Livestock Wastes: Once a Barnyard Resource - Now an Industrial Waste Sandra Cointreau Solid Waste Management Advisor The World Bank October 2007 1 Humankind has not woven the web of life. We are but one thread within it. Whatever we do to the web, we do to ourselves. All things are bound together. All things connect. Chief Seattle, 1854 Suquamish and Duamish Native American Tribes 2 1
The World Bank Loans, Grants, and Capacity Building to Alleviate Poverty and its Conditions 185 member countries 100 offices 10,000 staff Total portfolio ~1800 active projects $23.6 billion for 279 new projects (in 2006) Solid waste portfolio ~ 90 active projects $126 million for 14 new projects (in 2006) 3 The Human Experience in Developing Countries 5.4 BB people out of the Planet s 6.4 BB 1.0 BB live in urban slums. 1.0 BB below poverty level of $2/day. 1.5 BB lack clean drinking water. 2.0 BB lack basic sanitation (e.g., latrines). 2.8 BB lack solid waste collection. 4.3 BB lack safe solid waste disposal. 4 2
Economic Perspective Developed Countries High Income 34.5 $BB GDP (~34,500 $/capita/year) 18% to government expenditures (6,210 $/capita/yr) Developing Countries Middle Income 8.5 $BB GDP (~2,833 $/capita/year) 14% to government expenditures (~397 $/capita/yr) Developing Countries Low Income 1.4 $BB GDP (~583 $/capita/year) 11% to government expenditures (~64 $/capita/yr) World Bank, 2006 World Development Report 5 Populations: 2000 -> 2030 High Income People 1.2 BB -> 1.3 BB Cattle, Pigs, Sheep, Goats 4.0 BB -> 5.2 BB Poultry 15.0 BB -> 24.8 BB Low and Middle Income People 4.9 BB -> 7.1 BB Cattle, Pigs, Sheep, Goats 3.0 BB -> 4.2 BB Poultry 11.0 BB -> 19.2 BB UN Dept. of Economics and Social Affairs, World Population to 2300, and Henning Steinfeld, FAO, The Livestock Revolution A Global Veterinary Mission, 2004 6 3
Global Ratio of People to Livestock Year 2000 1 person to 5.4 livestock Year 2030 1 person to 6.4 livestock 7 One World, One Health, One Medicine The rise of emerging and resurging infectious diseases threatens not only humans (and their food supplies and economies), but also the fauna and flora comprising the critically needed biodiversity that supports the living infrastructure of our world. Wildlife Conservation Society, 2007 8 4
Zoonoses A global threat 60% of all 1,415 known infectious diseases can infect both animals and humans. 75% of all emerging human diseases in the past 15 years are zoonotic. Contact with excreta and carcasses of infected animals are priority means of transmission for many zoonotic diseases. 9 Animal <->Human Zoonotic Diseases Animal to Human SARS, Avian Influenza, Swine Influenza, Ebola, West Nile Virus, Monkey Pox, Mad Cow, Lyme, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, Rabies, Tuberculosis, Rift Valley Fever, HIV, Shigellosis, Salmonellosis, Campylobacteriosis, Toxoplasmosis, Brucellosis, Hanta Virus, Leptospirosis, Nipah Virus, Rabies, Ringworm, Yellow Fever, Bubonic Plague, Anthrax, Glanders Anthropozoonotic Human to Animal Human Herpes virus, Tuberculosis, Measles 10 5
Lost Lives from Zoonotic Disease Outbreaks Asia, SARS, 100 million animals culled, 800 people dead. Asia, Nipah Virus, 1 million pigs culled, 100 people dead. EU, Mad Cow, 5 million cattle culled, 150 people dead. Worldwide, Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza, 300 million birds culled, 200 people dead. Sources: World Bank, EU, CIDRAP, OIE and USDA data 11 Animal Production Growth Meat production growth in developing countries is 4 times growth in high income countries. By 2020, an estimated 63% of meat and 50% of milk production will be in developing countries. China is the largest meat producer in the world 74 MM tonnes in 2004. World Bank, Managing the Livestock Revolution, 2005 12 6
Fish Production Growth Fish provide 16% of global animal protein. Fish production grew 500% in last 3 decades, compared to meat growth of 60%. Share of aquaculture in food fish increased from 3.9% in 1970 to over 40% in 2004. China is the largest aquaculture producer in the world, and obtains over 75% of its food fish from aquaculture 49 MM tonnes in 2004. World Bank, Aquaculture: Changing the Face of the Waters, 2006 13 Global Shift to Industrialized (landless) Livestock Production Industrialized livestock production is growing 6 times faster than pastoral production. Industrialized poultry production growing by ~ 80% from 2001-2020. Industrialized pork and ruminate production growing by ~ 50% from 2001-2020. World Bank, Managing the Livestock Revolution, 2005 14 7
Antimicrobials used as Growth Promoters Antimicrobials, when used in low subtherapeutic doses in feed and water, are called growth promoters. They work in this way: Reduce subclinical populations of pathogenic microorganisms in gut mass, thus lessening metabolic drain. Prevent irritation to the intestinal lining. Allow nutrients to be more efficiently used in the gut for growth. 15 Antimicrobial Use in Feed Daily non-therapeutic dosing with antimicrobials enables factory farms to crowd livestock and minimize the diseases and mortalities that would otherwise occur from the stresses of concentration. Use of priority antimicrobials for human therapy needs special control. Studies in Sweden and Denmark show that antimicrobial use in feed can be significantly reduced with minor additional cost in production. Additional growth time, improved housing, and care enables the comparable production outputs. 16 8
Arsenicals in the Environment One group of antimicrobials used for growth promotion contains organic arsenic compounds. Up to 90% of the arsenic fed to livestock is excreted, some converted from organic to toxic forms. Up to 70-90% of arsenic in poultry litter was found to be readily soluble in water.* Arsenic feed additives readily degrade to toxic forms in anaerobic/reducing settings within the environment. Burning of animal wastes releases arsenic stack gas emissions. *B.P.Jackson, et.al., Fate of Arsenic Compounds in Poultry Litter upon Land Application, 2006 17 D. Rutherfold, et.al., Environmental Fate of Roxarsone in Poultry Litter, 2003 Arsenic in Manure and Litter Reported levels in US poultry manure and litter were up to 32 mg/kg arsenic.* Reported levels in US pelletalized poultry litter sold as fertilizer up to 39 mg/kg arsenic.** Reported levels in Chinese swine manure were up to 119 mg/kg.*** *B.K.Anderson, et.al., Effect of Dietary 3-Nitro-4-Hydroxyphenylarsonic Acid on Total Broiler Excreta and Broiler Litter, 2003. **K.E.Nachman, et.al., Arsenic: A Roadblock to Potential Animal Waste Management Solutions, 2005. ***Y-X.Li, et.all, Emissions of Additive Arsenic in Beijing Pig Feeds and the Residues in Pig Manure, 2005. 18 9
Are Arsenic Regs Adequate? Multiple manure applications can result in soil accumulations of arsenic. Grazing cattle can ingest up to 18% of their dry matter intake as soil, and sheep ingest up to 30%.* US EPA Part 503 standard allows 41 mg/kg of arsenic in sewage sludge applied to land.* New York soil cleanup goal is 7.5 mg/kg.** Florida residential soil limit is 2.1 mg/kg.** Colorado and Illinois residential soil limit is 0.4 mg/kg.** *E.Z. Harrison, et.al., Land Application of Sewage Sludges: an Appraisal of US Regs, 1999 **T. Townsend, et.al, unpublished notes on Arsenic soil limits, 2007 19 Antibiotic Resistance Antimicrobial use in food animal production contributes to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance in humans due to zoonotic pathogens, such as Salmonellosis and Campylobacteriosis. World Health Organization, 2007 20 10
Growing Antimicrobial Use in Livestock WHO estimates half of total amount of antimicrobials produced globally are used in food animals. In EU, all human therapy antimicrobials are also licensed for animal therapy. In US, 70% of all antimicrobials sold are for livestock and 85% of livestock antimicrobial use is for non-therapeutic feed addition. Arsenic-base antimicrobials are extensively used in poultry and swine factory farming worldwide. 21 Antimicrobial Feed Additives Studies show that 25-75% of antibiotics pass through unaltered in feces.* Factory farm manure is applied to crop and pasture land, and added to fish culture ponds, without regulatory control in most countries. *J.C. Chee-Sanford, et.al, Occurrence and Diversity of Tetracycling Resistant Genes in Lagoons and Groundwater Underlying Two Swine Production Facilities, 2001 22 11
Antimicrobials in Livestock Feed Routine use in livestock feed increases antibiotic resistant pathogens being excreted by livestock. Antibiotic resistant pathogens in excreta become available in the environment to wildlife and grazing livestock, and can contaminate crops. Many pathogens have long survival after excretion, e.g., Salmonella bacteria and High Path Avian Influenza virus can survive for months after excretion. 23 Antibiotic Resistant Pathogens Studies show there is horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistant genes in human and farm animal colons and there is stable maintenance of resistance transferred genes. (e.g., tetracycline, erythromycin, clindamycin resistance common) N.B. Shoemaker, et.al. Evidence for Extensive Resistance Gene Transfer, 2000. 24 12
Examples of Antibiotic Resistance Campylobacter resistance to fluroquinolines developed shortly after FDA approval of non-therapeutic use in poultry. Campylobacter causes 2.4 MM cases/yr of infection in the US and 120 deaths/year. One out of every three cases of human infection by Salmonella is resistant to antibiotics, leading to 1.4 MM cases/yr of infection in the US and 580 deaths/year. Nearly all strains of Staphylococcus infection in the US are now resistant to penicillin. The US CDC states that more than 2 MM patients get infections in the hospital, and that more than 70% of bacteria causing hospital-acquired infections are resistant to at least one antibiotic commonly used to treat them. 25 Swine Worker and Neighbor Risks Swine workers in Netherlands are immediately separated in all hospitals because of their multidrug resistance. Studies of bioaerosols inside swine factory farms have shown more than 90% had multi-drug resistance.* Antibiotic resistance bacteria recovered 150 meters downwind from swine factory farms.** *A.Chapin, et. al, Airborne Multidrug-Resistance Bacteria Isolated from Swine CAFO, 2005. 26 **S.G. Gibbs, et.al. Isolation of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Downwind of Swine CAFO, 2006 13
Waste Treatment and Antimicrobials Many antimicrobials resist decomposition in normal waste treatment. Reports include: Tamiflu (the main human drug for Avian Influenza) survives normal wastewater treatment and UV radiation, discharging in active form to the environment.* Oxytetracycline in manures only 59% destroyed in 64 days of anaerobic digestion.** Antibiotics reported in sewage sludge were ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, and triclosan.*** *J.Fick, et.al., Antivial Osetimiver is not Removed or Degraded in Normal Sewage Treatment, 2007 **O.A. Arikan, et.al., Fate and Effect of Oxytetracycline during Anaerobic Digestion of Manure from Therapeutically Treated Calves., 2006 27 ***E.Z.Harrison, et.al., Organic Chemicals in Sewage Sludges, 2006 Aquaculture Livestock manures are commonly used in fish ponds to stimulate algal growth, and these manures include livestock antimicrobials and arsenic-based growth promoter residuals. Non-therapeutic use of antimicrobials are used to increase fish yields (e.g., trout, salmon, catfish). Study showed that over 70% of wild fish in close proximity to aquaculture ponds contained quinolone residues.** It is estimated that nearly 170 kg/hectare of antibiotics are applied to salmon aquaculture in the U.S. Since pens are placed in natural seawaters, antibiotics and the resultant resistant bacteria are in contact with the environment.** *C. Benbrook, Antibiotic Drug Use in US Aquaculture, 2002 **P.H. Serrano, Responsible Use of Antibiotics in Aquaculture, FAO, 2005 28 14
Bans on Antimicrobial Use EU banned 4 antibiotics in 1998 from feed use in livestock feed (i.e., bacitracin zin, spiramycin, tylosin, virginiamycin). Therapeutic use has since increased. Wider bans on antimicrobials as growth promoters implemented in Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland. Norway reduced antimicrobial use in fish culture by 90%, by changing production practices and introducing vaccines. EU and New Zealand have banned arsenicals in livestock. McDonalds, Bon Apetit and Tyson Foods have banned arsenicals in livestock production. FDA restricted approval of Fluorquinolone, routinely used in poultry production, in 2005, due to development of fluoroquinolone resistance in Camplylobacter (i.e., fluoroquinolone, the drug of choice for treating bacterial food poisoning. 29 Danish Monitoring Since banning antimicrobials as feed additives for growth promotion, monitoring has shown: Zoonotic pathogen isolates from imported pork and poultry were more resistant to antibiotics than isolates from Danish pork and poultry. Zoonotic pathogen isolates from human infections acquired abroad were more resistant than isolates from infections acquired domestically. DANMAP, 2005 30 15
Organic Farming Regulations not Globally Harmonized FAO/WHO organic standards guidance: antibiotics, coccidiostatics, medicinal substances, growth promoters or any other substance intended to stimulate growth or production shall not be used in animal feeding that is categorized as organic production and manure application from factory farms are not permitted, even if composted. US rules: organic production allows animal manures from factory farms, so long as they are composted and do not contain prohibited substances or contribute to contamination of crops, soil, or water by plant nutrients, pathogenic organisms, heavy metals, or residues of prohibited substances...but the list of prohibited substances does not specifically note antimicrobials. Synthetic substances are banned, unless in the allowed list. 31 What can we do? Farm-to-Fork tracking of animals and fish. Require disclosure on feed and water additives, now considered trade secrets. 32 16
What can we do? Ban non-therapeutic feeding of arsenicals, as this is a persistent and cumulative priority pollutant that is highly mobile, toxic in some doses and carcinogenic in chronic low doses. Control priority antibiotics that are used for humans from being routinely non-therapeutically fed at intensive fish, poultry and animal livestock farms. Clarify regulations on organic crop and livestock/fish production to ban the use of manures from intensive livestock facilities. 33 What can we do? Regulate factory farm manure, bedding/litter and animal wastes with the safe heavy metals criteria for land application, as used for solid waste compost or sewage sludge. Require factory farm manure, bedding/littler and animal wastes that is applied to land to be pre-treated to destroy antibiotics and antibiotic resistant pathogens. 34 17
What can we do? Develop economic instruments and global labeling to enable eco-friendly livestock products, and harmonize organic livestock production and manure use regulations. Create tradable carbon and nutrient quotas to support sustainable manure treatment. Market pricing policies for feed, energy, water, and other services that favor landless factory farming. Reduce feed subsidies that favor landless factory farms over land-based pastoral farms. 35 Project and Guidance Materials http://www.worldbank.org/solidwaste http://carbonfinance.org http://go.worldbank.org/fyzr5s4cx0 (for livestock and aquaculture) http://www.who.int http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance http://www.fao.org http://www.oie.org Sandra Cointreau scointreau@worldbank.org 36 18