Proceedings of the Society for Theriogenology Annual Conference 2015

Transcription

1 Proceedings of the Society for Theriogenology Annual Conference 2015 Aug. 5-9, 2015 San Antonio, TX, USA Next SFT Meeting: Jul , 2016 Asheville, NC, USA Reprinted in the IVIS website with the permission of the Society for Theriogenology

2 Tickborne and other stealth pathogen reproductive concerns Meryl P. Littman School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA Abstract Tickborne and other stealth pathogens may cause illness or persist in seemingly healthy dogs and cats. Question: Might premunitive carrier status in a breeding animal have an impact on reproduction or the next generation? This review considers and compares the geographic distribution, transmission, clinical signs of illness, diagnostic tests for sick animals and for the identification of nonclinical carrier status, treatments, and prevention of anaplasmosis, babesiosis, bartonellosis, borreliosis, cytauxzoonosis, ehrlichiosis, hepatozoonosis, leishmaniasis, hemotropic mycoplasmosis, and rickettsiosis. These diseases are generally considered vector-borne but some may also be acquired vertically (mother to offspring) or horizontally via bites/fights, or by blood product transfusions. Keywords: Carrier, cytopenia, Lyme, proteinuria, transplacental, vertical Introduction Most of the tickborne infectious diseases (TBDs) involve stealth pathogens, which often go undetected in long-term carriers which are nonclinical (asymptomatic) until perhaps coinfections, immunosuppression (by drugs or disease), or stress occurs. Some of the diseases cause illness more often in certain breeds, possibly due to genetic predisposition (eg, Ehrlichiosis 1,2 in German Shepherds (E. canis) or Lyme nephritis 3-6 in Labrador and Golden Retrievers); life-style (e.g., babesiosis 7 in Greyhounds [B. canis] or Pit Bull Terriers [B. gibsoni]); or due to vertical transmission (e.g., in babesiosis [as above] 8,9 or leishmaniasis in American Foxhounds). Many questions may arise as reproductive concerns. Here are just the top 10: 1. What types of ticks and TBDs are we talking about, where are they endemic, and what kinds of signs might we see with illness? 2. What diagnostic tests are available for sick dogs? Should breeding dogs be screened for TBDs and which diagnostic tests should be used in those cases? 3. Can these diseases affect fertility? 4. Can these diseases be transmitted venereally or from frozen semen? 5. Should a nonclinical carrier be treated before breeding and can it be completely cleared? 6. Will the stress of pregnancy or lactation cause a carrier to become ill? 7. Can these diseases be transmitted vertically to offspring (in utero or during lactation)? 8. Should the gravid or nursing patient be treated? 9. How do we diagnose these diseases in the very young and should they be treated? 10. How do we best protect breeding dogs and their young offspring from these diseases? Although we do not have all the answers to all of these questions yet, veterinarians working with breeding animals and their young offspring are wise to be on the lookout for the TBDs in their geographic area, and should also be aware of the TBDs in other areas where animals may have travelled for shows, breeding, or family vacations. They should also consider any history of bites/fights, splenectomy, blood transfusions, and illness in relatives (ancestors, littermates) or in other pets in their environs. Q1: What types of ticks and TBDs are we talking about, where are they endemic, and what kinds of signs might we see with illness? There are four major kinds of hard ticks, which are each 3-host ticks, including Ixodes scapularis (the deer tick or black-legged tick), Dermacentor variabilis (the American dog tick), Rhipicephalus sanguineus (the brown dog tick), and Amblyomma americanum (the Lone Star tick). Hard ticks usually quest for hosts outdoors (except R. sanguineus, which is found in kennels) and are found in geographic 173 Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September 2015

3 endemic areas which may be extended by host migration, including bird migration. There are also soft argasid ticks (Ornithodorus spp) that transmit diseases. Each kind of tick may carry more than one kind of organism, for instance, Ixodes scapularis may carry spirochetes (Borrelia burgdorferi [the agent of Lyme disease], B. miyamotoi and B. davisii [these last two are among the relapsing fever group of Borrelia spp]), two types of rickettsia (Anaplasma phagocytophilum and the Ehrlichia muris-like agent), a protozoan (Babesia microti), bacteria (Bartonella spp), a virus (Powassan or tick-borne encephalitis virus), and possibly more! I. scapularis is found in the northeast, midatlantic, and upper midwestern United States, where its hosts are usually small mammals, birds, and deer. In western states, I. pacificus can transmit Lyme disease, but it feeds on reptiles, which are not as good reservoirs of the agent. Tables 1 and 2 show a variety of TBDs, with comparisons of their vectors, targetted cell types, clinical signs, diagnostic tests and whether paired titers may be needed, treatments, and whether the agent is bloodborne. Lyme disease, 3-6 caused by Borrelia burgdorferi, is the most common TBD in the USA. Luckily only about 5% of Lyme-seropositive dogs show illness that is suspected due to the agent. In some areas of New England, 70-90% of healthy dogs are seropositive. Experimentally, Lyme disease induced by the tick model caused high antibody titers but no signs of illness in adult beagle dogs and puppies over six months old. In young (six-12 wk) beagle puppies experimentally infected, after a two to five month incubation, only a self-limiting illness (four days) of fever, anorexia, and arthritis in the leg closest to the tickbites occurred, with possibly a few similar recurrences in the same or different leg every two weeks. Older puppies (13-26 wks) showed milder signs (two days) and fewer recurrences. None of the experimental dogs developed proteinuria. Perhaps less than 2% of Lyme-seropositive dogs show Lyme nephritis, a protein-losing nephropathy (PLN) due to immune-complex glomerulonephritis, for which Labrador Retrievers, Golden Retrievers, and perhaps Shetland Sheepdogs appear predisposed genetically. However, even among seropositive retrievers, proteinuria is uncommon. 16 Rash, cardiac, or neurologic signs of Lyme disease in dogs are not well-documented. Seropositive cats are even less likely to show any illness. Since Lyme Borreliosis travels by tissue migration and not generally hematogenously, seropositive animals may be used as blood donors. The diagnosis and treatment of PLN is reviewed elsewhere. 4,17-21 Tables 1 and 2 do not include B. lonestari (from Amblyomma ticks) that causes Southern tickassociated rash infection (STARI) in people in southern states, mimicking the rash of Lyme disease 22 (it is unknown if this species causes illness in animals) or the tickborne relapsing fever (TBRF) group of Borrelia spp, which may get more attention in the future, including B. miyamotoi and B. davisii (in I. scapularis ticks in Lyme endemic areas) and B. hermsii and B. turicatae (transmitted by soft Ornithodorus ticks, which only feed for minutes, in northwestern and southern states, respectively), associated with log cabins and sheds The TBRF group of Borrelia spp do circulate hematogenously, cause relapsing fever, myalgia/arthralgia, and neurologic signs in people and possibly illness in dogs/cats. Anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis 1 (rickettsial infections) are probably next most common after Lyme borreliosis. A. phagocytophilum may be seen alone or as a coinfection in Lyme endemic areas, with similar signs of fever, anorexia, lameness, and possibly thrombocytopenia and other cytopenias. 29,30 Coinfected dogs may be more likely to become clinically ill. 31 In the upper midwestern states, seropositivity against A. phagocytophilum is just as common as against B. burgdorferi. A. platys, a rickettsial parasite of platelets, is endemic in southern and Gulf states, often with E. canis coinfection. Ehrlichiosis is mostly seen in southcentral and eastern states. Mononuclear forms generally cause cytopenias, especially thrombocytopenia (E. canis and E. chaffeensis). 30,32 A newly recognized mononuclear form, E. muris-like, is found in the upper midwest and is probably transmitted by I. scapularis ticks. 33,34 E. canis may cause more severe illness (especially in German Shepherds), pancytopenia, bone marrow suppression, hypoalbuminemia, proteinuria, hyperglobulinemia (even perhaps with monoclonal gammopathy, mimicking multiple myeloma), hemorrhage, and neurologic signs. A granulocytic form, E. ewingii, 35 is associated with fever, polyarthropathy, and possibly cytopenias, and mimics anaplasmosis and/or Lyme disease. Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September

4 Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) due to Rickettsia rickettsii, is more common along the eastern seaboard (transmitted by D. variabilis) than in the Rocky Mountains (transmitted by D. andersoni, the Rocky Mountain wood tick) and in the southwest by Rhipicephalus ticks. 22,36 Rocky Mountain spotted fever may mimic ehrlichiosis in many ways but is more likely to cause vestibular neurologic signs and unlike most of the other TBDs, RMSF is not associated with carrier status, therefore the illness is seen acutely and seasonally, occurring within one to two weeks after the tick bite. 37 In addition to doxycycline, RMSF can be treated with fluoroquinolones. Bartonellosis, often thought of as a flea-transmitted disease, can also be transmitted by ticks, bites/fights, transfusions, and possibly vertically There are many species, e.g., B. henselae (the agent of cat scratch fever), B. vinsonii, B. quintana, B. clarridgeiae, B. elizabethae, B. koehlerae, B. washoensis, etc. Bartonellosis may be a coinfection with Lyme disease, Anaplasmosis, and others. In our area, 7.5% of healthy dogs and 20% of hospitalized dogs were seropositive. 41 Carriers may be nonclinical or have endocarditis, hepatitis, vasculitis, uveitis, neurologic disease, anemia, cytopenias, immunemediated and potentially other illness (because of coinfections, it can be difficult to know if bartonellosis is the sole cause of signs). Red blood cell TBDs such as babesiosis 7-9,42 and hemotropic mycoplasmosis 43,44 may mimic immune-mediated hemolytic anemia presentations, eg, with regenerative anemia, spherocytes, autoagglutination, Coombs positive test results, icterus, and splenomegaly. Babesiosis may cause intravascular as well as extravascular hemolysis, with hemoglobulinemia and hemoglobinuria, as well as the bilirubinemia and bilirubinuria seen with extravascular hemolysis, whereas hemotropic mycoplasmosis (previously called hemobartonellosis) is associated with only extravascular hemolysis. Large piroplasms include B. canis (B. canis canis, B. canis vogeli, B. canis rossi, and novel as yet unnamed 45 varieties). Smaller piroplasms include B. gibsoni, B. conradae, and B. microti-like (also called Theileria annae), with possible PLN and thrombocytopenia syndromes. 46 Babesiosis is transmitted by Rhipicephalus all over the US, but especially seen in Greyhounds (B. canis) from racetracks or kennels, and in American Pit Bull and Staffordshire terriers and Tosa Inu breeds (B. gibsoni) possibly also transmitted by bites/fights and from mother to offspring. Mycoplasmosis may be transmitted by fleas as well as bites/fights. Mycoplasmosis due to M. haemofelis is more pathogenic than M. haemominutum in cats, and M. haemocanis more so than M. hematoparvum in dogs. Cats that are ill with mycoplasmosis should be tested for comorbidities/coinfections, e.g., FeLV/FIV. Dogs ill with mycoplasmosis may have comorbid disease, immunosuppression, splenic disease or a history of splenectomy. Cytauxzoon felis, 47 a feline red blood cell protozoan, is transmitted by Amblyomma ticks, and seen in cats mostly in the southern states, but positive reservoir bobcats have been found as far north as Pennsylvania. This hemolytic disease has been associated with vascular blockade and high mortality, however up to 15.5% of healthy domestic cats in Arkansas may be carriers, followed by a 12.9% carrier rate in Missouri and 3.4% in Oklahoma. 48 Hepatozoonosis is due to H. americanum and/or the less pathogenic (European) H. canis in the southeastern US and is unique in that dogs become infected by eating the tick or raw encysted meat. Chronic muscle wasting and protein-losing nephropathy may be seen but a hallmark of H. americanum is periosteal proliferation seen radiographically. H. felis may be a problem in cats travelling to other continents. Leishmaniasis 10-15,21 is not common in the US because of the absence of the sandfly vector, however American Foxhounds, Corsicas, Spinones, and Neapolitan Mastiffs may be predisposed because of transfer of the infection vertically (mother to offspring) and possibly by bites/fights. Dogs of other breeds have been infected inadvertently via blood transfusions from carriers. 52 The disease has travelled to different areas of the US with infected dogs. The disease is associated with chronic wasting, glomerulonephritis, fever, enlarged reticuloentothelial system organs, bone marrow damage, PLN, ocular, and skin changes. Q2: What diagnostic tests are available for sick dogs? Should breeding dogs be screened for TBDs and which diagnostic tests should be used in those cases? 175 Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September 2015

5 Since so many of the TBDs mimic each other, e.g., by causing proteinuria, cytopenias, and/or polyarthropathy, it is important to be aware of the differential diagnoses among the TBDs as well as other differentials that can cause those signs (infectious, inflammatory, immune-mediated, neoplastic, toxic, traumatic, degenerative, genetic, etc). It is essential to keep an open mind since so many animals are nonclinical carriers (for instance, in some Lyme endemic areas, 70-90% of healthy dogs are seropositive) and the finding of a positive test result may be coincidental and not proof of the cause of illness. One study showed that 40% of dogs diagnosed with Lyme disease actually had other causes for their signs and were eventually realized to be misdiagnosed. 53 Other diseases may present during an acute stage, before seroconversion (e.g., anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, RMSF, leptospirosis) so paired or convalescent testing is required. Doxycycline (or minocycline) is often given when TBDs are suspected, to treat possible susceptible coinfections (spirochetes, rickettsials). But a favorable response to treatment is still not proof of cause since improvement may be coincidental over time, doxycycline (or minocycline) treats a variety of (undetected) coinfections, and the tetracycline family has antiinflammatory and antiarthritic properties. When dogs are sick with signs of TBDs, veterinarians often wonder which tests are better, tests for antigen (cytology by blood smear, joint tap, lymph node or bone marrow aspirate as the agent requires, culture, or PCR) or tests for antibodies (IFA, ELISA, WB, etc.)? For sick animals, usually every piece of the puzzle is helpful in different ways under different circumstances, and you may need to submit multiple different types of tests on an individual. 54 Tests for antigen may be most helpful during acute stages of illness, before seroconversion and before starting treatment (to avoid a false negative result). Consider PCR testing of whole blood for blood-borne agents, but realize that the small aliquot of blood sampled may be negative, especially if even one dose of treatment has been given, and that false positive PCR test results may occur due to contamination at the laboratory (controls are essential). For antibody tests, seroconversion may not occur until two to tree weeks after signs of illness present, therefore paired titers may be necessary. Consider cross-reactive antibodies, for instance, other spotted fever group rickettsial infections cross-react with serologic tests for RMSF. Some Lyme tests (OspA and OspC antibodies) may be seen in both naturally exposed and vaccinated animals. Consider that for some diseases which do not present until chronic stages, the animal should have seroconverted by the time it presents with clinical signs due to that disease (Lyme disease, leishmaniasis). If the signs of illness are chronic, testing for RMSF is likely unnecessary. A positive test result for any TBD is a marker for tick and wildlife exposure, and coinfections with other TBDs and other infectious agents should be considered (eg, leptospirosis may mimic Lyme nephritis). 55 As another example, a dog may be found to be Lyme-seropositive but its illness may be due to Anaplasmosis or RMSF presenting during the acute phase, before seroconversion, or due to babesiosis, for which separate testing is required. See Tables 1 and 2 for a listing of some TBDs as well as leptospirosis and brucellosis, which are included for comparisons. Since Borrelia burgdorferi does not circulate hematogenously, and because there are few organisms to be found in tissue samples and they are difficult to grow in vitro in the laboratory, antibody tests are preferred. Table 3 shows the variety of serologic tests available for antibodies against Lyme disease. Older tests (whole cell IFA, ELISA, IgM/IgG, or Western blot), while no longer as helpful for Lyme diagnosis because of cross-reactive antibodies with other spirochetal infections and vaccinal antibodies, may be interesting to study now that emerging Borrelia spp of the TBRF group may become a problem (TBRF antibodies do not cross-react on C6 peptide tests). The newer SNAP-4DxPlus (IDEXX) and AccuPlex4 (Antech) are the most common screening tests done for sick and healthy animals. Websites are available that show the prevalence of positive test results ( and down to the county level. The canine SNAP-3Dx, -4Dx and -4DxPlus (IDEXX) tests do not use species specific reagents and may be used on cats, horses, and other species, off label. Lyme antibodies against the C6 peptide of the VlsE antigen are specific for natural exposure antibodies. Although the height of the quantitative titer does not predict illness, the C6Quant (IDEXX) level has been shown to wane three to six months after treatment, while the other tests for antibodies have not been shown to wane with treatment (eg, ospf). Comparisons of pre- and three to six month post-treatment C6Quant are Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September

6 helpful for trend, and to compare in the future if signs of illness occur, to see if there is any reason to suspect Lyme disease as cause and whether retreatment is indicated. While some tests purport to show whether the Lyme titer represents acute or chronic infection, they may merely indicate when the dog was last exposed but not when it was first exposed, and also there is no evidence that whether the infection is acute or chronic is clinically relevant. The use of IgG and IgM titers is not helpful in dogs since the incubation is two to five months before signs, and the dogs would not be presented during a time when they were IgM positive and IgG negative. Healthy breeding dogs are often screened for brucellosis, but should they be routinely screened for TBDs? This author thinks so, certainly if they are ill with suggestive signs, but also if they are nonclinical but live or have travelled to endemic areas, or a predisposed breed, or if there have been other possible exposures (living with an affected animal, bites/fights, history of transfusions, splenectomy, etc). Using screening tests help to identify dogs at risk for proteinuria or other stealth pathogen consequences, sentinels for public health hazards, and to show if the use of tick control is adequate. The most commonly used screening tests are the IDEXX in-house kits (SNAP-3Dx, SNAP-4Dx or SNAP-4DxPlus) and the AccuPlex4 (Antech Reference Laboratories). These are qualitative tests for the presence of heartworm antigen and for antibodies against Lyme disease, anaplasmosis, and ehrlichiosis. There are differences, e.g., the E. canis test on the IDEXX tests may pick up cross-reacting antibodies to E. chaffeensis and possibly the E. muris-like agent, the A. phagocytophilum test may pick up A. platys antibodies, and there is also a specific test on the SNAP-4DxPlus test for antibodies to E. ewingii, while the AccuPlex4 may not pick up these antibodies. The AccuPlex4 claims to show antibodies 12 days earlier against E. canis and one week earlier against Lyme and A. phagocytophilum than the SNAP-4Dx tests, 56 but the SNAP-4DxPlus test was found to be more sensitive and specific for Lyme and Anaplasma antibodies than the AccuPlex4 in a recent study. 57 Comprehensive tick panels including PCR and serologic tests for the more common TBDs are available, for instance at the Vector Borne Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (VBDDL, at North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC), IDEXX Laboratories, and Antech Diagnostics. Galaxy Diagnostics (Durham, NC) does Bartonella BAPGM enrichment blood culture/pcr testing. The National Veterinary Laboratory, Inc (Franklin Lakes, NJ) does the Bartonella Western Blot antibody test (the FeBart test is a species specific test but canine reagents can be used for dog samples). Less common tests and the laboratories that do them have been reviewed elsewhere. 17 Q3: Can these diseases affect fertility? There is no evidence that nonclinical carriers are less fertile. There is some evidence that coinfected dogs are more likely to become ill than dogs carrying only one organism, 31 possibly due to immune system modifications, which potentially could affect general health including fertility. Q4: Can these diseases be transmitted venereally or from frozen semen? The TBDs are generally not thought of as venereal diseases. Besides arthropod vectors, the bloodborne diseases may be transmitted by blood or blood product transfusions, 1,38,39,52,58,59 contaminated needles or surgical equipment, bites and fights, ingestion of blood, 38,39 and possibly saliva (Bartonella and Mycoplasma spp). 39,43 Since blood may be present in semen or in the vagina, it is theoretically possible that transmission during breeding could occur. Although the agent of Lyme disease may be found rarely by PCR in blood, urine, or semen, viable organisms are very rarely present Control dogs remained Lyme-seronegative even after being housed with seropositive dogs for more than a year. 66 The agent of visceral leishmaniasis, L. chagasi, has a tropism for the male genitalia and venereal transmission, as the organism is shed intermittently in the semen of infected dogs, causing infection in breeding bitches in experimental settings without the natural vector present. 67 Q5: Should a nonclinical carrier be treated before breeding and can it be completely cleared? Treating nonclinical, nonproteinuric dogs that are seropositive for Lyme, Anaplasma, or Ehrlichia spp is not advocated. 2,3,68,69 It may not be possible to truly clear a carrier dog with treatment anyway. For 177 Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September 2015

7 instance, during treatment of anaplasmosis with doxycycline, the PCR test on the blood will be negative, but then positive again after treatment, or when challenged with steroids. 70,71 However, I would try to treat babesiosis in a carrier, to try to prevent illness during the stress of pregnancy, and vertical transmission to the offspring, although babesiosis is not always able to be cleared, especially in splenectomized animals. 42 Treatment may not be able to clear all animals of bartonellosis, cytauxzoonosis, mycoplasmosis, and Lyme disease. 39,44,47,72 Treatment may decrease antigenic load and produce a nonclinical premunitive carrier status, but these should not be used as blood donors (if the organism is bloodborne). In some cases of splenectomized dogs with babesiosis, if clearance with other antiprotozoal treatments fails, longterm clindamycin may be used. For hepatozoonosis, treatment is always longterm, in order to deal with organisms as they are released from muscle cysts. Similarly, treatment for leishmaniasis is longterm and may not be able to eradicate the organism. 73 Q6: Will the stress of pregnancy or lactation cause a carrier to become ill? It may be argued that a carrier may come out of the nonclinical premunitive state and become ill during the stress of pregnancy, therefore treatment may be warranted to try to decrease antigen load and perhaps decrease the risk for illness or transmission during the stress of breeding, pregnancy, or lactation; however, there are no supportive studies to show treatment is indicated or helpful in this regard and the animal may not be cleared. Q7: Can these diseases be transmitted vertically to offspring (in utero or during lactation)? There is evidence that babesiosis and leishmaniasis are transmitted vertically, 7-15,74 and perhaps TBRF. 75 There is evidence for vertical transmission of H. canis and H. felis, but not of H. americanum. 49,51 Although there is evidence for transplacental transmission of anaplasmosis in humans and cattle, there is not for dogs. 1,76 Lyme disease is probably not transmitted vertically. 66,77 Nor was Mycoplasmosis proven to be (without the presence of fleas). 38 Q8: Should the gravid or nursing patient be treated? If the gravid or nursing patient is clinically ill, it will need to be treated. In the past, veterinarians were worried about the use of doxycycline and the effects on the young. It appears that doxycycline is not teratogenic, 78 nor does it bind to calcium as much as tetracycline, therefore discoloration of the teeth is not as much a concern. 79 If the positive animal is not ill but just suspected (or proven) to be a carrier, consider not treating, especially if there is no reported vertical transmission for the agent. Check for occult proteinuria, CBC, and/or biochemical changes that are associated with TBDs. The pregnancy and offspring need to be monitored carefully. Q9: How do we diagnose these diseases in the very young and should they be treated? Since antibodies from the mother are passively bestowed to offspring transplacentally during the last trimester and in the colostrum, 80 serologic tests alone are not diagnostic for infection in the very young. Although an experimental model utilizing intradermal injections of B. burgdorferi in dogs caused infection in puppies, 81 a more natural tick model 66 showed that there was no transplacental transmission of Lyme disease in pups, that they were not ill when followed for five months and their maternal antibodies waned by four weeks. The in-house IDEXX SNAP-4Dx test was used on puppies from a Lymeseropositive dam in the field, showing positive results in the pups at seven days of age, but their C6Quant results were 10 on day 18 of life (the dam s C6Quant result was 112); these puppies were not treated, and showed no signs of illness. 82 These reports show no evidence of transplacental transmission of Lyme disease in the tick experimental model of Lyme disease nor in the field, and that passive (maternally derived) antibodies declined within the first few weeks of life. For other TBDs, when appropriate, a search for the organism by cytology or for its DNA by PCR testing is preferable to prove infection in young puppies, to avoid confusion with material antibodies on Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September

8 serologic tests. If only serology is available, passive immunity will wane over time, whereas active infection titers will stay stable or trend up over time. If puppies are ill, they should be treated. Lyme disease can be treated with doxycycline or amoxicillin, but anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis need to be treated with doxycycline. Although tetracycline may discolor the teeth and should not be given with milk because of calcium binding, doxycycline does not, so it can be used safely in the young. 79 Rocky Mountain spotted fever may be treated with doxycycline or fluoroquinolones, and of those, I would probably choose doxycycline in the young rather than possibly causing cartilage damage with fluoroquinolones. Doxycycline may cause esophagitis and should be given in liquid form, with care to wash it into the stomach by water, milk, or food following dosing. Q10: How do we best protect breeding dogs and their young offspring from these diseases? While specialists still debate the pros and cons of using Lyme vaccines, 3,4,83 there is strong consensus that tick control is most important, because there are many other TBDs in Lyme endemic areas for which there are no vaccines available. Landscaping advice helps to keep pets out of brush where outdoor ticks quest, and kennels should be monitored and treated to avoid Rhipicephalus infestations. There are many types of products available which work very well on individuals, including amitraz and permethrin collars (put on tightly enough to have contact with skin, not just fur), topical fipronil and permethrins, and the new oral (chewable) isoxazoline products, which bind specifically to the GABAgated chloride channel which exists in insects and ticks but not in their hosts. Products which kill the tick before or very soon after tick attachment are preferred, since many TBDs can be transmitted much faster than the two to four days of tick attachment required for the transmission of Lyme or Babesia spp. Permethrins (except for the Seresto collar) are toxic for cats. For dogs that swim or get bathed often, the chewable products may be ideal. See Table 4 for a comparison of tick control products. Conscientious owners will check their pets every day for ticks and remove them with tweezers or a tick removal device, grasping the tick close to its attachment on the skin, pulling slowly but steadily. Ticks should not be covered with petroleum jelly, burned, or crushed within bare fingers (hemolymph can be infective through cracked cuticles). Tick types may be identified by checking for Ixodes ticks anal groove (looks like a frown), or by images on-line. In Lyme endemic areas, if a person pulls of an engorged Ixodes tick, it is recommended to take one days dose of doxycycline within 72 hours, to prevent Lyme disease. 84 No such study has been done in dogs regarding prevention of Lyme or other TBDs that are sensitive to doxycycline. Other suggestions for prevention include planning for travel to endemic areas with tick control, screening donors before giving transfusions (or transplantation), and having a suspicion regarding TBDs when working with predisposed breeds 85,86 or animals with a history of bites/fights with those breeds. 179 Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September 2015

9 Table 1. Some TBDs, ticks, infected cell types, diagnostic tests, treatments, etc. Carrier Status Treatment Bite or Bloodborne Need Paired Tests Tests Beyond Cytology Major Vector Type of Infected Cell Agent Ap Ric Granuloctye Ixodes ELISA, PCR X X D X Ay Ric Platelet Rhipi ELISA, PCR X X D X Bar Bac Endothelial cells, Ixodes, fleas, PCR, WB, IFA,? X 2 of 3 X Epi-rbc, Macrophages other ticks culture D,F,Z ZR Bb Spir Extracellular near Ixodes C6**see No Rare D X fibroblasts abbreviations (AEZ) Bc Prot Rbc Rhipi PCR, IFA X X Im X Bg Prot Rbc Rhipi PCR, IFA X X Z/Q X Clin Bm Prot Rbc Ixodes PCR, IFA X X Z/Q X Bru* Bac Lymphocyte Venereal RSAT, ELISA X X MD X Varied Varied PCR D Cyt Prot Rbc, schizonts in Ambly PCR No X Z/Q X macr Derma Im Ec Ric Monocytic wbc Rhipi ELISA, IFA, X X D X PCR Ech Ric Monocytic wbc Ambly ELISA, PCR X X D X Derma Ew Ric Granulocyte Ambly PCR X X D X Hep Prot Myocyte, Ambly PCR No SPC X Lymphoid, Liver, (eating tick, Muscle biopsy Wbc raw meat) Lei* Prot Extracellular Macrophages Sandfly, Vertical IFA, PCR No X PA X Lep* Spir Extracellular Urine MAT, PCR ELISA X Rare D (A) X Myc Bac Epi-rbc Fleas, Ticks PCR, ELISA X DF X (future) IFA, DFA X Rare D F Rr Ric Endothelial cells Derma Rhipi, Ambly No *Although not TBDs, Bru, Lei, and Lep are included for comparisons Table 1 is adapted from Goldstein RE, Brovida C, Fernandez-del Palacio MJ, et al: Consensus recommendations for treatment for dogs with serology positive glomerular disease. J Vet Intern Med 2013;27:S60 S See Abbreviations following Table 2 below. Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September

10 Table 2. Some TBDs and the clinicopathologic changes they can cause Globulin Albumin Platelets WBC RBC Oculoneural Signs Vasculitis or Epistaxis UPC or BUN Lameness Ap X X X X X X X X Ay??? X X X? Bar X X X X X???? Bb X X? Rare X X if PLN Bc X X X Varied X X? Bg X X Varied X?? Bm X? X? X? X?? Bru X X X X X Cyt X Varied X X Ec X X X X X X X X X Ech X X X X X X X X X Ew X X X X X X X X X Hep Muscle X X Up X X Lei X X X X X X X X X Lep Muscle Tubular X X X Varied X X Myc?? X X X?? Rr X X X X X X X X Down *Although not TBDs, Bru, Lei, and Lep are included for comparisons Table 2 is adapted from Goldstein RE, Brovida C, Fernandez-del Palacio MJ, et al: Consensus recommendations for treatment for dogs with serology positive glomerular disease. J Vet Intern Med 2013;27:S60 S See Abbreviations following Table 2 below. 181 Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September 2015

11 Abbreviations for tables 1-2 A Amoxicillin Ambly Amblyomma Ap Anaplasma phagocytophilum Ay Anaplasma platys Bac - bacterial Bar Bartonella spp Bb Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease) Bc Babesia canis, rossi, vogeli, large B. Bg Babesia gibsoni, conradae, small B. Bm Babesia microti-like Bru Brucella canis C6** C6 peptide antigen in SNAP 3Dx, SNAP-4Dx, SNAP-4DxPLUS or Lyme Quant C6 (IDEXX); *or other Lyme antibody tests: AccuPlex4 (ospa, ospc, ospf, p39, SLP), Abaxis (VlsE, flagellin, ospc), Multiplex4 (ospa,ospc,ospf); IFA; WB; see Table 3 for comparisons Clin Clindamycin Cyt Cytauxzoon felis D Doxycycline Derma - Dermacentor E Erythromycin Ec Ehrlichia canis Ech Ehrlichia chaffeensis Ew Ehrlichia ewingii F Fluoroquinolones Hep Hepatazoon americanum IFA indirect fluorescent antibody Im Imidocarb Lei Leishmaniasis Lep Leptospirosis MAT Microagglutination test MD Minocycline and dihydrostreptomycin Myc hemotropic Mycoplasma spp PA Pentostam (sodium stibogluconate), amphotericin B, allopurinol PLN protein-losing nephropathy Proto - protozoan Q Atovaquone R - Rifampin Rhipi Rhipicephalus Ric - rickettsial Rr Rickettsia rickettsii (Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, RMSF) RSAT Rapid slide agglutination Rx Treatment SPC - Sulfas, pyrimethamine and clindamycin; decoquinate Spir - spirochete UPC Urine protein/creatinine ratio WB Western blot X - Yes Z Azithromycin (Zithromax) Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September

12 Table 3. Lyme antibody tests available Heartworm Anaplasma Ehrlichia Differentiates Acute vs. Chronic Infection Bedside Quantitative Qualitative Differentiates Vaccinal vs. Natural Exposure Antibody New Whole cell No X IFA or ELISA IgM/IgG No X Possibly Western Blot Possibly X Semi Possibly SNAP- 4DxPlus (IDEXX) X Yes, VlsE (C6) X X X C6Quant X Yes, VlsE (C6) X VetScan (Abaxis) X VlsE, OspC,* Flagellin X X AccuPlex4 (Antech) X OspA, OspC,* OspF, p39, SLP X Possibly X Multiplex (Cornell) X OspA, OspC,* OspF X Possibly *OspA and OspC antibodies may be seen at times in naturally exposed and vaccinated dogs. Antibodies to VlsE (C6) have only been seen due to natural exposure or infection, and have been shown to wane within several months after treatment. Antibodies to OspA are usually due to vaccination, but can sometimes be seen in non-vaccinates. Antibodies to OspC are usually due to natural exposure, but they can also be induced by the newer Lyme vaccines. OspC antibodies rise 2-3 weeks after infection and wane naturally (even without treatment) after 3-5 months, unless there is continued exposure. Antibodies to OspF rise 6-8 weeks after natural exposure, and have not been shown to wane with treatment. See Reference 4 for a further discussion about Lyme Osp antigens. Antibodies to flagellin may cross-react with other spirochetal/bacterial flagellins. 183 Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September 2015

13 Table 4. Comparison of some tick control products * T, F Swim Cats Prevents Attachment Age, BW Pregnancy Lactation Frequency Topicals Fipronil Frontline T, F Yes Yes No 8 wk Consult vet Monthly Permethrins Activyl T+ Advantix II Parastar+ Vectra 3D Revolution Collars Amitraz Preventic Permethrins Scalibor Seresto Chewables Isoxazolines NexGard Bravecto T, F, M Yes No Yes 8 wk, 4# 7 wk, 4# Consult vet Does not kill Ixodes, therefore Revolution is not recommended for tick control T only No No Yes T, F, M No No Yes T, F Yes Not yet Yes 10 wk cats No but relatively fast kill 12 wk 12 wk 7 wk, 4# 8 wk, 4# 6 months Consult vet Consult vet Consult vet Yes Monthly 2-3 months 6 months (2-3 wk lag) 8 months 1 month 3 months; but 2 months for Amblyomma BW: body weight; F: fleas; M: mosquitos; T: ticks; wk: weeks; #: pounds *Products, ingredients, and manufacturers: Frontline Plus (fipronil, S-methoprene; Merial Limited, Duluth, GA 30096) Activyl Tick Plus (indoxacarb, permethrin; Merck Animal Health, Intervet Inc, Roseland, NJ 07068) K9 Advantix II (imidacloprid, permethrin, pyriproxyfen; Bayer Healthcare LLC, Animal Health Division, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) Parastar Plus for Dogs (fipronil, cyphenothrin; Novartis Animal Health US, Inc, Greensboro NC 27408) Vectra 3D (dinotefuran, permethrin, pyriproxyfen; CEVA US, Lenexa, KS 66215) Revolution (does not kill Ixodes; selamectin; Zoetis Inc, Kalamazoo, MI 49007) Preventic collar (amitraz; Virbac Corporation, Fort Worth, TX 76137) Scalibor Protector Band (deltamethrin; Merck Animal Health, Intervet Inc, Roseland, NJ 07068) Seresto (flumethrin, imidoclopramid; Bayer HealthCare LLC, Animal Health Division, Shawnee Mission, KS 66201) NexGard (afoxolaner; Frontline Vet Labs, Division of Merial Limited, Athens, GA 30601) Bravecto (fluralaner; Merck Animal Health, Intervet Inc, Summit, NJ 07901) References 1. Little SE: Ehrlichiosis and Anaplasmosis in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2010;40: Neer TM, Breitschwerdt EB, Greene RT, et al: Consensus statement on Ehrlichial disease of small animals from the Infectious Disease Study Group of the ACVIM. J Vet Intern Med 2002;16: Littman MP, Goldstein RE, Labato MA, et al: ACVIM small animal consensus statement on Lyme disease in dogs: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. J Vet Intern Med 2006;20: Littman MP: State-of-the-art-review: Lyme nephritis. J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2013;23: Littman MP: Borreliosis. In: Bonagura JD, Twedt DC, editors. Kirk s current veterinary therapy XV. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Littman MP: Borreliosis. In: Cote E, editor. Veterinary clinical advisor, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Irwin PJ: Canine babesiosis. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2010;40: Mierzejewska EJ, Welc-Faleciak R, Bednarska M, et al: The first evidence for vertical transmission of Babesia canis in a litter of Central Asian Shepherd dogs. Ann Agric Environ Med 2014;21: Fukumoto S, Suzuki H, Igarashi I, et al: Fatal experimental transplacental Babesia gibsoni infections in dogs. Int J Parasitol 2005;35: Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September

14 10. Petersen CA, Barr SC: Canine leishmaniasis in North America: Emerging or newly recognized? Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2009;39: Rosypal AC, Troy GC, Zajac AM, et al: Transplacental transmission of a North American isolate of Leishmania infantum in an experimentally infected beagle. J Parasitol 2005;91: Boggiatto PM, Gibson-Corley KN, Metz K, et al: Transplacental transmission of Leishmania infantum as a means for continued disease incidence in North America. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011;5: Naucke TJ, Lorentz S: First report of venereal and vertical transmission of canine leishmaniosis from naturally infected dogs in Germany. Parasit Vectors 2012;5: Ben Slimane T, Chouihi E, Ben Hadj Ahmed S, et al: An investigation on vertical transmission of Leishmania infantum in experimentally infected dogs and assessment of offspring s infectiousness potential by xenodiagnoses. Vet Parasitol 2014;206: Turchetti AP, Souza TD, Paixao TA, et al: Sexual and vertical transmission of visceral leishmaniasis. J Infect Dev Ctries 2014;8: Goldstein RE, Cordner AP, Sandler JL, et al: Microalbuminuria and comparison of serologic testing for exposure to Borrelia burgdorferi in nonclinical Labrador and golden retrievers. J Vet Diagn Invest 2007;19: Littman MP, Daminet S, Grauer GF, et al: Consensus recommendations for the diagnostic investigation of dogs with suspected glomerular disease. J Vet Intern Med 2013;27:S19-S Brown S, Elliott J, Francey T, et al: Consensus recommendations for standard therapy of glomerular disease in dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2013;27:S27-S Segev G, Cowgill LD, Heiene R, et al: Consensus recommendations for immunosuppressive treatment of dogs with glomerular disease based on established pathology. J Vet Intern Med 2013;27:S44-S Pressler B, Vaden S, Gerber B, et al: Consensus guidelines for immunosuppressive treatment of dogs with glomerular disease absent a pathologic diagnosis. J Vet Intern Med 2013;27:S55-S Goldstein RE, Brovida C, Fernandez-del Palacio MJ, et al: Consensus recommendations for treatment for dogs with serology positive glomerular disease. J Vet Intern Med 2013;27:S60-S Fritz CL: Emerging tick-borne diseases. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2009;39: Krause PJ, Narasimhan S, Wormser GP, et al: Borrelia miyamotoi sensu lato seroreactivity and seroprevalence in the northeastern United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20: Bunikis J, Barbour AG: Third Borrelia species in whitefooted mice. Emerg Infect Dis 2005;11: Gugliotta JL, Goethert HK, Berardi VP, et al: Meningoencephalitis from Borrelia miyamotoi in an immunocompromised patient. New Engl J Med 2013;368: Krause PJ, Narasimhan S, Wormser GP, et al: Human Borrelia miyamotoi infection in the United States. N Engl J Med 2013;368: Kelly AL, Raffel SJ, Fischer RJ, et al: First isolation of the relapsing fever spirochete, Borrelia hermsii, from a domestic dog. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014;5: Whitney MS, Schwan TG, Sultemeier KB, et al: Spirochetemia caused by Borrelia turicatae infection in 3 dogs in Texas. Vet Clin Pathol 2007;36: Sykes JE, Foley JE: Anaplasmosis. In Sykes JE, editor: Canine and feline infectious diseases. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Alleman AR: Anaplasmosis/ehrlichiosis, canine granulocytic. In Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Beall MJ, Chandrashekar R, Eberts MD, et al: Serological and molecular prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, and Ehrlichia species in dogs from Minnesota. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2008;8: Alleman AR: Ehrlichiosis, canine monocytic. In Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Pritt BS, Sloan LM, Hoang Johnson DK, et al: Emergence of a new pathogenic Ehrlichia species, Wisconsin and Minnesota, New Engl J Med 2011;365: Hegarty BC, Maggi RG, Koskinen P, et al: Ehrlichia muris infection in a dog from Minnesota. J Vet Intern Med 2012;26: Starkey LA, Barrett AW, Beall MJ, et al: Persistent Ehrlichia ewingii infection in dogs after natural tick infestation. J Vet Intern Med 2015;29: McQuiston JH, Guerra MA, Watts MR, et al: Evidence of exposure to spotted fever group rickettsiae among Arizona dogs outside a previously documented outbreak area. Zoonoses Public Health 2011;58: Littman MP: Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 3 rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Guptill L: Feline Bartonellosis. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2010;40: Breitschwerdt EB, Maggi RG, Chomel BB, et al: Bartonellosis: an emerging infectious disease of zoonotic importance to animals and human beings. J Vet Emerg & Crit Care 2010;20: Wood MW: Bartonellosis. In Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Diroff JS, Hardy WD Jr, Zuckerman EE, et al: Bartonella seroprevalence in diseased dogs and healthy blood donor dogs in the Northeastern United States. J Vet Intern Med 2006;20: Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September 2015

15 42. Birkenheuer AJ: Babesiosis. In Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Sykes JE: Feline hemotropic Mycoplasmas. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2010;40: Sykes JE: Hemotropic Mycoplasmosis, cat. In Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Sikorski LE, Birkenheuer AJ, Holowaychuk MK, et al: Babesiosis caused by a large Babesia sp. in 7 immunocompromised dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2010;24: Camacho AT, Guitian EJ, Pallas E, et al: Azotemia and mortality among Babesia microti-like infected dogs. J Vet Intern Med 2004;18: Birkenheuer AJ: Cytauxzoonosis. In: Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Rizzi TE, Reichard MV, Cohn LA, et al: Prevalence of Cytauxzoon felis infection in healthy cats from enzootic areas in Arkansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. Parasit Vectors 2015;8: Allen KE, Johnson EM, Little SE: Hepatozoon spp infections in the United States. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2011;41: Taboada J/Macintire DK: Hepatozoonosis. In: Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Baneth G, Sheiner A, Eyal O, et al: Redescription of Hepatozoon felis (Apicomplexa: Hepatozoidae) based on phylogenetic analysis, tissue and blood form morphology, and possible transplacental transmission. Parasit Vectors 2013;6: Owens SD, Oakley DA, Marryott K, et al: Transmission of visceral leishmaniasis through blood transfusions from infected English Foxhounds to anemic dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001;219: Speck S, Reiner B, Streich WJ, et al: Canine borreliosis: a laboratory diagnostic trial. Vet Microbiol 2007;120: Maggi RG, Birkenheuer AJ, Hegarty BC, et al: Comparison of serological and molecular panels for diagnosis of vector-borne diseases in dogs. Parasit Vectors 2014;7: Tangeman LE, Littman MP: Clinicopathologic and atypical features of naturally occurring leptospirosis in dogs: 51 cases ( ). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2013;243: ANTECH Diagnostics. AccuPlex 4 frequently asked questions. Available at Accessed Apr 12, Goldstein RE, Eberts MD, Beall MJ, et al: Performance comparison of SNAP 4Dx Plus and AccuPlex 4 for the detection of antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Intern J Appl Res Vet Med 2014;12: McKechnie DB, Slater KS, Childs JE, et al: Survival of Ehrlichia chaffeensis in refrigerated, ADSOL-treated RBCs. Transfusion 2000;40: McQuiston JH, Childs JE, Chamberland ME, et al: Transmission of tick-borne agents of disease by blood transfusion: a review of known and potential risks in the United States. Transfusion 2000;40: Nadelman RB, Sherer C, Mack L, et al: Survival of Borrelia burgdorferi in human blood stored under blood banking conditions. Transfusion 1990;30: Kumi-Diaka J, Harris O: Viability of Borrelia burgdorferi in stored semen. Br Vet J 1995;151: Bauerfeind R, Kreis U, Weiss R, et al: Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi in urine specimens from dogs by a nested polymerase chain reaction. Zentralbl Bakteriol 1998;287: Badon SJ, Fister RD, Cable RG: Survival of Borrelia burgdorferi in blood products. Transfusion 1989;29: Bushmich SL: Lyme disease: comparative aspects. Proc 18th Am Coll Vet Intern Med Forum 2000; p Woodrum JE, Oliver JH Jr: Investigation of venereal, transplacental, and contact transmission of the Lyme disease spirochete, Borrelia burgdorferi, in Syrian hamsters. J Parasitol 1999;85: Appel MJ, Allen S, Jacobson RH, et al: Experimental Lyme disease in dogs produces arthritis and persistent infection. J Infect Dis 1993;167: Silva FL, Oliveira RG, Silva TMA, et al: Venereal transmission of canine visceral leishmaniasis. Vet Parasitol 2009;160: Littman MP: A matter of opinion: Should we treat asymptomatic, nonproteinuric Lyme-seropositive dogs with antibiotics? Clinician s Brief 2011;9: Littman MP: How, when, and whether to treat non-clinical rickettsial disease. Clinician s Brief 2013;11: Alleman AR, Wamsley HL, Abbott J, et al: Experimental inoculation of dogs with human or canine isolates of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and molecular evidence of persistent infection following doxycycline therapy. Vet Pathol 2007;44: Alleman A, Chandrashekar R, Beall M, et al: Experimental inoculation of dogs with a human isolate (Ny18) of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and demonstration of persistent infection following doxycycline therapy. J Vet Intern Med 2006;20: Straubinger RK, Straubinger AF, Summers BA, et al: Status of Borrelia burgdorferi infection after antibiotic treatment and the effects of corticosteroids: an experimental study. J Infect Dis 2000;181: Baneth G: Leishmaniasis. In Cote E, editor: Veterinary clinical advisor, 2nd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; p Clinical Theriogenology Volume 7, Number 3 September