Tortoises have always fascinated man since time immemorial. Tortoises have been also

Transcription

1 Tortoises have always fascinated man since time immemorial. Tortoises have been also associated with religion. These have also inspired natural history scientists. These scientists have attempted to reveal facts and mysteries about tortoises in various ways and from points of concern. As such, vast literature is available on tortoises about their taxonomy, anatomy, distribution, physiology, evolutionary history and above all their natural history. In the following account information on their overall aspects is being enunciated in a brief and in a chronological manner. Attempt has been made to take stock of research work in the last years only. Anderson and Minton (1963) reported star tortoise from Nagar Parkar, Thar Desert of Pakistan as most western limit of the species, after which there was no subsequent information regarding the species. Kar and Bhaskar (1982) reported five species of marine turtles from Indian waters: the leatherback Dermochelys coriacea, hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata, loggerhead Caretta caretta, green Chelonia mydas and olive ridley turtle Lepidochelys olivacea. Rajagopalan 1983) studied Leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea washed ashore at Kovalam, Madras and reported that out of the five species of sea turtles occurring in the Indian seas, the leatherback turtle Dermochelys conacea (Linnaeus) popularly known as 'Eluvarai amai' or 'Dhoni amai' is rare. The washing ashore of the carcass of a female D. coriacea, 35 km south of Madras near Kovalam fishing village is recorded here. This species is said to nest three to four times in a year but the peak intensity is during May and June. The eggs vary from 50 to 55 mm in diameter and weigh from 70 to 80 gm. The period of incubation is from 50 to 70 days. The carapace 16

2 length of hatchlings varies from 80 to 85 mm and weighs about 32.5 to 33.5 gm. The species is predominantly pelagic and highly migratory and found usually in the open sea. Rajagopalan and Dan (1983) studied fresh water turtles of India and reported that the hardshell and softshell freshwater turtles from Indian Coast are a much neglected group. Except for taxonomic studies and a few stray observations on their life history practically nothing is known of our freshwater turtles. While we eagerly look forward to their report, we take an opportunity to record some observation made in West Bengal on freshwater turtle trade.the sign boards displayed by the West Bengal Forest Department prohibiting sale of turtles and turtle products mentions the protection of marine species only. There is an urgent need for a critical appraisal of the population structure and habitat of the species of freshwater turtles to see whether any species needing protection have been left out. CMFRI(1983) reported atleast 30 species of the fresh water turtles and tortoises occurring in India and of these Indian softshelled turtle Lissemiis punctata punctata, Indian tent turtle Kachuga tecta tecta, Peacock marked soft-shellled turtle Trioni^x hurnum and three Keeled turtle Geoemyda tricarinata find a place in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act Das, I. (1985) recorded observations on the trade of olive ridley turtle in the turtle markets of the west Bengal and reported the most of the turtles were reportedly caught of the coast of Orissa and transported by trucks to Howrah and the turtles were sold to retailers for Rs.60/-(US.$ 5.00) each. Vyas (1988) studied distribution of the Ganges Softshell Turtles (Trionyx gangeticus: Cuvier) in Gujarat and reported that this species is found in many rivers of Gujarat but there is likely-hood of Ganges Softshell Turtles dying out due to the pollution and excessive killing by Man. The 17

3 inhabitants of Vadodara city testify to plenty of turtles in River Viswamitri, but these are now reduced to a limited number due to heavy industrial and sewage pollution. Ernst et al.(1994)studied the bog turtle (Clemmys muhlenbergii) and reported that it is a small semi-aquatic species occurring in disjunct populations ranging from New York to northeastern Georgia It is found primarily in wet-sedge meadows, spring-fed wetlands characterized by soft mud bottoms and shallow water channeled into rivulets by tussock sedges and other emergent vegetation. Habitat alteration and illegal collection are the primary reasons for its decline. The species is given Appendix I status by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), threatened status by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), and is also protected by state laws throughout its range. Lau et al. (1995) described the situation in China. In the late 1970s the hard-shelled chelonian trade was dominated by Chinese species. Now there are more Southeast Asian species for sale than Chinese ones. The import of food chelonians from outside countries has increased more than tenfold since This reflects an increase in demand in Southern China and the depletion of Chinese chelonians in the wild. Martin & Phipps (1996) reported that most turtles exported from Cambodia are destined for Vietnam, at leastat first. Turtles have by far the largest turnover by weight among wildlife on sale in Neak Lung: In West Neak Lung approx. 9.5 tons were sold in 1993, while in East Neak Lung about 3.6 tons were sold in

4 Rajagopalan (1997) studied present status of sea turtles and their conservation in India and reported that five species of sea turtle inhabit the Indian water for feeding and breeding purposes. They are the olive ridley, the green turtle, loggerhead turtle, the hawksbill and the leatherback. All the five species are highly migratory and visits parts of our coast and bay islands for nesting during specific months. Vyas and Patel (1992) studied the reproductive behavior of Indian softshell turtle Aspideretes gangeticus and observed that during the months of April and May, territorial behavior was exhibited by the large male. This dominant male charged and bit the neck, limbs and posterior part of carapace flap of the other smaller turtle. Subsequently, the smaller male left the main pond and hid nearby in a small muddy puddle. When the territorial male found a receptive female, he approached and blocked her path. Mounting is accomplished by grassing the female with its claws hooked over the fore limb of the female. After mounting, both turtles float, singly nor simultaneously protruding their heads to breathe. The male alone squirts water through the nostrils. After, female laid first egg; other eggs were laid at intervals of seconds. The eggs were spherical and brittle hard-shelled with average dimensions 30.8x30.8 mm and 10.5 gm weight. Lehr (1997) reported that only about 10% of the turtles at Vietnamese markets are consumed by the domestic demand. The remaining 90% are to be exported to China and Hong Kong. Lau et al. (1998) described a dramatic trend in the import of food chelonians imported in the past few years: In 1977, 139,200 kg of food chelonians was imported to Hong Kong. In 1991, 19

5 110,574 kg of food chelonians was imported and rose to 680,582 kg in In the first ten months of 1994, a record high of 1,800,024 kg of animals was imported. Behler (1997) studied the trade to and in Southern Asian - especially Chinese and reported that food markets have become the main threat to the survival of Southeast Asian turtles. While tortoises and freshwater turtles have been subjected to human predation for centuries, recent changes in Asian economics, spawned when Chinese currency became convertible, have opened direct access to foreign markets. Vyas (1997) studied growth and maturity of the Indian Star Tortoise (Geochelone elegans) and reported that Indian Star Tortoise attains maturity at the age of 6-7 years. Two hatchlings of Indian Star Tortoise were size wise slightly different because both of them were born in the last bleeding season of July 1988 within a difference of one week from the same clutch. Salzberg (1998) estimates the number of markets to be a lot higher and therefore calculates that more than 12 million turtles are sold each year in China alone. Almost all animals are wildcaught. Facing the low reproduction rate of most species there is no doubt that this exploitation is not sustainable and that within a few years many of the affected species will be extinct from the wild. The situation continues to worsen with the increasing demand from growing human populations and affluence especially in China. Vyas and Parasharya (2000) studied distribution and status of the star tortoise (Geochelone elegans) in Gujarat and collected live tortoises (29 female; 3males; 1 sub adult and 2 hatchlings) from 30 localities in 15 districts of the Gujarat state. 20

6 Rhodin (2000) reported that Turtles are in terrible trouble. Throughout the world they are threatened by a plethora of problems to which they are succumbing. Their habitats are being increasingly fragmented, destroyed, developed, and polluted. They are being collected, butchered, eaten, traded, sold, and exploited in overwhelming numbers. They are used for food, pets, traditional medicine - eggs, juveniles, adults, body parts, all are utilized indiscriminately, with no regard for sustainability. Populations nearly everywhere are shrinking. Species everywhere are threatened and vulnerable, many are critically endangered, others teeter on the very edge of extinction, and some have already been lost forever. Varghese and Tonapi (2003) reported that Five species of freshwater turtles, Trionyx leithii (Gray), Trionyx hurum (Gray), Lissemys punctata granosa (Schoepff), Melanochelys (= Geomyda) trijuga (Schweigger) and Kachuga tectum tenoria (Gray), were offered a variety of food materials to investigate their feeding habits. It has been observed that freshwater turtles belong to three distinct categories, viz. carnivorous (T. leithii and T. hurum), omnivorous (L. p. granosa and M. trijuga) and phytophagous (K. t. tentoria). While the first two categories were given abundantly available animal forms, the last was offered common freshwater weeds. The results show that some turtle species would be useful for the control of molluscs and oligochaete populations. The freshwater turtle K. t. tentoria, by its vigorous feeding activities, should be able to restrain the proliferation of the water hyacinth which blocks many water channels. Tripathi et al. (2003) reported that Olive ridley turtles Lepidochelys olivacea along the east and west coasts of India, with major mass nesting beaches in the state of Orissa. The coast of the Andhra Pradesh, the state immediately south of Orissa, has sporadic nesting of olive ridley turtles and is believed to form part of the migratory route of the turtles that nest in Orissa. A 21

7 survey of nesting beaches and offshore waters of the Andhra Pradesh coast was carried out from November 2000 to April Preliminary interviews and secondary data were used to determine potential nesting beaches. Aggarwal et al. (2004) observed that Olive ridley turtles, although widely distributed globally and in Indian coastal waters, have undergone declines in recent years due to anthropogenic factors, particularly fishery related mortality. Assessment of genetic variability in existing populations is critical to the development of effective conservation strategies. Here we describe the development of six highly polymorphic microsatellite loci from a simple sequence repeatenriched genomic DNA library of olive ridley turtle. Characterization of five of these loci using 83 individual olive ridley turtles revealed eight to 24 alleles per locus, high observed and expected heterozygosity values and broad cross-species amplifications. The sixth microsatellite was found to be monomorphic in the olive ridley samples but was polymorphic in two related marine turtle species. These microsatellites thus provide efficient genetic markers to understand the population structure, phylogeography and species relationships of olive ridley and other marine turtle species. Shepherd et al. (2004) demand driven: The trades of Indian star Tortoises geochelone elegans in peninsular Malaysia and reported that Indian Star Tortoises were mainly found in aquarium retail shops and also in a variety pet and bird stores. Twenty-four of 31 shops (77.4%) surveyed admitted to selling Indian Star Tortoises, although only 17 of the 31 (54.8%) shops had had tortoises in stock on the day of visitation. A total of 173 individual Indian Star Tortoises were observed in this survey. Small-sized tortoises accounted for the majority of specimens (54.9%), with the minority being large tortoises (17.3%). Each store on average had 10 tortoises available for sale, but both the range of size-classes and prices varied considerably between stores. Small 22

8 tortoises sold for between MYR 65 (USD 17.10) and MYR 198 (USD 52.10), while a large tortoise retailed for a minimum of MYR 188 (USD 49.50) with the largest specimen seen priced at MYR 1000 (USD ) (CL approximately 20 cm). Biju Kumar (2004) studied Leith s Softshell Turtle Aspideretes leithi and Asian Giant Softshell Turtle Pelochelys cantorii in Bharathapuzha river Kerala and reported three specimens of Aspideretes leithi from Koottilakkadavu, Koodalloor region. All The species were adults measuring 24.4, 30.6 and 38.5 cm respectively in length, and 16.2, 20.4 and 29.0 respectively in width. Vyas and Singh (2004) reported the species from Madhya Pradesh near the Gandhi-Sagar reservoir at Mandsapur District. This habitat is comprised of scrub vegetation. It is the only remaining habitats for the species because such habitats were submerged during the construction of the dam. The area occupied by the star tortoise outside PAs is majority of the area where the north western population is distributed. Rasal; et al. studied Indian Turtles, Its status and Conservation and reported four Types of Indian Turtles viz.olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate) and Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea),eastern Mud turtle (Kinosternun subrubum subrubum Shanker et al. (2004) reported that is one of the three mass nesting sites in the world for olive ridley turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea). This population is currently under threat as a resultof fishery-related mortality; more than olive ridleys have been counted dead in thelast 10 23

9 years in Orissa. In general, the globally distributed olive ridley turtle has receivedsignificantly less conservation attention than its congener, the Kemp s ridley turtle (L. kempi), because the latter is recognized as a distinct species consisting of a single endangered population. Murgan studied Conservation efforts of sea turtles in India: Socio-economics and the need for a comprehensive action plan and opined that among the five species of sea turtles (olive ridley, green, hawksbill, leatherback and loggerhead), all species other than loggerhead nest along the Indian coast. India has many unique sea turtle populations. Olive ridleys are more abundant and unique for mass nesting along the Orissa coast. Shanker and Kutty (2005) reported that sea turtles are worshipped in many parts of India. In recent times, they have also become flagships for conservation, with champions amongst wildlife conservationists as well as local communities. Sea turtle conservation in India by the state and non-governmental organizations is about thirty years old. Vyas(2006) studied Indian Star Tortoise (Geochelone elegans) status in the protected areas of Gujarat and in Indian zoos and reported that Indian star tortoises is under severe pressure due to threats to habitat, population and from national and international threats. The species is assessed as vulnerable in both India and Srilanka. Akbar et al. (2006) reported a total of 3528 specimens of freshwater turtles belonging to two families viz., Geoemydidae (Brown River Turtle, Kachuga smithi; Indian Saw-backed turtle, K. tecta; Brahminy Rrive Turtle, Hardella thurgi; Spotted Pond Turtle, Geoclemys hamiltonii) and Trionychidae (Indian Soft-shell Turtle, Aspederates gangeticus; Peacock Soft-shell Turtle, 24

10 A.hurum; Narrow-headed Soft-shell Turtle, Chitra indica; Indian Flap-shell Turtle, Lissemys punciata) were identified. Kachuga smithi (43.62%) and K.tecta (42.06%) had abundant population status, whereas, Hardella thurgi (0.88%) and Chitra indica (0.54%) were rare. Capturing of turtles for supply to foreigners and export is a major threat to these animals. Fishermen also kill them during fishing. Alacs et al. (2007) studied Genetic Issues in Freshwater Turtle and Tortoise Conservation and reported that Freshwater and terrestrial turtles are among the most imperiled biota on the planet, with nearly half of all extant taxa threatened with extinction. Active science-based management is required for the persistence of many species. Evolutionary genetic principles are often overlooked in the development of conservation and management plans, yet genetic data and theory can be critical to program success. Conservation biologists are encouraged to consider using genetic data and concepts when developing conservation strategies for turtles. Nijman and Shepherd (2007) studied Trade in non-native, CITES-listed, wildlife in Asia, as exemplified by the trade in freshwater turtles and tortoises (Chelonidae) in Thailand and reported a total of 688 individuals of 19 species from different regions of the world, many of which are globally threatened with extinction. Most commonly recorded were three species of tortoise from Madagascar and Africa, i.e. Radiated Tortoise Geochelone radiata, Spurred Tortoise G. sulcata and Leopard Tortoise G. pardalis. Five species were listed on CITES Appendix I, precluding all international trade, and an additional six Appendix II or III-listed species that can be traded albeit regulated, were not registered as being imported into Thailand in the last six year. CITES I-listed 25

11 species were not more expensive than CITES II or III listed species, nor was there a relationship between retail price and numbers of turtles observed. Shepherd and Vincent Nijman (2008) studied Pet Freshwater Turtle and Tortoise Trade in Chatuchak Market, Bangkok, Thailand and observed a total of 786 specimens in retail outlets, representing 27 species, 25 of which are not native to Thailand. A total of 285 specimens of five species listed in Appendix I of CITES were observed. The fact that these species were openly available in the market, and that the dealers openly stated that the specimens were smuggled into Thailand, and are regularly smuggled out, highlights a severe challenge to effective enforcement under existing Thai law. Dealers were observed describing to potential buyers techniques used to smuggle non-native animals in and out of Thailand in step-by-step detail. Furthermore, dealers in the Chatuchak Market carried out the trade in illegally-sourced species openly and with little regard for any regulation, which highlights gaps in market monitoring and enforcement by Thai authorities. The main inhibiting factor impeding enforcement of CITES, is the loopholes in the current national legislation, and until these are amended, Thailand will continue to be a hub for smuggling of CITES-listed species. Hossain et al. (2008) studied Seasonal Variation in Feeding Behaviour of Indian Roofed Turtle, Pangshura tectum in Bangladesh and observed the food contents and feeding behaviour of Indian roofed turtle, Pangshura tectum, in Bangladesh between January 1997 and December The species was found to be omnivore, fed on plants, dead fishes, insects and fecal matters. In nature, the food consumption of the turtle was 3.32% of the body weight per day that was the highest in summer (4.6%) and lowest in winter (1.7%). In captivity, 26

12 the consumption was 5.8% of the body weight per day and it was highest in rainy season (7.5%) and lowest in winter (3.8%). The feeding frequency was higher in captivity than in nature. Indraneil Das (2008) reported that The Asian giant softshell turtle, Pelochelys cantorii (Family Trionychidae), is a large freshwater species which can reach cm in total carapace length. It occurs in a variety of habitats, including lakes, rivers, estuaries, seacoasts, and occasionally in coastal marine waters. The species is widespread, occurring from peninsular India to China and Southeast Asia. The taxonomy of the genus Pelochelys has recently been revised, and P. bibroni is now considered to be restricted to southern New Guinea, P. signifera in northern New Guinea, and P. cantorii is now the valid name for the species known from the rest of the range of the genus. However, further study may identify other species within this enormous territory, especially from the Philippines. Aquatic organisms are consumed, including fish, crustaceans and molluscs, in addition to plant matter. Clutch size is 24 to 70 eggs. Nesting sites include riverbanks as well as seacoasts. Exploitation of its flesh for food, suspected killing by anglers and fishermen after getting entangled in fishing gear, and destruction of riverine and coastal habitats are factors in its depletion. Indraneil Das and Shailendra Singh (2009) studied Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises and reported that the narrow-headed softshell turtle, Chitra indica (Family Trionychidae), is an extremely large (total carapace length at least 110 cm), highly aquatic species. It is widely distributed on the Indian subcontinent. Fish, frog, crustaceans, and mollusks have been recorded as food, the species exhibiting a highly specialized morphology for ambushfeeding. A large clutch, comprising eggs, 26.8 mm in mean diameter and 10.4 g in mean mass, is laid at the height of the monsoons in central India, while nesting in northern India, 27

13 Bangladesh, and Nepal takes place during the low water season. Population sizes are unknown, but the species appears to be threatened by human exploitation and modifications of its riverine habitat. The current IUCN Red List (2009) includes evaluations for 212 turtle species. Of these, 7 are Extinct (EX), 1 Extinct in the Wild (EW), 30 Critically Endangered (CR), 42 Endangered (EN), 59 Vulnerable (VU), 43 Near Threatened (NT) or Conservation Dependent (LR/cd; an old category being phased out), 19 Least Concern (LC), and 11 DataDeficient (DD). By IUCN protocol, threatened species are defined as those in the three categories CR, EN, and VU, meaning 131 species are threatened, representing 61.8% of the 212 species listed as evaluated Krishnakumar et al. (2009) reported that Soft shell turtles are among the most threatened groups of freshwater animals that are in need of urgent conservation attention. In Kerala (South India), two species of freshwater turtles, the Indian black turtle or Indian pond terrapin, Melanochelys trijuga coronata (Schweigger, 1812) and the Indian Flap-shelled turtle Lissemys punctata punctata (Lacépède, 1788) are exploited from Vembanad lake and associated wetlands in Punnamada to meet the demand from local restaurants and toddy shops. Eight hundred and forty three individuals belonging to the two species (499 pond terrapins and 344 flap-shelled turtle) were observed during a field survey conducted in 2007 at Punnamada. Despite being listed at the highest level in the Indian wildlife protection act, very little law enforcement takes place and turtles are exploited and traded regularly. Baharuddin and Sah studied the conservation status of the freshwater turtle (batagur raska) in the perak river, west Malaysia and reported that The river terrapin Batagur baska is a freshwater 28

14 turtle which is widely distributed and inhabits South and South Eastern Asia from West Bengal. India to South Vietnam and Sumatra. In West Malaysia the species is found in large rivers. With Noticeable numbers in Perak River (perak), Terengganu River (Terengganul and Bukit Pinang River (Kedah). Throughout the region the population has declined to the extent that the river terrapin is currently listed as an endangered species by the international Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. A total of 73 captures were made comprising of 12 males and 61 females. Gong et al.(2009) opined that china is the largest consumer of turtles in the world and international trade has been cited as the greatest threat to Asian turtles. Two main types of trade in live turtle occur in China for food and traditional Chinese medicine and for pets including those for release by Buddhists. The food trade involves the largest quantities of turtles. In recent years, however the international pet turtle trade has increased dramatically. Yuche Pet Market in Guangzhou is the largest pet market in China, selling live Chelonians and other animals. To understand the potential impacts of the pet trade on chelonians, they reported over individual chelonians of 61 species during August 2006 to March 2008 in yuehe pet market. Fifteen (24.6%) of these are native to china and 46(75.4%) are native to other countries. Two are designated as grade II key state-protected species in China. Thirty-eight(62.3%) are CITES listed species( Four in CITES appendix I, 26 in CITES II and eight in CITES III). Four are categorized on the IUCN RED LIST as critically endangered and 16 as endangered and 19 as vulnerable. They further reported that increasing demand and the illegal international pet trade could be having a severe impact on chelonians conservation and we make recommendations for law enforcement and conservation. 29

15 Indraneil das (2009) studied the tricarinate hill turtle, melanochelys tricarinata(family geoemydidae) and reported that it is a small (carapace length to 174mm ), entirely terrestrial turtle from the deciduous and evergreen forests and reverine grasslands of the northern Indian subcontinent. The species appears to be rare, and is poorly known. One to three eggs are laid at a time, nesting occurring during the winter months in Assam northeastern India. A fibrous soft tissue connection between the plastron and carapace develop in adult females, allowing the passage of the large eggs. Eggs measure x mm and in incubation period is days, hatching taking place in February, April and May. Hatchlings measure mm in carapace length. Behera et al. (2010) observed the breeding congregation of olive ridley turtles at Gahirmatha during seasons. In general, the mass nesting taking place at Gahirmatha has been between the month of January and March. During the months of December-January, the offshore reproductive patch of turtles was observed 6 km south-east of the arribada beach at Gahirmatha. As the nesting season approaches, the reproductive patch gradually shifts towards the northern end of the beach. However, previous to any such kind of aggregation, the congregation was observed away from the arribada nesting beach. All turtles were facing towards the beach and against the wind direction. The congregation of turtles was observed in front of Wheeler Island (arribada beach) during the first week of February 2010 and it was restricted to 2 km from the shore. Hundreds of aggregated female olive ridleys were observed in the third breaker zone of the near shore water of the mass nesting beach and stationed themselves prior to the day of arribada. Many of the turtles were standing still with their head against the waves until they approached the beach for egg-laying Dijket et al. (2011) reported the diversity of turtles and tortoises in the world that has existed in modern times and now consists of 330 species. Of these, 57 are polytypic; representing 125 additional recognized subspecies; or 45 total taxa of modern turtles and tortoises. Of these, 8 species and 2 subspecies or 10 taxa are extinct. It is pertinent to mention also that more research work has been done on tortoises by several workers. These workers include amongst others, likeabraham et al. (1999), Acharjyo (1999), 30

16 Acharya (1949), Alacs et al. (2007), Alagar and Balasubramanian (1991), Andrews and Whitaker (1993), Annandale (1913), Annandale and Shastri (1918), Anon(1991,1997, 2003, 2008), Arun Kumar and Singh (1999), Aufferberg (1981), Baruah and Sharma (2009), Basu (1985,1986), Basu and Singh (1998), Batra and Prakash ( 1995,1997), Beltz (1968), Bhadauria et al. (1990), Bhatnagar and Mathur (2008), Bhupathy (1988, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1999), Bhupathy and Choudhury (1994,1995), Bhupathy et.al. (1992), Bhupathy and Vijayan (1989,1991,1993,1994), Bijukumar (2004), Boulenger (1890,1907), Breeden and Breeden (1982), Chandavar and Naik (2004), Chaudhri (1912), Choudhury ( 1990, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2001), Choudhury and Bhupathy (1992,1993), Choudhury et al. (1994,1997), Choudhury and Sengupta (1998), Daniel (1983,2002), Das (1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1997, 2002), Duda and Gupta (1978, 1981, 1982), Frazier (1988, 1989, 1990), Gadhvi (2001), Gargi and Singh (2000), Gray(1863), Gunther (1864), Gupta (2002), IUCN (1992,2007,2011), Jayakar and Spurway (1964,1966,1969), Jayson (1993), Jerdon (1853,1870), Kannan (2005), Krishnakumar et al. ( 2009), Kumar (2004), Kumar(2005), Lahkar (2000), Mishra ( 1993), Mishra (1983,1986,1987), Moll (1980,1982a-b,1984,1985,1987,1989,1991), Murthy (1994), Narain et al (2006), Rao and Rao (1990), Rao ( 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995), Saxena(2003), Shanker (2002,2003), Talukdar ( 1979, 2004), Vasudevan and Deepak (2008), Verghese and Tonapi (1986), Vijaya( 1982, 1983a-d), Vyas (1989, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000a-c,2001, 2002, 2005, 2006), Whitaker (1974, 1981) and Yadav(1993, 1995, 1998). It is also clarified that enormous work on tortoises by varied researchers on different aspects is available. However, herein only few of these have been selected for consultation and ready reference. 31