Species no. 25: Goosander Mergus merganser Distribution: Holarctic, with a wide breeding range across Eurasia and North America in forested tundra between 50 N and the Arctic Circle. The wintering range of the Palearctic birds extends south to southern Europe, China and Japan. In western Eurasia breeds in Iceland and from Britain, Norway, Denmark and Central Europe eastwards, and winters south to western France, the Adriatic, Turkey and the south Caspian region. There is a small, isolated breeding population in the southern Balkans. Movements: Migratory and partially migratory; the northernmost breeding birds migrate south to winter at temperate latitudes, but southern breeding birds are mainly sedentary, moving only short distances to suitable wintering habitat, usually at lower elevations. British breeding birds are almost entirely resident, but males move to Norway to moult before returning to the. Birds breeding in Fennoscandia and North-west Russia winter mainly in the Baltic Sea and countries bordering the North Sea. Many of the birds wintering in southern England originate from the continent. In mild winters, about 60 % of the North-west European population winter in the Baltic Sea. In hard winters, birds in the Baltic move southwest. Population size and trends: The European breeding population consists of 47,000-74,000 breeding pairs (BirdLife Int. 2004A) of which 37,000-59,000 pairs breed in EU Member States (BirdLife Int. 2004B). Overall the European population declined slightly during 1990-2000 (BirdLife Int. 2004A). Within Europe several wintering populations can be distinguished (Delany & Scott 2006): The wintering population in North-west Europe: estimated at 266,000 individuals (trend unknown), The resident population in Iceland, estimated at 900 individuals (trend unknown), Breeding and wintering in Central Europe, estimated at 3,000-4,200 individuals and increasing, Breeding in the Balkans and wintering close to the breeding areas, 50-100 individuals (trend unknown), Breeding in North-east Europe and wintering in the Black Sea, estimated at 10,000 individuals (trend unknown). Biological and behavioural aspects: Breeding: clutch size is usually 8-11 eggs (4-22); incubation period 30-32 days; fledging period 60-70 days; brood one. Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 172 *
Movements Goosander Mergus merganser Member MIANT RINT State Breeding Passage Wintering Few Few Few Few Few Few Few Few Few Few Few Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 173 *
Definition of period of reproduction Goosander Mergus merganser Member State Period of reproduction begins with Comments References Occupation breeding sites 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Occupation breeding sites 1, 2, 17 Occupation breeding sites 4 2 Occupation breeding sites 7 Occupation breeding sites 2, 3 Occupation breeding sites Occupation breeding sites 1, 2, 3, 4 Occupation breeding sites 2 Construction of the nest 1, 2, 3 Occupation breeding sites Nuptial parade before 3, 4, 5 occupation breeding sites Occupation of breeding 13 sites Occupation breeding sites Small breeding population 9, 23 Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 174 *
Period of reproduction Goosander Mergus merganser J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y Comments and conclusions J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C 1) In the EU, it breeds mostly in the and Baltic countries; there are smaller breeding populations in the Alps and North of. 2) The period of reproduction begins with the occupation of the breeding sites. Pairformation in winter and during spring migration. 3) The end of the reproduction period ranges from the 1 st decade of July () to the 3 rd decade of August (,,,,,, ). Full flight of young birds marks the end of the reproduction period. Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 175 *
Prenuptial migration Goosander Mergus merganser Difficulty in identifying the beginning of the period of return to the rearing grounds? Member State Y NO References Partial migrant in the southern and southwestern coastal & archipelago areas X 1, 2, 3, 4 X 1, 11 X 2 Mixing of wintering and migrating birds 5,7 X 2,3 3, 8 X X 1, 2, 3, 4 In Northern parts, residents and 1 migrants can occur together No information X 3, 4 Distinction between local 7 movements of large winter population and returning migrants is difficult to made Presence of wintering birds Mixing of wintering and migrating birds 13 X Little data on migration Very rare winter visitor; no data available 5 3 Small numbers of wintering and passage birds 6, 15 X 17, 23 Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 176 *
Period of prenuptial migration Goosander Mergus merganser J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y????? J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C Comments and conclusions 1) Arrival of first migrants in and, or departure from wintering grounds in other countries, corresponds to the beginning of the prenuptial migration. 2) Beginning of prenuptial migration ranges from 3 rd decade of January () to the 1 st decade of April (, ). Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 177 *
Species no. 26: Hazel Grouse Bonasa bonasia Distribution: This grouse has a wide distribution in deciduous, coniferous and mixed forests of Eurasia, from eastern France to China, Manchuria and northern Japan. Europe is accounting for less than half of its global range. The nominate subspecies, bonasia, inhabits northern Europe; the rupestris race from south-east Belgium and eastern France east to Poland, Bulgaria and Greece has a highly fragmented distribution. Movements: The hazel grouse is a sedentary species. Population size and trends: The European breeding population amounts to 600,000-900,000 breeding pairs, excluding the large Russia population of 1,9-2,2 million pairs (BirdLife Int. 2004A). The population in EU 27 is estimated at 480,000-775,000 breeding pairs (BirdLife Int. 2004A, 2004B). About 95% of the EU population breeds in Finland and Sweden. Overall, there was a small increase in the European population of this species during 1990-2000, with only the population in Finland showing a decline (BirdLife Int. 2004A). Biological and behavioural aspects: Breeding: clutch size is 7-11 eggs (5-14); incubation: 25 days (23-27); fledging period: capable of precocious flight at 15-20 days; independence of young birds at 30-40 days; broods: 1. Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 178 *
Movements Hazel grouse Bonasia bonasia Member State RINT Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 179 *
Definition of period of reproduction Hazel Grouse Bonasia bonasia Member Period of reproduction Comments References State begins with Courtship display 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Courtship display 1, 11, 17 Courtship display 3 Courtship display 7 Courtship display on lek 2 sites Courtship display 1, 2 Courtship display Courtship display 5 Courtship display Courtship display 1 Courtship display display starts in 1, 2, 10 /copulation Autumn; pairing often already in Autumn Courtship display 1, 3 Courtship display 26, 27 6 Courtship display 9 Courtship display 22 Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 180 *
Period of reproduction Hazel Grouse Bonasia bonasia J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C Comments and conclusions 1) The period of reproduction starts with the courtship display in the breeding territories (i.e. 4 decades before egg laying) and ends with the independence of young birds (c. 3-4 decades after hatching). 2) The beginning of the reproduction period ranges from the 3 rd decade of February () to the 3 rd decade of April (, ) 3) The end of the reproduction period ranges from the 1 st decade of July (, ) to the 3 rd decade of August (,,, ). Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 181 *
Species no. 27: Willow Grouse Lagopus lagopus lagopus Distribution: The Willow Grouse has a wide distribution in arctic and boreal regions of North America and Eurasia. About 15 subspecies are described. The nominate lagopus race inhabits Scandinavia, Finland the Baltic States, Belarus and northern Russia. Movements: Sedentary in Europe, only local movements occur. Population size and trends: The European breeding population of Lagopus l. lagopus amounts to 2.0 3.2 million pairs including the large Russian population of 1.3 1.6 million pairs (BirdLife Int. 2004A). The population in the European Union is estimated at 150,000-520,000 with the majority in Sweden (BirdLife Int. 2004A). During 1990-2000 there were declines in Finland, but in the same period populations in Norway, Sweden and Russia were stable or fluctuating, and the species remained broadly stable overall in Europe (BirdLife Int. 2004A). Biological and behavioural aspects: Breeding: clutch size is 6-9 eggs (2-17); incubation: 19-25 days; fledging period: capable of precocious flight at 12-13 days, full-grown at ca. 30-35 days; independence of young ca. 6 decades after hatching; broods: 1. Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 182 *
Movements Willow Grouse Lagopus lagopus lagopus Member State RINT (Only L. l. rossicus is resident) Very few Possible present, but no direct evidence of presence recent years Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 183 *
Definition of period of reproduction Willow Grouse Lagopus lagopus lagopus Member State Period of reproduction Comments References begins with Pair formation and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 occupation of territories Construction of the nest 10 Courtship display Courtship display Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 184 *
Period of reproduction Willow Grouse Lagopus lagopus lagopus J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C Comments and conclusions 1) The period of reproduction starts when the breeding territory is continuously occupied and ends with the independence of young birds (c. 6 decades after hatching). 2) The start of the period of reproduction ranges from the 3 rd decade of April (, ) to the 2 nd decade of May (). 3) The end of the reproduction period ranges from the 2 nd decade of July () to the 1 st decade of September (). Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 185 *
Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, L. l. hibernicus Distribution: The Red Grouse populations are subspecies of the Willow Ptarmigan. The EU endemic subspecies scoticus inhabits Britain, while the race hibernicus, often included in scoticus, inhabits Ireland. Movements: The Red Grouse is resident. Population size and trends: The total population of the Red Grouse amounts to 155,000 pairs in Britain and to less than 1,000-5,000 pairs in Ireland (BirdLife Int. 2004A). Characteristic of the species is a cyclic fluctuation in numbers 6 years in Britain. Red Grouse population depends on hunting interests which plays a significant role in maintaining the quality of habitat needed for most of the remaining populations in the. Biological and behavioural aspects: Breeding: clutch size 6-9 eggs (2-17); incubation: 19-25 days; fledging period: capable of precocious flight at 12-13 days, full-grown at c. 30-35 days, independence of young c. 6 decades after hatching; broods: one. Movements Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, L. l. hibernicus Member State RINT Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 186 *
Definition of period of reproduction Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, L. l. hibernicus Member Period of reproduction Comments References State begins with Courtship display 2 Courtship display young capable of 1, 2, 3, 6 precocious flight; remain with female for 70-80 days Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 187 *
Period of reproduction Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus, L. l. hibernicus J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C Comments and conclusions 1) The period of reproduction starts when breeding territory is continuously occupied and ends with the independence of young birds (c. 6 decades after hatching). 2) The reproduction period starts during the 2 nd decade of April. 3) The end of the reproduction period ranges from the 1 st decade () to the 3 rd decade of August (). Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 188 *
Species no. 28: Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus Distribution: The Ptarmigan has a discontinuous distribution in arctic, boreal and alpine regions of North America and Eurasia. It lives at greater altitude or latitude than the Red/Willow Grouse (Lagopus lagopus) mainly above the tree line. The numerous subspecies of Ptarmigan are often divided into two mains groups: the rupestris group from the Urals through Siberia, Japan, North America, Greenland, Iceland and Svalbard and the mutus group of western Europe. In the mutus group two races are highly isolated helveticus inhabits the Alps and pyrenaicus the Pyrenees. Movements: This is mainly a sedentary species. However, low numbers of vagrants have recently been observed in Bulgaria (Miltschew & Georgiewa 1998). Population size and trends: The European breeding population amounts to 430,000 1,400,000 pairs (BirdLife int. 2004A). The total population of the European Union can be estimated at 70,000-130,000 breeding pairs (BirdLife Int. 2004B). The European population was stable during 1970-1990. Although there were declines in some countries, populations over most of the European range were stable or fluctuating during 1990-2000 (BirdLife Int. 2004A). The race helveticus of the Alps and the race pyrenaicus of the Pyrenees are adversely affected by degradation of their habitat and by disturbance from tourism development. Both the Alpine and the Pyrenean subspecies are included in Annex I of the Birds Directive. Biological and behavioural aspects: Breeding: clutch size is 5-8 eggs (3-12); incubation: 21-23 days (20-26); fledging period: capable of precocious flight at 15-20 days, exceptionally or in strong wind at 7-10 days, become independent at c. 6 decades after hatching; broods: 1. Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 189 *
Movements Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus Member State RINT Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 190 *
Definition of period of reproduction Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus Member Period of reproduction Comments References State begins with Pair formation and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 occupation of territories Construction of the nest 10, 11 Courtship display 1 Courtship display 4 Courtship display family bonds hold until Autumn 1, 2 Continuous occupation of breeding areas 26, 27 Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 191 *
Period of reproduction Ptarmigan Lagopus mutus J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C Comments and conclusions 1) The period of reproduction starts when breeding territory is continuously occupied and ends with the independence of young birds (c. 6 decades after hatching). 2) The beginning of the reproduction period ranges from the 1 st decade of April (,,, ) to the 3 rd decade of May (). 3) The end of the reproduction period ranges from the 3 rd decade of August () to the 3 rd decade of September (,,, ). Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 192 *
Species no. 29: Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix Distribution: This grouse inhabits boreal, sub-arctic and alpine forests of Eurasia, from the British Isles to Manchuria. In some regions, it penetrates the steppe region. In South Western Europe its distribution is strongly fragmented and largely relict. Movements: This is a sedentary species. Population size and trends: The European breeding population amounts to 650,000-1,050,000 breeding pairs, excluding the large Russian population of 1.9-2.2 million (BirdLife Int. 2004A). The total population of the European Union amounts to 550,000-820,000 breeding pairs (BirdLife Int. 2004B). The European population declined substantially during 1970-1990, and most populations (except the Russian stronghold) continued to decline during 1990-2000 (BirdLife Int. 2004A). The reasons for the general decline are complex: changes in human exploitation of habitats (afforestation of open land, intensive agricultural and forestry practices), huge increases in the application of chemicals, use of artificial fertilisers, atmospheric pollution, increased disturbance of breeding grounds, spread of human settlements, increased tourism, hunting, and a succession of cool and moist summers affecting chick survival rates. The long-term deterioration in the spatial and temporal distribution of habitat patches of the preferred succession stages is probably the main cause of decline, locally enhanced by predation pressure and reduced primary production. The continental subspecies (T. t. tetrix) is included in Annex I of the Birds Directive. Biological and behavioural aspects: Breeding: clutch size is 6-11 eggs (4-15, over 15 probably 2 females); incubation: 25-27 days; fledging period: capable of precocious flight at 10-14 days, become independent at c. 8 decades after hatching; broods: 1. Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 193 *
Movements Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix Member State RINT Extinct Few Few Extinct Extinct Extinct Extinct Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 194 *
Definition of period of reproduction Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix Member Period of reproduction Comments References State begins with Courtship display 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Courtship display 1, 10, 11 Courtship display Courtship display 7 Courtship display on lek sites Courtship display 4 Courtship display Courtship display Courtship display 4 Courtship display copulation at lek; no pair 24 bond; females cares for eggs and young Courtship display 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Courtship display arrival of females on the 1, 2, 10, 11 lek Courtship display 1, 3 Courtship display on lek 26, 27 sites 6 Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 195 *
Period of reproduction Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C - Since the population from Waldviertel has strongly declined, there is not enough statistical evidence for a phenological separation from the Alps population. Comments and conclusions 1) The period of reproduction starts with courtship display on the lek sites (i.e. 4 decades before egg laying) and ends with the independence of young birds (c. 8 decades after hatching). 2) The beginning of the reproduction period ranges from the 1 st decade of March (, ) to the 2 nd decade of April (, ). 3) The end of the reproduction period ranges from the 3 rd decade of July (, ) to the 3 rd decade of September (,, ). Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 196 *
Species no. 30: Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Distribution: The Capercaillie inhabits old coniferous forests in temperate and boreal regions of Europe and western Asia. It is a widespread resident in northern Europe, but its distribution is highly fragmented in Southern and Western Europe. The race cantabricus occurs in the Cantabrian Mountains, aquitanicus in the Pyrenees, the nominate urogallus in the rest of Europe. Movements: European populations are sedentary. Population size and trends: The European breeding population amounts to 760,000-1,000,000 pairs, including the large Russian population of 400,000-450,000 pairs (BirdLife Int. 2004A). The population in EU 27 is estimated at 555,000-825,000 breeding pairs (BirdLife Int. 2004A, 2004B). During 1990-2000 the species declined across much of its European range notably in Finland and Sweden, while the key Russian population increased and the Norwegian population remained stable (BirdLife Int. 2004A). The most consistent explanation for the decline in most of its European range is habitat loss resulting from the effects of forestry practices (e.g. felling of old forests). Disturbance from forestry operations and recreation and (increased) predation of eggs and young may all have played a part in the decline. Climatic changes could also have some adverse effect. This species is included in Annex I of the Birds Directive. Biological and behavioural aspects: Breeding: clutch size is 7-11 eggs (5-16, occasionally more but then probably always 2 females); incubation: 24-26 days; fledging period: capable of precocious flight at 2-3 weeks, full-grown at 2-3 months, independence of young at c. 9 decades; broods: 1. Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 197 *
Movements Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Member State RINT Extinct Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 198 *
Definition of period of reproduction Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus Member State Period of reproduction Comments References begins with Courtship display 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Courtship display 1, 11 Courtship display Courtship display 7 Courtship display on lek sites Courtship display Courtship display Courtship display 2 Courtship display 4 Courtship display arrival of females on the 1, 2, 10 lek Courtship display (6 or lonely singing male 1, 3, 7 decades before egg laying) Courtship display on lek 26, 27 sites 6 Courtship display 9 Courtship display on lek sites 4, 22, 23 Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 199 *
Period of reproduction Western Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C - B??? 1) 2) - 1) T. u. urogallus (east); 2) T. u. aquitanicus (Pyrenees) Comments and conclusions 1) The period of reproduction starts with courtship display on the lek sites (i.e. 6 decades before egg laying) and ends with the independence of young birds (c. 9 decades after hatching). 2) The beginning of the reproduction period ranges from the 2 nd decade of February () to the 3rd decade of April (). 3) The end of the reproduction period ranges from the 1 st decade of May () to the 3 rd decade of September (, - Pyrenees, and ). Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 200 *
Species no. 31: Chukar Alectoris chukar Distribution: The natural range of the Chukar extends from the eastern Balkans (Bulgaria, Greek Thrace, Crete and most Aegean Islands) through central Asia and Himalayas to North Eastern China. It has been introduced in many countries including Great Britain, France and part of Greece (mainland, Corfu). Movements: This is a sedentary species. Population size and trends: The EU 27 population is estimated at 111,500 213,000 pairs with by far the largest population in Cyprus (Birdlife Int. 2004A). During 1990-2000 the population in the EU was stable (BirdLife Int. 2004A). The Greek population has locally declined due to intensive shooting and poaching, in particular on certain small islands and parts of Crete, whereas no obvious decline has been reported from elsewhere (e.g. Thrace) (Handrinos & Akriotis, 1997). Biological and behavioural aspects: Breeding: clutch size: 8-15 eggs (6-20); incubation: 22-24 days; fledging period: capable of precocious flight at 7-10 days, full-flight of young birds at c.50 days; broods: 1. Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 201 *
Movements Chukar Alectoris chukar Member State RINT Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 202 *
Definition of period of reproduction Chukar Alectoris chukar Member State Period of reproduction begins with Occupation of breeding sites Comments Courtship display 9 Courtship display 1 References Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 203 *
Period of reproduction Chukar Alectoris chukar J A N F E B M A R A P R M A Y J U N J U L A U G S E P O C T N O V D E C Comments and conclusions 1) The period of reproduction starts with the occupation of the breeding territory by singing males (i.e. 4 decades before egg laying) and ends with the independence of young birds (c. 6 decades after hatching). 2) The reproduction period starts on the 2 nd decade of January () and ends on the 1 st decade of August (,, and ). Reproduction & Prenuptial Migration * 204 *