Supplementary Fig.1. Complete phylogeny used in this article. The tree topology and

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1 1

2 Supplementary Fig.1. Complete phylogeny used in this article. The tree topology and branch lengths for living species were taken from the recent and most complete specieslevel supertree of Nyakatura and Bininda-Emonds 1. In the case of extinct taxa. phylogenetic relationships and fossil occurrence dates were compiled from Refs We used the species locality and age information to estimate branch lengths according to the first and last appearance of extinct taxa. 2

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4 Supplementary Fig. 2. Anterior surface of humeral distal epiphysis as a proxy of elbow-joint shape in some extinct species representatives of the three present day predatory modes. a. Hesperocyon gregarius (F:AM-63357) (Hesperocyoninae; Ambush); b, Mesocyon temnodon (F:AM ) (Hesperocyoninae; Ambush); c, Osbornodon fricki (F:AM-27363) (Hesperocyoninae; Ambush); d, Borophagus secundus (F:AM-67647) (Borophaginae; Ambush); e, Leptocyon vulpinus (AMNH ) (Caninae; Ambush); f, Cormocyon haydeni (F:AM-49448) (Borophaginae; Pounce); g, Epicyon haydeni (F:AM-67602) (Borophaginae; Ambush); h, Aelurodon mcgrewi (AMNH-22410) (Borophaginae; Ambush); i, Leptocyon vafer (F:AM-72701) (Caninae; Pounce); j, Eucyon davisi (AMNH-72555) (Caninae; Pounce); k, Canis dirus (F:AM-97078) (Caninae; Pursuit); l, Canis dirus (F:AM-67302) (Caninae; Pursuit) and Canis lupus (F:AM-8582) (Caninae; Pursuit). Black arrows indicate the entepicondylar foramen. 4

5 Supplementary Table 1. Results of the CVA performed from the extant sample to distinguish the best elbow shape features among the three present-day predation modes (ambush. pounce and pursuit predators). CF means canonical function. SPECIMENS SCORE CFI SCORE CFII PROBABILITY PURSUIT (%) PROBABILITY POUNCE (%) PROBABILITY AMBUSH (%) Acinonyx jubatus Acinonyx jubatus Acinonyx jubatus Acinonyx jubatus Acinonyx jubatus Canis adustus Canis adustus Canis adustus Canis adustus Canis adustus Canis aureus Canis aureus Canis aureus Canis latrans Canis latrans Canis latrans Canis latrans Canis latrans Canis lupus Canis lupus Canis lupus Canis lupus Canis lupus Canis mesomelas Canis mesomelas Canis mesomelas Canis mesomelas Canis mesomelas Canis simensis Caracal caracal Caracal caracal Caracal caracal Civettictis civetta Crocuta crocuta Crocuta crocuta

6 Crocuta crocuta Crocuta crocuta Crocuta crocuta Cuon alpinus Cuon alpinus Felis catus Gulo gulo Gulo gulo Gulo gulo Hyaena hyaena Hyaena hyaena Hyaena hyaena Lycaon pictus Lycaon pictus Lycaon pictus Lycaon pictus Lycaon pictus Lynx pardinus Panthera leo Panthera leo Panthera leo Panthera leo Panthera onca Panthera onca Panthera onca Panthera pardus Panthera pardus Panthera tigris Panthera tigris Panthera tigris Panthera tigris Panthera tigris Panthera tigris Panthera tigris Panthera uncia Panthera uncia Panthera uncia Panthera uncia Puma concolor Puma concolor Puma concolor Puma concolor Speothos venaticus Speothos venaticus Urocyon cinereoargenteus Urocyon cinereoargenteus Urocyon cinereoargenteus

7 Urocyon cinereoargenteus Viverra zibetha Vulpes macrotis Vulpes macrotis Vulpes velox Vulpes vulpes Vulpes vulpes Vulpes vulpes Vulpes vulpes Vulpes vulpes

8 Supplementary Table 2. Classification of fossil specimens obtained with CVA. The scores of each taxa on both canonical functions (CF) are also shown. Symbols: # code number used in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. SPECIMENS # ASSIGNED SCORE PROBABILITY PROBABILITY PROBABILITY SCORE CFI GROUP CFII PURSUIT (%) POUNCE (%) AMBUSH (%) Aelurodon asthenostylus 19 AMBUSH Aelurodon ferox 22 AMBUSH Aelurodon ferox 22 POUNCE Aelurodon mcgrewi 20 AMBUSH Aelurodon taxoides 21 AMBUSH Aelurodon taxoides 21 AMBUSH Archaeocyon falkenbachi 7 AMBUSH Archaeocyon leptodus 6 AMBUSH Borophagus parvus 16 AMBUSH Borophagus pugnator 15 AMBUSH Borophagus secundus 17 AMBUSH Borophagus secundus 17 AMBUSH Canis armbrusteri 30 POUNCE Canis armbrusteri 30 POUNCE Canis armbrusteri 30 POUNCE Canis dirus 31 PURSUIT Canis dirus 31 POUNCE Canis sp. 32 POUNCE Canis sp. (cf. lupus) PURSUIT Canis sp. (cf. lupus) POUNCE Canis lupus 32 POUNCE Canis thooides 29 POUNCE Carpocyon webbi 18 POUNCE Cormocyon haydeni 9 POUNCE Cynarctus crucidens 11 AMBUSH Desmocyon thomsoni 10 POUNCE Enhydrocyon crassidens 5 AMBUSH Epicyon haydeni 14 AMBUSH Epicyon haydeni 14 AMBUSH Epicyon haydeni 14 POUNCE Epicyon saevus 13 AMBUSH Eucyon davisi 28 POUNCE Eucyon davisi 28 POUNCE Eucyon davisi 28 POUNCE Hesperocyon gregarius 1 AMBUSH Leptocyon matthewi 25 POUNCE Leptocyon vafer 24 POUNCE Leptocyon vafer 24 POUNCE Leptocyon vulpinus 23 AMBUSH Mesocyon coryphaeus 4 AMBUSH Mesocyon temnodon 3 AMBUSH Osbornodon fricki 2 AMBUSH Phlaocyon leucosteus 8 POUNCE

9 Psalidocyon mariannae 12 POUNCE Urocyon minicephalus 27 POUNCE Urocyon minicephalus 27 POUNCE Vulpes stenognathus 26 POUNCE

10 Supplementary Table 3. Extant species used in the simple regression function of Log- Cs on Log-BM analyzed per species: body masses obtained from the literature (see references). SPECIES Log (BM) LogCs REFERENCES Acinonyx jubatus Canis mesomelas Canis aureus Canis adustus Canis simensis Canis latrans Canis lupus Caracal caracal Civettictis civetta Crocuta crocuta Cuon alpinus Gulo gulo Hyaena hyaena Lycaon pictus Lynx pardinus Panthera uncia Panthera pardus Panthera onca Panthera tigris Panthera leo Puma concolor Speothos venaticus Urocyon cinereoargenteus Viverra civetta Vulpes macrotis Vulpes velox Vulpes vulpes

11 Supplementary Table 4. Body mass estimates for each extinct canid species (in Kg) obtained from the function adjusted with elbow-cs and BM in living taxa. SPECIMENS ESTIMATED BM (Kg) Aelurodon asthenostylus 43.4 Aelurodon ferox 46.9 Aelurodon ferox 56.9 Aelurodon mcgrewi 36.6 Aelurodon taxoides 63.0 Aelurodon taxoides 59.9 Archaeocyon falkenbachi 4.9 Archaeocyon leptodus 4.1 Borophagus parvus 34.5 Borophagus pugnator 58.5 Borophagus secundus 39.1 Borophagus secundus 33.3 Canis armbrusteri 40.6 Canis armbrusteri 34.2 Canis armbrusteri 44.7 Canis dirus 66.8 Canis dirus 65.8 Canis sp Canis lupus 37.0 Canis sp Canis lupus 34.4 Canis thooides 9.7 Carpocyon webbi 24.5 Cormocyon haydeni 3.6 Cynarctus crucidens 13.3 Desmocyon thomsoni 10.5 Enhydrocyon crassidens 18.3 Epicyon haydeni 92.9 Epicyon haydeni Epicyon haydeni Epicyon saevus 44.1 Eucyon davisi 7.2 Eucyon davisi 5.4 Eucyon davisi 9.9 Hesperocyon gregarius 3.6 Leptocyon matthewi 2.1 Leptocyon vafer 4.1 Leptocyon vafer 3.2 Leptocyon vulpinus 4.4 Mesocyon coryphaeus 15.2 Mesocyon Temnodon 9.3 Osbornodon fricki

12 Phlaocyon leucosteus 3.7 Psalidocyon mariannae 19.0 Urocyon minicephalus 4.4 Urocyon minicephalus 5.1 Vulpes stenognathus

13 Supplementary Table 5. Hunter-Schreger Band (HSB) enamel microstructure in canids. All specimens are lower tooth-rows except for USNM15937, LACM9813, USNM352360, LACM16734, UCMP30476, LACM-CIT2077, LACM127790, LACM-CIT1242, UCMP1383, UCMP1165, LACM55237, F:AM61039, and LACM15910 which were upper tooth-rows. Each tooth was first coded using the most specialized HSB pattern observed in each of the three regions of the tooth crown (top, middle, bottom), as u (undulating), a (acute-undulating), or z (zig-zag). The coding for each tooth then was given a score based on the following scale (left to right within each coding category represents top to bottom of crown): uuu (0.143), auu (0.286), aau (0.429), zau (0.572), zaa (0.715), zza (0.858), zzz (1.000). Codings were done for the canine (c), premolars 1 to 4 (p1-p4), and molars 1-2 (m1-m2). The total sum of HSB scores then was divided by the number of teeth sampled in each entry to produce a standardized HSB score of enamel microstructural specialization. Both new data and those from Tseng (2011) are used in this study. Institutional abbreviations: AMNH, Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA; LACM-CIT, Caltech collection of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, California, USA; F:AM, Frick mammal collection of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA; HMV, Fossil vertebrates collection, Hezheng Museum of Paleozoology, Gansu, China; UCMP, University of California Museum of Paleontology, USA, USNM, United States National Museum (Smithsonian Institution), Washington DC, USA. Subfamily Taxa Specimen # Side c p1 p2 p3 p4 m1 m2 HSB sum #Teeth HSB score Borophaginae Aelurodon asthenostylus FAM 27159/8307/ Borophaginae Aelurodon ferox UCMP32241 r Borophaginae Aelurodon taxoides FAM A r Borophaginae Aelurodon taxoides FAM l Borophaginae Aelurodon taxoides FAM r Borophaginae Aelurodon taxoides FAM l Borophaginae Aelurodon taxoides FAM r Borophaginae Archaeocyon leptodus FAM r Borophaginae Archaeocyon pavidus FAM 63970/ Borophaginae Archaeocyon pavidus UCMP76652 r Borophaginae Borophagus (Osteoborus crinoides) UCMP30626 r Borophaginae Borophagus parvus FAM l Borophaginae Borophagus parvus FAM r Borophaginae Borophagus parvus FAM l Borophaginae Borophagus FAM 61662/108396/

14 parvus/pugnator/secundus Borophaginae Borophagus secundus FAM r Borophaginae Borophagus secundus FAM r Borophaginae Borophagus secundus UCMP30492 l Borophaginae Borophagus sp. LACM34060 r Borophaginae Carpocyon webbi FAM 27366B, 61335, Borophaginae Cormocyon haydeni FAM l Borophaginae Cormocyon haydeni FAM l Borophaginae Cynarctoides acridens FAM r Borophaginae Cynarctoides acridens FAM l Borophaginae Cynarctoides acridens/gawnae FAM 49249/ Borophaginae Cynarctoides luskensis FAM l Borophaginae Cynarctus galushai FAM l Borophaginae Cynarctus saxatilis UCMP29891 l Borophaginae Cynarctus saxatilis/galushai FAM 9453/ Borophaginae Desmocyon thomsoni AMNH Borophaginae Epicyon haydeni FAM r Borophaginae Epicyon haydeni FAM r Borophaginae Epicyon haydeni FAM l Borophaginae Epicyon haydeni FAM 61498/61476/ Borophaginae Epicyon saevus FAM l Borophaginae Epicyon saevus FAM 61418/ Borophaginae Metatomarctus FAM Borophaginae Microtomarctus conferta CIT1232 rl Borophaginae Microtomarctus conferta FAM 27253A l Borophaginae Microtomarctus conferta FAM l Borophaginae Microtomarctus conferta FAM l Borophaginae Microtomarctus conferta FAM r Borophaginae Microtomarctus conferta FAM l Borophaginae Otarocyon cooki FAM l Borophaginae Otarocyon cooki FAM r Borophaginae Paracynarctus kelloggi FAM 27487/

15 Borophaginae Paratomarctus euthos/temerarius FAM 50146/61101/ Borophaginae Phlaocyon annectens FAM 49006/ Borophaginae Phlaocyon latidens FAM l Borophaginae Phlaocyon leucosteus FAM Borophaginae Phlaocyon minor FAM l Borophaginae Protepicyon raki FAM Borophaginae Psalidocyon marianae FAM l Borophaginae Tomarctus hippophaga FAM l Borophaginae Tomarctus hippophaga FAM l Borophaginae Tomarctus hippophaga FAM 61270/27470/ Caninae Alopex sp. FAM r Caninae Alopex sp. FAM r Caninae Alopex sp. FAM r Caninae Canis armbrusteri FAM r Caninae Canis armbrusteri FAM l Caninae Canis dirus AMNH r Caninae Canis dirus AMNH l Caninae Canis dirus AMNH l Caninae Canis dirus CIT1920 l Caninae Canis ferox F:AM l Caninae Canis mesomelas AMNH CA2288 rl Caninae Canis sp. cf. C. lupus F:AM r Caninae Canis sp. cf. C. lupus FAM l Caninae Canis sp. cf. C. lupus FAM FMM1196 l Caninae Canis teilhardi HMV1144 l Caninae Canis thooides* F:AM r Caninae Cerdocyon sp. AMNH l Caninae Cerdocyon sp. AMNH r Caninae Cuon antiquus AMNH l Caninae Cuon antiquus AMNH l Caninae Cuon antiquus* AMNH l Caninae Eucyon davisi FAM l

16 Caninae Eucyon davisi FAM l Caninae Leptocyon matthewi FAM r Caninae Leptocyon tejonensis LACM16719 r Caninae Leptocyon tejonensis LACM47669 r Caninae Leptocyon vafer FAM r Caninae Leptocyon vafer FAM l Caninae Leptocyon vulpinus AMNH l Caninae Nyctereutes sp. AMNH r Caninae Nyctereutes sp. AMNH l Caninae Pseudalopex culpaeus AMNH lr Caninae Pseudalopex culpaeus AMNH r Caninae Urocyon minicephalus AMNH l Caninae Urocyon minicephalus AMNH r Caninae Urocyon minicephalus AMNH r Caninae Vulpes stenognathus FAM l Caninae Vulpes stenognathus FAM l Caninae Lycaon pictus AMNH TC24218 rl Caninae Canis dirus AMNH r Hesperocyoninae Enhydrocyon crassidens AMNH Hesperocyoninae Hesperocyon gregarius LACM-CIT100 r Hesperocyoninae Hesperocyon gregarius LACM-CIT1444 r Hesperocyoninae Hesperocyon gregarius LACM-CIT1526 r Hesperocyoninae Hesperocyon gregarius LACM-CIT4917 r Hesperocyoninae Hesperocyon gregarius LACM-CIT621 l Hesperocyoninae Hesperocyon sp. USNM l Hesperocyoninae Mesocyon coryphaeus UCMP1307 r Hesperocyoninae Mesocyon temnodon F:AM Hesperocyoninae Osbornodon renjiei FAM Hesperocyoninae Paraenhydrodon robustus/josephi AMNH6910/12884/FAM

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