Seafood Watch. Seafood Report. Wild-Caught Warmwater Shrimp (Infraorder Penaeus--the Penaeid shrimps)

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1 Seafood Watch Seafood Report Wild-Caught Warmwater Shrimp (Infraorder Penaeus--the Penaeid shrimps) Pink Shrimp, Penaeus duorarum Image courtesy U.N. FAO FIGIS database Gulf of Mexico and U.S. South Atlantic Regions Alice Cascorbi Fisheries Research Analyst Monterey Bay Aquarium Final 26 April 2004 Updated June 20, 2007

2 About Seafood Watch and the Seafood Reports Monterey Bay Aquarium s Seafood Watch program evaluates the ecological sustainability of wild-caught and farmed seafood commonly found in the United States marketplace. Seafood Watch defines sustainable seafood as originating from sources, whether wild-caught or farmed, which can maintain or increase production in the longterm without jeopardizing the structure or function of affected ecosystems. Seafood Watch makes its science-based recommendations available to the public in the form of regional pocket guides that can be downloaded from the Internet (seafoodwatch.org) or obtained from the Seafood Watch program by ing seafoodwatch@mbayaq.org. The program s goals are to raise awareness of important ocean conservation issues and empower seafood consumers and businesses to make choices for healthy oceans. Each sustainability recommendation on the regional pocket guides is supported by a Seafood Report. Each report synthesizes and analyzes the most current ecological, fisheries and ecosystem science on a species, then evaluates this information against the program s conservation ethic to arrive at a recommendation of Best Choices, Good Alternatives or Avoid. The detailed evaluation methodology is available upon request. In producing the Seafood Reports, Seafood Watch seeks out research published in academic, peer-reviewed journals whenever possible. Other sources of information include government technical publications, fishery management plans and supporting documents, and other scientific reviews of ecological sustainability. Seafood Watch Fisheries Research Analysts also communicate regularly with ecologists, fisheries and aquaculture scientists, and members of industry and conservation organizations when evaluating fisheries and aquaculture practices. Capture fisheries and aquaculture practices are highly dynamic; as the scientific information on each species changes, Seafood Watch s sustainability recommendations and the underlying Seafood Reports will be updated to reflect these changes. Parties interested in capture fisheries, aquaculture practices and the sustainability of ocean ecosystems are welcome to use Seafood Reports in any way they find useful. For more information about Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports, please contact the Seafood Watch program at Monterey Bay Aquarium by calling Disclaimer Seafood Watch strives to have all Seafood Reports reviewed for accuracy and completeness by external scientists with expertise in ecology, fisheries science and aquaculture. Scientific review, however, does not constitute an endorsement of the Seafood Watch program or its recommendations on the part of the reviewing scientists. Seafood Watch is solely responsible for the conclusions reached in this report. Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports are made possible through a grant from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. ii

3 Executive Summary Three major and four minor species of shrimps are fished commercially in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic. About 90% of landings come from the Gulf and 10% from the South Atlantic region. These shrimp species are all extremely short-lived (18-24 months) and fecund (spawning 215,000 1 million eggs every three days), making them inherently resilient to fishing pressure. Stocks are believed to be healthy, having been exploited at or near maximum sustainable yield for many decades. About 98% of commercial shrimp are taken with trawl gear 91% with bottom-contact otter trawls and 7% with beam or skimmer trawls that contact the seafloor only with their tickler chains. While bottom trawling has had significant adverse effects on certain ecosystems, especially rocky seafloor, coral reef, and low-disturbance deepwater habitats, the shrimp trawls of the Gulf and South Atlantic operate in soft sediments at shallow to moderate depths in a storm-prone (highdisturbance) ecosystem. An exhaustive review of habitat effects in this region found little evidence of significant adverse effects of trawl gear on physical habitat or benthic ecosystems. Moderate, shortterm effects on essential fish habitat were documented. Bycatch is the issue of greatest conservation concern: endangered sea turtles have been and still are caught in shrimp trawl nets. Turtle-excluder devices [TEDs] have been required on shrimp trawls since 1990; NMFS credits a substantial improvement in the population of the Kemp s ridley sea turtle to TED use, but the standard-sized TED has proven too small for the largest leatherbacks and loggerheads. A requirement for larger TEDs to release these larger turtles has been in place only since August, 2003, so its effectiveness remains to be demonstrated. As for non-endangered finfish, sharks and invertebrates, the last comprehensive study (1997) found ratios of bycatch to catch at about 4.5:1 in the U.S. South Atlantic shrimp trawl fishery and 5.25:1 in the Gulf. This is better than the 10:1 ratios noted for the region in the 1970s, but still of conservation concern. Since 1997, shrimp trawlers have been required to have Bycatch Reduction Devices (BRDs) on their nets to reduce bycatch of red snapper and other swimming species; the effectiveness of this regulation is currently under evaluation. BRDs are believed to reduce finfish bycatch by as much as 30%, meaning that ratios could have reached 2.8:1 in the U.S. South Atlantic and 3.5:1 in the Gulf. However, new ratios have not been published, and the issue of bycatch is still of concern. In the 1980s and 90s, NMFS identified bycatch of juvenile red snapper in shrimp trawl fisheries as the reason the commercially-valuable red snapper could not recover from overfishing. Currently, bycatch of juvenile king and Spanish mackerels in the Gulf shrimp fishery exceeds the number taken in the directed commercial and recreational fisheries combined. Additionally, BRDs cannot reduce bycatch of non-swimming species, such as benthic crustaceans and invertebrates. Bycatch of blue crabs in Gulf shrimp fisheries exceeds the catch in directed Gulf crab fisheries. Management of the U.S. Gulf and South Atlantic shrimp fisheries has been fairly effective, maintaining stocks, researching habitat effects, and, over the long term, addressing bycatch issues in a progressive and successful manner. The inherent resiliency to fishing pressure, healthy stock status, high levels of bycatch, moderate impacts to the habitat and ecosystem, and highly effective management result in the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico shrimp fisheries receiving an Overall Recommendation of Good Alternative.

4 Table of Sustainability Ranks Sustainability Criteria Inherent Vulnerability Status of Stocks Nature of Bycatch Habitat & Ecosystem Effects Management Effectiveness Low Concern Moderate Concern High Concern Critical Concern Overall Seafood Recommendation: Best Choice Good Alternative Avoid 4

5 Introduction Shrimp Fisheries of the U.S. --Gulf of Mexico and U.S. South Atlantic All U.S. Gulf Coast and several South Atlantic states have warmwater shrimp fisheries [NMFS STATS, 2004]. The most important shrimp species taken in U.S. Gulf and South Atlantic fisheries are the pink shrimp (Penaeus* duorarum), the Atlantic white shrimp (P. setiferus), and the brown shrimp (P. aztecus ) [SAFMC, 2002; GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. Shrimps of the genus Penaeus* (penaeid shrimps) tend to be large and meaty, and are the basis for warmwater shrimp fisheries the world over [Chase & Abbott, 1980]. Together, the brown, pink, and white penaeids comprise more than 99% of shrimp landings in the Gulf of Mexico [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002] and the majority of shrimp landings in the South Atlantic [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1993]. Other warmwater shrimps captured in these U.S. fisheries include the rock shrimp (Sicyonia brevirostris), distinguished by its thick, hard shell; the royal red shrimp (Hymenopenaeus robustus), a deepwater species; the roughneck or blood shrimp, also called the sugar shrimp (Trachypenaeus constrictus); and the seabob (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri), a small pelagic species [Batten, 2001; NOAA 2001; SAFMC 1998]. *An important note on nomenclature: Some nomenclature systems designate New World penaeid shrimps as subgenus Litopenaeus [Perez-Farfante & Kensley, 1997; Watling, 2004]. Another synonym for this group is Farfantepenaeus [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. In management documents, the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council uses the names Penaeus aztecus (brown shrimp), Penaeus setiferus (white shrimp) and Penaeus duorarum (pink shrimp) [SAFMC Amendment 5, 2002]. However, the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council uses the names Farfantepenaeus aztecus (brown shrimp), Litopenaeus setiferus (white shrimp), and Farfantepenaeus duorarum (pink shrimp) [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. For simplicity s sake, and in accordance with the U.N. FAO/FIGIS database of fisheries information [FAO FIGIS 2003], the genus name Penaeus will be used throughout this document. Table 1: The six most important shrimps caught in U.S. Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic shrimp fisheries. Sources: (FAO FIGIS 2003; NMFS 1998; Handbook 1999; Victoria 2000; Batten 2001; NOAA 2001; GMFMC Amendment 10,2002; SAFMC Amendment 5, 2002; Nance, 2004) Scientific Name(s) Penaeus setiferus, Litopenaeus setiferus Penaeus aztecus, Farfantepenaeus aztecus Penaeus duorarum, Farfantepenaeus duorarum Sicyonia brevirostris, Penaeus megalops Hymenopenaeus robustus Trachypenaeus constrictus Xiphopenaeus kroyeri Common Names white shrimp, Atlantic white shrimp,camarón blanco norteño brown shrimp, northern brown shrimp, camarón café norteño pink shrimp, pink penaeid shrimp, pink spotted shrimp, camarón rodsado norteño rock shrimp, camarón de piedra royal red shrimp roughneck shrimp, blood shrimp,sugar shrimp seabob The Gulf of Mexico region supplies close to 90% of U.S. shrimp landings [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Total shrimp landings from the Gulf have averaged approximately 150 million 5

6 pounds/68,040 metric tons (of tails 1 ) per year over the past decade [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. Shrimp landings in the South Atlantic region account for just 10% of total U.S. domestic shrimp production [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Annual landings in the South Atlantic region have been steady around 30 million pounds/13,609 metric tons (of tails) per year for several decades [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. In both the Gulf and the South Atlantic, shrimp fisheries are considered the region s largest and most valuable commercial fishery [Gulf Amendment 10, 2002; SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. The three main penaeid species (brown, white, and pink shrimp) are so short-lived that they provide an annual crop and are managed accordingly [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Brown, white and pink shrimps are fished across state and federal jurisdictions, from inland estuaries through the three-mile state-regulated nearshore zones out into the federal EEZ. Royal red shrimp, however, occur deeper, and are thus only fished in the EEZ [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Gear Types The majority of U.S. commercial shrimp catch is taken by otter trawls [Barnette, 2001]. According to one reference, otter trawls take 91% of the shrimp caught in the South Atlantic and Gulf; skimmer trawls take 7%; and various kinds of cast nets or stationary butterfly nets take the remaining 2% [Townsend shrimp ref 4]. An otter trawl. Image from "Bottom Tending Gear Used In New England" by Ronald Smolowitz (in Effects of Fishing Gear on the Seafloor of New England, Dorsey & Pederson, eds.) 1 U.S. shrimp landings are normally reported as heads-off weight, i.e., edible tails only. 6

7 A beam trawl. Image from In the Gulf and South Atlantic, beam trawls are often mounted on rigid outriggers to form skimmer trawls that touch bottom only with their tickler chains. In U.S. fisheries, commercial shrimp vessels range in length from under 25 feet to over 85 feet [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Federal statistics suggest that more than half of commercial shrimp vessels are of medium size (56 to 75 feet) [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. The exact number of vessels taking part in Gulf and Atlantic shrimp fisheries is not known; state licensing regulations vary, and because shrimpers follow the shrimp across state water boundaries, many shrimp vessels are licensed in several states simultaneously [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. The GMFMC estimates the Gulf shrimp fleet at between 3,500 and 4,500 vessels [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001] and the SAFMC estimates the South Atlantic fleet at 1,400 large vessels and 1,000 small boats [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Federal permits have been required for Gulf shrimpers since December, 2003, and about 2,500 Gulf permits have been issued since that time [Barnette, 2004]. Determining the provenance of U.S. shrimp can sometimes be problematic. As noted above, shrimpers often have licenses to land shrimp in several states, but also, in some cases, large shrimp vessels fish far from their ports of origin. In 2002, 20 to 30 very large [NMFS SE, 2002] trawlers from Texas, Louisiana, and Texas were shrimping in federal waters just outside Georgia s state-water limit [NMFS SE, 2002; Marra 2002; Duncan 2003; Davis, 2002]. These vessels landed shrimp in their home states, allowing Georgia shrimp to be counted as part of the landings from those other states [Duncan, 2003]. Shrimp fishermen generally target one species at a time [Versaggi, 2003]. Fishermen know that shrimp species segregate by depth and area, and so if you are targeting whites, you catch predominantly whites [Versaggi, 2003]. However, sometimes the species are mixed (especially brown and pink shrimps) and are landed together [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001; Versaggi, 2003]. The main gear used otter trawls with various kinds of rigging---is the same, in general, for all species and in all areas [Barnette, 2003; Versaggi, 2003; Jones, 2003]. Sometimes, the same trawl vessel will target white shrimp during the day and brown shrimp at night [Versaggi, 2003]. Bait Shrimp Fisheries In every Gulf state, there are small-scale nearshore fisheries for juvenile brown, white and pink shrimps to be used as bait in recreational fisheries [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. These bait-shrimp fisheries do not report landings to NMFS, but the first Gulf Shrimp FMP (published 1980) estimated total juvenile shrimp landings at about 5 million pounds/2,268 mt per year (whole weight) [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Bait-shrimp trawls can be up to 20 feet in width [TPW Sport Shrimp Regs, 2003]. Recreational Shrimp Fisheries There are small-scale recreational trawl fisheries for shrimp throughout the Gulf, almost entirely in nearshore, state-regulated waters [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. About 8,000 small boats participate, 7

8 about half of them licensed in Louisiana [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Trawls up to 16 feet wide are allowed for recreational shrimping. These shrimp may not be sold [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. In the South Atlantic, recreational shrimpers are estimated to take about 10% of the commercial catch, or about 3 million pounds/1,361 mt of shrimp per year, but exact statistics are not available [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. It should be noted that recreational shrimp fishers are usually not required to use BRDS [Barnette, 2004]. Because recreational fishing often takes place in estuaries where juvenile fish are foundtheir nets are often of finer mesh than commercial shrimp nets, recreational shrimp trawlers often have relatively high ratios of finfish bycatch when compared to commercial trawlers [Barnette, 2004]. Interactions with other fisheries In the Gulf, commercial shrimp trawlers are not allowed to land more than a recreational limit of reef fishes [GMFMC Commercial Fishing Regulations, 2003]. Conflicts have arisen between shrimp trawlers and trappers fishing for stone crab and blue crab: trawl nets bring up traps and entangle trap buoy lines. This has led to several management remedies, including seasonal time-sharing of fishing grounds off Florida [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. In the Gulf of Mexico, bycatch of juvenile red snapper in shrimp trawl fisheries has led to heated conflict between snapper and shrimp fishermen [Gutherz and Pellegrin, 1988; Graham, 1996] and to several major management efforts (please see the Bycatch section, below, for a fuller discussion). In both the Gulf and the South Atlantic, bycatch of king mackerel and Spanish mackerel has proven significant [GoM/SA Mackerels, 1999]. Shrimp Species Descriptions, Habitat Preferences, and Commercial Importance The brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus, is the most-caught shrimp in the Gulf and South Atlantic. Total catches have been 60,000-80,000 mt/year since 1950 [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. However, the flesh of brown shrimp has a high iodine content, giving them a strong flavor, and, in general, a lower priceper-pound than white or pink shrimp [U. Delaware Sea Grant, 2001]. The shell is reddish-brown [U. Delaware Sea Grant, 2001] and the tail-fan appendages are dark green and red [SC DNR, 2001]. These shrimp can grow to about nine inches in length [NCDMF, 2001] (maximum length recorded as 19.5 cm for males, 23.6 cm for females) [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. Juveniles are found in both estuaries and marine habitat, while adults are strictly marine [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. Brown shrimp are found at depths of 4 to 160 meters, with the greatest concentrations at depths of 27 to 54 meters [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. They favor muddy or peaty bottoms, often with sand, clay, or broken shells [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. Their maximum life span is 18 months [NCDMF, 2001]. They are typically caught at night [Jones, 2003]. Brown shrimp account for 66% of the shrimp taken off North Carolina [NCDMF, 2001] and about half the shrimp taken in South Carolina and Georgia [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Off the South Atlantic, spawning occurs at sea in late winter and early spring, and juveniles are carried from the ocean into estuaries by spring tides and wind-driven currents [NCDMF, 2001]. Off the South Atlantic, brown shrimp are caught primarily in summer [NCDMF, 2001]. Landings of brown shrimp typically are unaffected by freezing winter weather (which can kill juvenile white and pink shrimps) because brown shrimp juveniles are not in estuarine waters at times when the estuaries may freeze [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Brown shrimp are the majority of the shrimp catch in the U.S. Gulf fishery [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002; Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. In the 1990s, annual Gulf landings of brown shrimp averaged approximately 80 million pounds/36,288 mt of tails per year, accounting for approximately 53% of total Gulf shrimp landings [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. More recently, annual commercial landings have ranged as high as 100 million pounds/45,360 mt, reflecting environmental conditions 8

9 [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. (Favorable oceanographic conditions increased juvenile survival and led to record landings of Gulf brown and white shrimp in the year 2000 [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]). In the Gulf, brown shrimp are caught as deep as 50 fathoms (300 ft/91m), although most catches are from less than 30 fathoms (180 ft/55m) [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. In the Gulf, brown shrimp are caught primarily June through October [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. The Atlantic white shrimp, Penaeus setiferus, is distinguished by its long antennae typically longer than its body [FAO FIGIS, 2003; SC DNR, 2001]. This shrimp is a mainstay of the U.S. fishery [FAO FIGIS, 2003; GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002; SAFMC Amendment 5, 2002]; total catches have varied around 30,000 mt/year since 1950 [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. It is rather large for a shrimp, sometimes reaching 25 cm (10 inches) in length [SC DNR, 2001]. The shell color is whitish to greenish-grey [U. Delaware Sea Grant, 2001], but their tail-fan appendages are dark at the base [SC DNR, 2001]. The flesh is delicate and commands premium prices [U. Delaware Sea Grant, 2001]. Juveniles are found in estuaries, while adults are marine [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. White shrimp are found at depths of from 2 to 90 meters, over muddy or peaty bottom, sometimes with sand or clay [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. White shrimp are most abundant in areas with extensive estuarine marshes, such as along the South Carolina coast; they reach their greatest abundance in the Mississippi River Delta of Louisiana [SC DNR, 2001]. Compared to brown and pink shrimps, the white shrimp is often found higher in the water column, meaning that trawlers targeting white shrimp fish slightly more offbottom, doing less deep dragging and more semi-pelagic trawling (with tickler chains striking the bottom to scare up the shrimp) [Barnette, 2003]. White shrimp account for just 9% of North Carolina shrimp landings [NCDMF, 2001] but for more than half the shrimp caught in South Carolina and Georgia [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. White shrimp breed in the ocean from March to November, and juveniles are carried into coastal estuaries by tides and wind-driven currents [NCDMF, 2001]. Off the South Atlantic, white shrimp are caught primarily in the autumn [NCDMF, 2001]. They are typically caught during the day [Jones, 2003]. Their maximum life span is 24 months [NCDMF, 2001]. Landings of white shrimp typically drop in the year following a winter freeze on South Atlantic estuaries; freezes do not happen every year, but when they do, they take a heavy toll on overwintering juveniles [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. White shrimp are the second-most-caught shrimp in the Gulf of Mexico [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002] and second to brown shrimp in terms of total economic value [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Recent years have seen landings of about 50 million pounds/22,680 mt of tails [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]; in 1998 and 1999, catches averaged 55 million pounds/24,948 mt, and the banner harvest of 2000 was about 70 million pounds/31,752 mt [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. This means that white shrimp account for approximately 37% of total Gulf shrimp landings [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. In the Gulf, white shrimp are typically caught in nearshore waters, to a depth of 20 fathoms (120 ft/ 37m) [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002; Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. There is a small spring and summer fishery for overwintering adults, but the majority are taken from August through December [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. The pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, has a pink-to-lemon-yellow shell with a prominent spot on each side [U. Delaware Sea Grant, 2001]. Its tail-fan appendages are bluish [SC DNR, 2001]. This is the most valuable shrimp in the Gulf and South Atlantic fisheries, fetching the highest prices per pound because of its excellent flavor and relative scarcity (compared to brown and white shrimp) [Versaggi, 2003; Jones, 2003]. Until 1939, this shrimp was considered the same species as the red shrimp P. braziliensis [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. Juveniles live in low-salinity estuary water, while adults are marine [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. These shrimps can grow fairly large up to 11 inches, according to the North 9

10 Carolina Department of Marine Fisheries [NCDMF, 2001]. (FAO records report males to 26.9 cm, females to 28.0 cm in length [FAO FIGIS, 2003]). Pink shrimp are found at depths of from 2 to 70 meters, occasionally as deep as 230 meters, but most abundantly between 11 and 36 meters [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. They favor firm mud and silt bottom habitat with sand and shells [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. They are typically caught at night [Jones, 2003]. Pink shrimp account for 25% of the shrimp catch off North Carolina [NCDMF, 2001] but only a small percentage of landings in South Carolina and Georgia [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Pink shrimp are taken as incidental catch in Florida s rock shrimp fishery [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Pink shrimp spawn in the ocean April through July; juveniles are then carried into coastal estuaries by tides and wind-driven currents [NCDMF, 2001]. Juvenile pink shrimp overwinter in the estuaries, returning to the marine environment in the spring following their hatch [NCDMF, 2001]. Adults bury deeply in the mud to overwinter [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Off the South Atlantic, pink shrimp are caught primarily in spring and fall [NCDMF, 2001]. Landings of pink shrimp typically drop in the year following a winter freeze on South Atlantic estuaries; freezes do not happen every year, but when they do, they take a heavy toll on the overwintering juveniles [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Their maximum life span is 24 months [NCDMF, 2001]. In the Gulf of Mexico, pink shrimp are relatively uncommon, with their greatest densities in the Tortugas and Sanibel areas off Florida [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. In the western Gulf, pink shrimp are often caught together with brown shrimp [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Gulf landings of pink shrimp have varied recently, from 19 million pounds/8,618 mt in 1996 to just 7 million pounds/3,175 mt in 2000 [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. The more recent figures suggest that pink shrimps account for approximately 5% of total Gulf shrimp landings. In the Gulf, pink shrimp are usually caught in waters of 30 fathoms (180 ft/55m) or less [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001], with the majority of the catch coming from depths of 11 to 15 fathoms (66-90ft/20-27m) [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. The rock shrimp, distinguished by its thick stony exoskeleton [SAFMC Amendment 5, 2002], has been commercially exploited only since the 1960s [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. While related species occur worldwide, the U.S. fishery is based solely upon Sicyonia brevirostris [SAFMC Amendment 5, 2002]. U.S. landings have grown exponentially since the early 1990s [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. The growing commercial importance of rock shrimp is reflected in the fact that this species has just recently been added to shrimp management plans by the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council [SAFMC Amendment 5, 2002]; a similar Amendment (FMP Amendment 13) is pending with the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council [Amend-13 Options, 2002] and will likely become law in summer 2004 (Swingle, 2003). The meat of the rock shrimp is firm and lobster-like, but costs less than other U.S. warmwater shrimps [U. Delaware Sea Grant, 2001]. Rock shrimp are found much deeper than the brown, white and pink shrimps [SAFMC Amendment 5, 2002]. They are found from the shallows out to 330 m, and FAO reports that they favor white, shelly sand bottoms [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. An industry source reports that they favor rough, rocky bottoms that until recently limited exploitation [SimplySeafood, 2002], but the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council says they favor sandy substrate [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Because these shrimps emerge at night to feed, night fishing brings the heaviest harvests [SimplySeafood, 2002]. This shrimp constitutes a small part of the overall southeast shrimp fishery [SAFMC Amendment 5, 2002]. It has been considered incidental catch in the Gulf of Mexico shrimp fisheries targeting brown, white, pink, and royal red shrimps [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. The market for rock shrimp has been growing ever since new processing machinery---equipped to deal with the thick, hard shells---came into use in the mid-1990s 10

11 [SimplySeafood, 2002]. Rock shrimp have been an important part of the Atlantic Florida catch since the mid-1990s [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. The royal red shrimp (Hymenopenaeus robustus) is a deepwater, offshore species that has been a minor part of the Gulf shrimp fishery since the early 1990s [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001; Gulf Synopsis, 2003]. The bodies of royal red shrimp are covered with short hair [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Unlike the three main penaeid species, which are so short-lived that they provide an annual crop [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001], the royal red shrimp lives for several years, and so several yearclasses may occur on the fishing grounds at one time [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. This species is found primarily at depths of fathoms ( ft, m)[GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002] on muddy or sandy seafloor [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Trawls for this species work as deep as 100 fathoms (600 ft/183m) [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. In the Gulf of Mexico, landings of royal red shrimp have averaged about 272,000 pounds/123 mt per year since 1998 [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. This would make royal red shrimp about 0.18% of total Gulf shrimp landings. Landings of royal red shrimp have never reached the NMFS-set MSY/OY/TAC of 392,000 pounds/178 mt [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. The roughneck shrimp, Trachypenaeus constrictus, is a minor species taken occasionally in the Gulf of Mexico [Nance, 2004]. Also called the blood shrimp or sugar shrimp, this species is not yet covered in the Gulf shrimp FMP. No landings of roughneck shrimp were reported in 2002 [NMFs Stats, 2004], although landings may be heavy in certain years [Nance, 2004]. The seabob, Xiphopenaeus kroyeri, is taken as incidental catch in Gulf and Atlantic fisheries [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. NMFS does not split out seabob catches in its main statistical reporting [NMFS Stats, 2003] (although seabob landings data are available from port agents at the local level [Nance, 2004] ). The FAO data puts U.S. seabob catches in the neighborhood of 760 metric tons per year [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. More extensive fisheries for this species exist in Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Colombia. Brazil, and Venezuela [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. Seabobs are found at depths of from 1 to 70 m, but usually less than 27 m. [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. They favor bottom mud or sand. Adults can tolerate fresher water than most penaeid shrimps, and are most plentiful in areas near river estuaries [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. They are relatively small, with the total length of adult specimens 7 to 14 cm [FAO FIGIS, 2003]. 11

12 Brown Shrimp White Shrimp Pink Shrimp Rock Shrimp Royal Reds Texas Louisiana Alabama Mississippi Florida Gulf Florida Atlantic Georgia South Carolina North Carolina Total U.S. landings, 2002 (mt) [NMFS Stats, 2003] Table 2: Shrimp catch, all species, all Gulf/South Atlantic states, 2002 data from NMFS Stats, 2004 U.S. Gulf/Southeast Shrimp Landings, 2002 (mt) Royal Red Rock Shrimp Pink Shrimp White Shrimp Brown Shrimp Texas Louisiana Alabama Mississippi Florida Gulf Florida Atlantic Georgia South Carolina North Carolina Figure 2: Commercial landings, all shrimp species, all Gulf/South Atlantic states, 2002 (metric tons) data from NMFS Stats,

13 Major Gulf of Mexico/South Atlantic Shrimp Species and their Ranges Pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum Atlantic white shrimp Penaeus setiferus Atlantic rock shrimp, Sicyonia brevirostris Brown shrimp Penaeus aztecus Images and range maps courtesy U.N. FAO FIGIS database Range of Penaeus duorarum, the pink shrimp Range of Penaeus setiferus, the Atlantic white shrimp Range of Sicyonia brevirostris, the rock shrimp Range of Penaeus aztecus, the brown shrimp Images and range maps courtesy U.N. FAO FIGIS database 13

14 Minor Gulf of Mexico-South Atlantic Atlantic Shrimp Species and their Ranges The seabob, Xiphopenaeus kroyeri. Image and map courtesy FAO FIGIS database. The royal red shrimp, Hymenopenaeus robustus. Image from c/c-1/c-m003/c-045.jpg Market Statistics Confusion over common names makes "creative marketing" a constant theme in shrimp sales. For instance, the Asian white shrimp Penaeus chinensis, imported from China and Korea, sell on U.S. markets for far less than the domestic white shrimp P. setiferus. But the species are similar enough that repacking of Chinese shrimp as domestic product often goes unnoticed [Seafood Handbook,1999]. Seafood marketers advise "caveat emptor"--let the buyer beware. Import/Export Statistics The U.S. imports more seafood than it exports; for several years, this trade deficit has been driven by what seafood market analyst H.M. Johnson calls "the tidal wave of shrimp imports" [Johnson, 2001]. In 2001, imports of shrimp to the U.S. topped one billion pounds (of tails) for the second year in a row (Johnson, 2002). In 2001, the total U.S. shrimp supply was about 1.3 billion pounds (589,670 metric tons), including domestic landings of about 180 million pounds (81,646.6 metric tons) [Cutland and Cherry, 2002]. Domestic landings thus accounted for only about 13% of the U.S. shrimp market in (It is worth noting that shrimp remain the nation s most valuable domestic fishery, bringing in $460.9 million ex-vessel in That s a full 15% of all U.S. fishery income [NMFS Statistical Highlights, 2002]) 14

15 Shrimp has the unusual distinction of being the one seafood preferred equally in all regions of the United States [AquaNIC, 2001]. In 2001, for the first time in history, shrimp became the mostconsumed seafood in the United States, as per-capita consumption of shrimp surpassed consumption of canned tuna [Johnson, 2002]. In 2001, Americans ate 3.4 pounds of shrimp per capita an increase of 0.2 pounds from 2000 and 0.4 pounds from 1999 [Johnson, 2002]. When used for sushi or sashimi, warmwater shrimp are commonly sold as ebi. Figure 3 (left): Origin of U.S. shrimp supply.( Right): domestic shrimp production vs. consumption. Source: NMFS According to 2003 data, about 87% of the U.S. shrimp supply was imported. For many years [Johnson, 2002; GLOBEFISH 2003], Thailand has been the leading import source (Figure 1). In 2001, shrimp caught or farmed in Thailand accounted for 29% of the shrimp on the U.S. market [Cutland and Cherry, 2002]. Mexico, India, and Vietnam tied for second place, with 7% each [Cutland and Cherry, 2002]. China and Indonesia also make substantial contributions to U.S. shrimp imports [Johnson,2001; NMFS 2001; Globefish, 2003]. In all, Asian nations account for 66% of America's imported shrimp [Johnson, 2001; NMFS 2001]. United States Shrimp Fisheries Although just 13% of U.S. shrimp is landed domestically, the shrimp fisheries of the Gulf and South Atlantic are still among the most important U.S. fisheries. Each is the largest and most valuable fishery within its region [Gulf Amendment 10, 2002; SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Gulf of Mexico The Gulf of Mexico supplies close to 90% of U.S. shrimp landings [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Over the five years , Gulf shrimp fisheries averaged about 150 million pounds/68,040 mt per year (total harvest, heads-off) [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002] with an exvessel value of close to $300 million [NMFS Statistical Highlights, 2002] and 2001 saw even heavier landings [GoFish, 2001] up to million pounds/115,033 mt in 2001 [Burdeau, 2002]. Unfortunately for Gulf shrimp fishermen, this abundant supply corresponded with the general slump in sales of luxury goods (including shrimp) following the dot-com downturn and the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 [GoFish, 2001]. Meanwhile, a flood of inexpensive, imported shrimp much of it farm-raised in Asia has cut into the traditional markets for fresh Gulf and South Atlantic caught shrimp [Versaggi, 2003; Jones, 2003; DeSantis, 2003; Louisiana Advocate, 2003; Halbfinger, 2002]. A recent survey by the Mobile, Alabama Register newspaper found that, while locally-owned restaurants still served mostly Gulf shrimp, local outlets of national chain restaurants, including Red 15

16 Lobster and The Olive Garden, rely almost exclusively on imported shrimp [Henderson, 2003]. Price, consistent availability, and predictable quality of the product were the reasons given by chainrestaurant managers for their preference for imported shrimp over locally-caught Gulf shrimp [Henderson, 2003]. Imports of farmed shrimp rose 40% in the same year that prices for domestic shrimp fell 40% [Burdeau, 2002] also saw increased prices for boat fuel [Burdeau, 2002]. Tropical Storm Isidore and Hurricane Lili struck the Gulf just as young shrimp were beginning their seaward migration out of the estuaries; a significant portion were killed, and habitat was made treacherous for trawling by debris stirred up by the storms [Burdeau, 2002]. This combination of factors made 2002 and 2003 very hard years for U.S. shrimp fishermen. Shrimpers have increased calls for release from TED and BRD restrictions on their nets [Burdeau, 2002]. In July 2003, Louisiana shrimpers took part in a global day of protest to raise awareness of the impact of shrimp farming on fishing communities worldwide [LA Shrimp Association, 2003]. South Atlantic The South Atlantic region supplies just 10% of U.S. shrimp landings [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Annual landings in the South Atlantic region have been steady around 30 million pounds/13,608 mt per year for several decades [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Nonetheless, shrimp fisheries are the largest and most valuable commercial fishing effort in the region, worth about $60 million ex-vessel in 1994 [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Seasonal Availability: The brown shrimp Penaeus aztecus is available from U.S. fishers in the summer [NC DMF, 2001]. Atlantic white shrimp P. setiferus are harvested mainly in the fall, while pink shrimp P. duorarum are harvested in both spring and fall [NC DMF, 2001]. Louisiana s inshore shrimp fishery begins in August and ends in October (at the end of hurricane season) [GoFish, 2001]. However, in much of the Gulf, shrimping continues into the winter, with heavy landings in December [Gallaway & Cole, 1999]. 16

17 Analysis of Seafood Watch Criteria Criterion 1: Inherent Vulnerability to Fishing Pressure Life History Most shrimps are omnivorous, catching or scavenging whatever plant or animal material is readily available. The sexes are separate, and females tend to be larger than males. Scientists have only recently discovered that penaeid breeding behavior starts at the onset of darkness [LA DWF, 2000]. The breeding season tends to run April-October. Males and females clasp to copulate, then the female broadcasts fertilized eggs into the water column. All three major penaeid shrimp are extremely prolific, releasing between 500,000 and 1 million eggs per spawning [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Laboratory investigation revealed that female white shrimp P. setiferus averaged 217,000 eggs per spawn, and spawned every three days [Bray and Lawrence, 1984, as cited in LA DWF, 2000]. The eggs drift with the plankton and may settle to the seafloor. Eggs hatch within 24 hours [NC DMF, 2001]. Newly-hatched shrimp larvae bear little resemblance to their elders; in the three penaeids treated here, larvae must undergo 11 molts to attain final form as a juvenile shrimp [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. The tiny shrimp larvae drift with the plankton, where they are important food for many fishes and invertebrates [Chase & Abbott, 1980]. Postlarvae seek sheltered estuaries in which to grow to adulthood [LA DWF, 2000], making estuarine habitat very important to penaeid species. The annual abundance of penaeid shrimps is closely tied to natural factors (such as average temperature, amount of rainfall, and the number and intensity of storms) which affect the survival and recruitment of larvae [CSC, 1996; SC DNR, 2001]. Young penaeids are sensitive to changes in water salinity. Upland development and loss of wetlands increase the amount of fresh water entering nursery estuaries and can decrease juvenile survival [CSC, 1996]. The brown, white and pink shrimps are short-lived species, completing their life cycle in months [LA DWF, 2000; NC DWF, 2001]. They reach sexual maturity in perhaps 6 to 12 months. NMFS notes that these species are so short-lived that they provide an annual crop [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001; SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. This diagram of brown shrimp (P. aztecus) life history is typical of the Gulf and South Atlantic penaeid shrimp species [SC DNR, 2001]. It takes between 10 days and three weeks for penaeid shrimps to complete the transformation from new-hatched nauplius to postlarva [NC DMF, 2001]. Life history of the brown shrimp, Penaeus aztecus. Image after Benfield and Downer,

18 Unlike the penaeids, the royal red shrimp Hymenopenaeus robustus lives for several years, and so several year-classes may occur on the fishing grounds at one time [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Primary Factors to evaluate Inherent Vulnerability Age at 50% sexual maturity: Low (about 6-12 months) Maximum age: Low (18-24 months) Is maximum age validated? Yes Reproductive potential (fecundity): High--extremely prolific broadcast spawners, releasing 213,000-1 million eggs per spawn, and spawning every three days. Species range: Limited. All species treated here exist in one ocean basin. Evidence of special behaviors that increase ease, or population consequences, of capture: No Evidence of high population variability driven by physical environmental change: Yes, larval survival and population abundance are heavily influenced by environmental conditions. Synthesis of Life-History Factors: The life history of peneid shrimps makes them inherently resilient to fishing pressure. They are quick to mature and extremely prolific. Inherent Vulnerability Rank: Resilient Criterion 2: Status of Wild Stocks Because of their incredible fecundity, penaeid shrimps are considered difficult to overfish [FAO, 2000]. While most stocks show no clear signs of overfishing, the U.N. FAO believes most Gulf and Atlantic populations are currently exploited at or near their maximum sustainable yield [FAO, 2000]. According to Amendment 6 of the South Atlantic Shrimp FMP, three of the four major shrimp species (brown, white, and rock) are currently not considered overfished and are not undergoing overfishing (NMFS 2007). Pink is not undergoing overfishing but is considered to be overfished (NMFS 2007). However, pink shrimp from the South Atlantic makes up a very small percentage of U.S. shrimp landings. The South Atlantic Fishery Management Council considers MSY not a particularly useful management concept for annual species like the brown, white and pink penaeid shrimps, whose abundance so depends on environmental conditions [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. South Atlantic landings of these species have been steady for 30 to 40 years, despite vast increases in fishing effort and capacity, suggesting to the SAFMC that South Atlantic shrimp stocks have been exploited at a sustainable maximum yield for decades [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. The SAFMC has the 40-year record of landings, but the associated effort data are lacking and considered not adequate to calculate MSY [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Therefore, for management purposes, the SAFMC 18

19 defines MSY as mean total landings for the Southeast region [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. These figures are fixed as follows (from SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993): Shrimp Species Brown shrimp White Shrimp Pink Shrimp Rock Shrimp South Atlantic MSY Definition 9.2 million pounds/ 2 year 14.5 million pounds/year 1.8 million pounds/year 6,829,449 pounds/year The South Atlantic Fishery Management Council notes, it appears that additional effort will not result in increased catch, suggesting that the resource has been fully exploited for many years [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. According to the latest Gulf of Mexico Shrimp FMP, brown, pink and white shrimp are not overfished with no overfishing occurring [NMFS Report to Congress, 2002; GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. The Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council has established an overfished level for each of the three main penaeid species (brown, white, and pink shrimps). These overfished definitions are based upon abundance of a parent stock, or stock of breeding adults, the year before fishing takes place [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002; Amend-13 Options, 2002]. These Gulf definitions for overfished status are as follows (from GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002): Shrimp Species Brown shrimp White Shrimp Pink Shrimp Gulf Overfished Definition less than 125 million individuals aged 7+ months during the period November-February less than 330 million individuals aged 7+ months during the period May-August less than 100 million individuals aged 5+ months during the year July-June It has been determined that these stocks can successfully recover from having been fished down to a parental biomass of these levels [Amend-13 Options, 2002]. In fact, the Gulf council finds reason to believe that stocks could recover quickly from being fished to levels below these overfished definitions [Amend-13 Options, 2002]. Therefore, the above definitions for overfishing are currently under review by the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council, and may be changed. Definitions of optimal yield for these three penaeids are also under development [Amend-13 Options, 2002]. Nonetheless, NMFS has monitored parent stock levels for all 3 main penaeid species since 1970 [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. In all that time, the parent stock levels have remained above the level needed to produce MSY [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. In the Gulf, royal red shrimp are considered to not have overfishing occurring (fishing effort is not above threshold), but this species does not yet have a minimum biomass threshold defined, so whether it is overfished or approaching overfished remains officially unknown [NMFS Report to Congress, 2002]. However, the GMFMC has set an MSY/OY/TAC yield level of 392,000 pounds/178 mt per year [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. Landings of Gulf royal red shrimp have remained well below this level throughout the history of this fishery [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002] and so the Gulf council considers royal red shrimp not overfished [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. 2 The FMP, like all SAFMC and GMFMC documents, refers to shrimp in pounds. They do not use metric measures. All metric equivalents given in this document were inserted by the research analyst to conform to Seafood Watch standards. 19

20 In light of the above information, as regards brown, white, pink and royal red shrimps,...the shrimp stocks of the Gulf of Mexico are not considered to be overfished or to have overfishing occurring [GMFMC Amendment 10, 2002]. Below are three FAO graphs of total catch of the four major Gulf/South Atlantic shrimp species. Since the ranges of these species is almost entirely within the U.S. EEZ (please see Range graphs in the introduction), the United States is and has been the major fisher for each of these species [FAO FIGIS, 2003], and so these graphs reflect United States fishing effort to a large extent. All graphs from UN FAO FIGIS database. Estimating total fishing effort in U.S. shrimp fisheries is difficult. The exact number of vessels taking part in Gulf and Atlantic shrimp fisheries is not known to management authorities: there is currently no federal licensing requirement for the South Atlantic region; state licensing regulations vary; and, because shrimpers follow the shrimp across state water boundaries, many shrimp vessels are licensed in several states simultaneously [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. The GMFMC estimates the Gulf shrimp fleet at between 3,500 and 4,500 vessels [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001] and the SAFMC estimates the South Atlantic fleet at 1,400 large vessels and 1,000 small boats [SAFMC Shrimp Stock Assessment, 1999]. Although federal permits have been required for Gulf shrimpers since December, 2003, and about 2,500 Gulf permits have been issued since that time [Barnette, 2004], many vessels move in and out of the shrimp fishery opportunistically, fishing for other species when shrimp prices are down or fuel prices are too high [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. Because exact vessel numbers are not known, NMFS cannot calculate fishing effort as directly as in other fisheries. Currently, NMFS calculates shrimping effort by interviewing a representative sample of vessel captains to determine the number of hours spent fishing [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. The GMFMC notes that these NMFS effort estimates have been controversial and not well understood, because the effort reported does not necessarily reflect the number of active vessels in the fleet [Gulf Amendment 11, 2001]. 20

21 In both the South Atlantic and the Gulf, managers note that the annual abundance of shrimps seem to be most influenced, not by fishing effort, but by environmental conditions in the late winter and early spring [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Years with warm winters enable greater larval survival and abundant landings the next season; years with winter freezes or severe storms result in lower populations and landings. However, the SAFMC notes that because of high fecundity and migratory behavior, all three species are capable of rebounding from a very low population size in one year to a very large population size in the next, providing environmental conditions are favorable [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Primary Factors to evaluate Status of Stocks Classification status: low conservation concern Current population abundance relative to BMSY: BMSY is undefined, in the classic sense, but managers have no concerns about abundance Long term (greater than 10 years) trend in population abundance as measured by fishery independent means (i.e. stock assessment): managers have no concerns about abundance Short term (less than 5 10 years) trend in population abundance as measured by fishery independent means (i.e. stock assessment): managers have no concerns about abundance Long term (greater than 10 years) trend in population abundance as estimated from catch per unit effort (CPUE): CPUE is undefined, in the classic sense, as precise effort data are lacking, but managers note catches have been steady for 40 years despite increases in fishing effort and capacity. Low conservation concern. Short term (less than 5 10 years) trend in population abundance as estimated from catch per unit effort (CPUE): CPUE is undefined, in the classic sense, as precise effort data are lacking, but managers note catches have been steady for 40 years despite increases in fishing effort and capacity. Low conservation concern. Occurrence of overfishing: Overfishing not occurring, Current age, size or sex distribution of the stock relative to natural condition: Distributions are functionally normal. Overall degree of uncertainty in status of stock: Low. Current stock assessment and other fishery independent data are robust and reliable long-term fishery dependent data are available. Synthesis of Status of Stock Factors: While most of the shrimp stocks in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic show no clear signs of overfishing, the U.N. FAO believes most Gulf and South Atlantic populations are currently exploited at or near their maximum sustainable yield [FAO, 2000]. However, due to their short life span and high fecundity, fisheries scientists believe that the quantity of shrimp landed by human fishing has little or no impact on shrimp stocks. Environmental conditions (i.e., severe winters) are believed to 21

22 have a greater effect on shrimp stocks than fishing effort. The high fecundity and migratory behavior of the penaeid shrimps enables them to recover quickly from adverse conditions [SAFMC Shrimp FMP, 1993]. Although B MSY and catch per unit effort are underfined for shrimp stocks, managers have no concerns regarding shrimp abundance. Seafood Watch s conservation concern for the status of Gulf and South Atlantic shrimp stocks ranks low. Status of Stocks Rank: Healthy Criterion 3: Nature and Extent of Bycatch Bycatch, the unintentional take of non-targeted fishes and invertebrates, is a major concern in shrimp fisheries. The trawl method has great potential for unselective fishing. The UN FAO estimates that 35% of the world's incidental catch occurs in shrimp trawl fisheries [Alverson et al. 1994; Steiner 1996]--about 10 million metric tons per year. Since the world s shrimp fisheries produce only about 2% of global seafood [Alverson et al. 1994; Alverson, 1998; EJF, 2003], responsibility for more than 30% of world bycatch rests heavily indeed. In fact, in many developing nations, the small fish, crabs, and other species caught along with shrimp are landed and utilized for human or animal food, and cannot be considered bycatch [Hall, Alverson & Metuzals, 2000; EJF, 2003; Jones, 2003; Barnette, 2004]. However, in U.S. fisheries, the non-shrimp catch of shrimp trawls is tossed overboard [NMFS, 1998; Jones, 2003]. Having been trawled up, dumped on deck, stepped on, sorted through, and left in the sun while the shrimp are collected, by the time these animals are thrown overboard, most are dead or dying [NMFS 1998]. Left: Penaeid shrimps mix with fish bycatch in Gulf of Mexico trawl fisheries. Photo courtesy University of Louisiana. Below: A sea turtle, taken in a non-u.s. shrimp trawl net. Photo courtesy Sea Turtle Restoration Project. Sea Turtle Bycatch Perhaps the issue of greatest concern in warmwater shrimp fisheries is the accidental take of sea turtles in shrimp trawl nets [Buck, 1997]. Take, as used here and in management literature, refers to any interaction of turtles with fishing gear, whether the turtle was killed or not; take events range from minor and survivable entanglements to death by drowning. In 1996, 22

23 conservation biologists estimated that 50,000 turtles were caught in U.S. waters; 60,000 were caught in Central American shrimp fisheries [Steiner, 1996]. These numbers may have improved recently; take in Central American shrimp fisheries can be estimated at around 40,000 turtles per year [Steiner, 2004]. These are only the fisheries with the best observer coverage; the same groups estimated that several hundred thousand turtles were taken each year in the shrimp fisheries of Asia, South America, Mexico and Africa [Steiner, 1996]. Already under threat because of development of their nesting habitat, species such as the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii), and green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) are considered endangered species under both U.S. law [U.S. Endangered Species Act, 1973] and international convention [CITES, 1975]. The loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) is considered threatened under U.S. law [U.S. Endangered Species Act, 1973]. Distribution of two endangered sea turtles, with emphasis on U.S. South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. There is a technological solution that can reduce the take of sea turtles in shrimp nets: a trap-door grate, called a turtle-excluder device (TED), which allows turtles to push free of the net. Shrimp, meanwhile, pass through the slots in the grate and collect at the back of the net. Studies by the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) show that 97% of turtles caught in TED nets can escape [NMFS STATS, 2004]. Meanwhile, the shrimp take is reduced--by as much as 30%, some fishermen claim, although federal government tests indicated an average of 10% [Buck, 1997]. Some U.S. fishermen were behind the idea of TEDs from the beginning--the earliest TEDs were designed by fishermen to keep unwanted catch out of their nets. Many were concerned with "jelly balls"-- aggregations of jellyfish and the fact that the grates released sea turtles was an additional benefit [Duncan, 2003]. Nonetheless, other fishermen resisted the idea of putting an escape hatch on their nets [Buck, 1997], and it took legal action under the Endangered Species Act to compel NMFS to require TEDs on all U.S. shrimpers operating in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic [Crouse, 1996; Steiner, 1996]. Since 1990, all U.S. warm-water shrimpers have been required to use TEDs [Steiner, 1996]. This federal mandate included all U.S. shrimp trawlers longer than 25 feet working offshore or onshore waters of the Gulf and South Atlantic region [Buck, 1997]. All such vessels were to include TEDs in their nets; these could be of hard (metal-frame) or soft (rope frame) design, and could open either at the top or the bottom of the net [Buck, 1997]. In 1992, as a result of lobbying by U.S. shrimp fishermen and environmentalists [Buck, 1997], the TED provision was extended to foreign fleets: all trawl-caught shrimp sold in the United States was to be from fleets that required TEDs [Steiner, 1996]. Currently, U.S. law allows blanket certification from 19 nations that are pledged to use TEDs in their trawl shrimp fisheries. These include: Belize, Columbia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Indonesia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Suriname, Thailand, Trinidad/Tobago, and Venezuela [State Department, 2001]. A further 25 nations, plus Hong Kong, are considered to be turtle-safe importers of shrimp, either because they use methods other than trawl to capture the shrimp or because they trawl only in cold waters, where turtles are rarely encountered [State Department, 2001]. 23

24 Diagram of a TED in action. Illustration Bonnie Branner, courtesy NASA SeaWIFS. In the spring and summer of 1994, large numbers of dead sea turtles washed up on beaches in Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas [Buck, 1997]. This disaster prompted new investigations by NMFS and extensive consultations with shrimpers [Buck, 1997]. In November 1994, NMFS issued a Biological Opinion concluding that, despite the existing TED regulations, continued operation of the U.S. shrimp trawl fisheries was likely to jeopardize the existence of the endangered Kemp s ridley turtle [Buck, 1997]. NMFS issued an emergency response plan in 1995, which was finally implemented in 1996 [Buck, 1997]. This plan directed that soft TEDs and bottom-opening TEDs were not to be used in certain areas where turtles are most prevalent; i.e., within 12 miles of shore along the coasts of Texas and western Louisiana [Buck, 1997]. Only hard TEDs opening to the top of the net would meet the new requirements. The new TED regulations appear to be working: in 2001, biologists estimated that the take of sea turtles in shrimp trawl nets had been reduced to perhaps 150,000 per year [AIDA, 2001], including 62,000 loggerheads and 2,300 leatherbacks [Federal Register, 2003]. While take means both lethal and non-lethal interactions, this level of take is, unfortunately, still a huge threat to endangered turtle populations. Worse, in 1996, four Asian nations (Malaysia, India, Pakistan and Thailand) filed a complaint before the World Trade Organization, alleging that the U.S. law created an unfair trade barrier [AIDA, 2001; Evans, 2001]. The issue has been in and out of court ever since [Buck, 1997; Lazaroff, 2001]. The United States now follows a system wherein shrimp from nations that require TEDs are blanket-certified, while shipments from nations that do not require TEDs are certified on a shipment-by-shipment basis [AIDA, 2001; Lazaroff, 2001]. This compromise is criticized by environmentalists, who argue that, in many nations, enforcement of TED laws is lacking and that the law has failed to stop the deaths of rare turtles [AIDA, 2001]. There are reports from conservation workers that, in many Central American nations, shrimp-boat inspections for TED use are announced days in advance to the boat captains. Conservation workers report that an inspection often consists of the government officers pulling up to the shrimp boat, receiving a bag of fresh shrimp, and going on their way [Steiner, 2002]. According to Steiner, 2004, cheating (on TED laws) is universal in Central American shrimp fisheries, and enforcement is suspect in Asian and Indian shrimp trawl fisheries as well [Steiner, 2004]. Meanwhile, U.S. shrimp fishermen believe they are suffering the economic consequences of being held to a higher ecological standard than fishermen in other nations [Buck, 1997; Halbfinger, 2003]. NMFS firmly credits TEDs with a documented population increase in the Kemp s ridley turtle in the U.S. EEZ [Federal Register, 2003]. Once the most critically-endangered sea turtle in U.S. waters, the 24