertebrates is unique among animals. Heart: All vertebrates have a closed circulatory system, powered by a muscular heart. Jaws: All but the earliest vertebrates have hinged jaws.

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Quaternary (2 Present) 0 Tertiary (65 2) 50 Cretaceous 100 (144 65) Jurassic 150 (213 144) Triassic 200 (248 213) Permian 250 (280 248) Carboniferous 300 (360 280) Devonian 350 (408 360) Silurian 400 (438 408) Ordovician 450 (490 438) Cambrian 500 (545 490) 550 Agnathans Jawless fishes Ostracoderms (extinct) shell-skinned fishes Chondrichthyes Cartilaginous fishes Placoderms (extinct) armored fishes Actinopterygii Ray-finned fishes Acanthodians (extinct) spiny fishes Sarcopterygii Lobe-finned fishes Amphibia Amphibians

Class Chondrichthyes: Have a cartilaginous endoskeleton Have large oil-producing livers for buoyancy regulation in water Use gills for respiration Examples include sharks, skates and rays

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Myxini Cephalaspidomorphi Chondrichthyes Actinopterygii Sarcopterygii Amphibia Mammalia Testudines Lepidosauria Crocodilia Aves Fig. 34.p695(TE Art)

Class Osteichthyes (bony fish): Have an endoskeleton made entirely of hard calcified bone, have swim bladders for the regulation of buoyancy, use gills for respiration. Examples include bass, trout, tuna, swordfish

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Myxini Cephalaspidomorphi Chondrichthyes Actinopterygii Sarcopterygii Amphibia Mammalia Testudines Lepidosauria Crocodilia Aves Fig. 34.p696(TE Art)

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 34.17(TE Art) To heart Dorsal aorta Gas gland Muscular valve Swim bladder

Class Amphibia: Have lungs for gas exchange Can also exchange gases across their moist skin Their eggs lack hard shells Their larvae often live in the water and then metamorphose into the adult form Must live in close association with the water. Examples include frogs and salamanders

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Myxini Cephalaspidomorphi Chondrichthyes Actinopterygii Sarcopterygii Amphibia Mammalia Testudines Lepidosauria Crocodilia Aves Fig. 34.p698(TE Art)

Class Reptilia: Became independent of water for reproduction with the development of a Hard shelled egg Have more effective lungs A heart and thicker skin that allows them to survive on land. Examples include turtles, lizards and snakes

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Myxini Cephalaspidomorphi Chondrichthyes Actinopterygii Sarcopterygii Amphibia Mammalia Testudines Lepidosauria Crocodilia Aves Fig. 34.p702(TE Art)

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Embryo Fig. 34.23(TE Art) Leathery shell Amnion Chorion Allantois Yolk sac

Class aves (birds): Evolved from reptilian dinosaurs with the development of wings Feathers and light bones for flight Have a four chambered heart and uniquely adapted lungs that supply lots of oxygen for flight Have hard shelled eggs and provide a great deal of parental care during embryonic development and maturation after hatching. Examples include robin, cardinal, blue jay and woodpecker

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Myxini Cephalaspidomorphi Chondrichthyes Actinopterygii Sarcopterygii Amphibia Mammalia Testudines Lepidosauria Crocodilia Aves Fig. 34.p710(TE Art)

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 34.34(TE Art) Barbules Shaft Quill Shaft Barb Hooks

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 34.36(TE Art) Sinosauropteryx This theropod dinosaur had short arms and ran along the ground. Its body was covered with filaments that may have been used for insulation and that are the first evidence of feathers. Velociraptor This larger, carnivorous theropod possessed a swiveling wrist bone, a type of joint that is also found in birds and is necessary for flight. Caudipteryx Recently discovered fossils of this theropod indicate that it is intermediate between dinosaurs and birds. This small, very fast runner was covered with primitive (symmetrical and therefore flightless) feathers. Archaeopteryx This oldest known bird had asymmetrical feathers, with a narrower leading edge and streamlined trailing edge. It could probably fly short distances. Modern birds Dinosaurs Birds

Class mammalia: Have hair, sweat glands, mammary glands and four chambered hearts Evolved over 200 million years ago Became the dominant terrestrial vertebrate 65 million years ago Highly effective in regulating bodyt emperature Most provide extensive care for their young. Monotremes (duck billed platypus) lay eggs Marsupials give birth to live young after a short gestation period who Then complete their development in a pouch. Placental mammals gestate their young to a more complete state and Give birth to live young after their development is complete. Examples include dogs, cats, humans, elephants

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Myxini Cephalaspidomorphi Chondrichthyes Actinopterygii Sarcopterygii Amphibia Mammalia Testudines Lepidosauria Crocodilia Aves Fig. 34.p714(TE Art)

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Fig. 34.39(TE Art) Chorion Embryo Umbilical cord Placenta Uterus Amnion Yolk sac

Fig. 34.41