The inspection of meat intended for export or interprovincial

VETERINARY HISTORY HISTOIRE VÉTÉRINAIRE Early history of the Canadian federal meat inspection service J. Brian Derbyshire Introduction The inspection of meat intended for export or interprovincial trade in Canada was initiated by the federal Department of Agriculture in 1907. The history of this service was outlined very briefly by Dukes and McAninch (1), but no detailed description, comparable to Wiser s history of meat and poultry inspection in the United States Department of Agriculture (2), has been published. After a brief introduction to the early history of meat inspection, this paper describes the development of the Canadian meat inspection service from 1907 to 1957. Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1. Early history of meat inspection Meat inspection was first practiced by the early Hebrew civilization, culminating in the Laws of Terepha contained in the Mishnaic portion of the Talmud in about 200 A.D. (3). These defined the conditions that rendered animals unacceptable for food. Inspection of both the slaughtering and marketing of meat also took place in ancient Greece and Rome, but this disappeared with the fall of the Roman empire. There was some limited inspection of meat in some cities in France, Germany, and Italy in medieval times, but it was not until the 19th century that formal systems of inspection began to be introduced in Europe, initially in Prussia where, by 1868, slaughtering was restricted to public slaughterhouses under veterinary supervision (4). A major stimulus for the development of meat inspection in Europe was the discovery in Germany by Rudolph Virchow in the late 1850s of Trichinella spiralis larvae in porcine muscle (5). At the same time, Friedrich Küchenmeister in Dresden and Rudolph Leuckart in Leipzig showed that cattle and pigs were the intermediate hosts of human tapeworms. The microbiological revolution towards the end of the 19th century, particularly the discovery of the cause of tuberculosis, was an additional major factor in establishing the need for meat inspection, and Robert von Ostertag in Berlin was a leading figure in the development of scientific meat hygiene (6). In 1899, meat inspection was a major topic at the VIIth International Veterinary Congress held at Baden- Baden in Germany, where the need for the general introduction of the compulsory inspection of meat by certified veterinary surgeons was emphasized. It was further resolved that instruction in meat inspection at the veterinary colleges must be improved and extended, and that this should include a training period of 8 weeks in a large public slaughterhouse under veterinary supervision (7). In Great Britain, the earliest comprehensive legislation relating to meat inspection was the Public Health Act of 1875, amended in 1890. This Act empowered medical officers of health and sanitary inspectors to seize unsound meat. However, a Royal Commission Report in 1896 found that routine inspection was undertaken by only a few local authorities and that the standard of inspection was variable, although the Royal Sanitary Institute offered a training course and, in 1899, instituted a special examination for meat inspectors (8). An ongoing limitation to effective inspection was that the majority of animals were slaughtered by individual butchers rather than in municipal slaughterhouses, which made inspection impractical (9), and it was not until 1924 that butchers were required to notify the local authority of the times of slaughter and to retain carcasses to await inspection (8). In North America, meat inspection was initiated in response to the requirement of European countries that imported meat should be subjected to inspection in the exporting country, following the transatlantic shipment of meat instead of live animals, facilitated by the development in the late 19th century of mechanical refrigeration. The first legislation in the United States was the Meat Inspection Act of 1890, which provided for the inspection of salted pork and bacon intended for export. This was followed by a more stringent law in 1891 that authorized the inspection of cattle, sheep, and hogs whose meat was intended for interstate commerce. Much more comprehensive was the Meat Inspection Act of 1906; this ensured that meat for export or interstate commerce would be produced under sanitary conditions and be fit for human consumption, and it required both anteand postmortem inspection by the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture (2). The Canadian Meat and Canned Foods Act of 1907, which inaugurated the federal meat inspection service in this country, was analagous to the US legislation. Legislation While legislation in Canada relating to meat inspection existed well before the 1907 Act, there was little enforcement of the legislation. The first meat inspection law on the North American continent was passed in New France in 1706 (3). In 1805, an Act to Regulate the Packing, Curing and Inspection of Beef and Pork in Upper Canada 542 Can Vet J Volume 47, June 2006

Figure 1. Portrait of John G. Rutherford, founder of the Canadian federal meat inspection service. (Photograph courtesy of Special Collections, University of Guelph Library.) made provision for the appointment of inspectors of beef and pork; this was extended to the whole Dominion of Canada in 1873, following confederation (10). However, except in Montreal in 1884, perhaps in response to William Osler s discovery of parasitic lesions in meat in that city on his return from his postgraduate studies under Virchow in Germany (5), no meat inspectors had been appointed and no training in meat inspection was available in Canada. In 1899, Duncan McEachran, Chief Veterinary Inspector for the Canada Department of Agriculture, commended the resolutions on meat inspection formulated at the 1899 International Veterinary Congress (7) to the Boards of Health in Canada, but he did not suggest that meat inspection should become a federal responsibility. However, by 1904, foreign countries were beginning to demand inspection certificates for meat that were similar to those issued by the US Bureau of Animal Industry. John Rutherford (Figure 1), who succeeded Duncan McEachran as Chief Veterinary Inspector in 1902 and, in 1904, became Veterinary Director General in charge of the reorganized Health of Animals Branch of the federal Department of Agriculture (1), took immediate steps in response to this need: a training program for meat inspectors had to be initiated and the required legislation formulated. In the latter endeavor, Rutherford drew upon the earlier American legislation, as well as his own experience as a member of the Manitoba Legislative Assembly from 1892 to 1896 and the Canadian House of Commons from 1897 to 1900 (11). The Meat and Canned Foods Act received royal assent on April 27, 1907, and the Regulations under the Act were approved on August 21, 1907, by Order in Council, to become effective on September 3, 1907 (10). This marked the establishment of the Meat Inspection Division, sometimes referred to as the Meat and Canned Foods Division, of the Health of Animals Branch. Rutherford indicated that he spent at least a year in the preparation of the legislation and in drafting the necessary Regulations. To ensure their support and cooperation, representatives of the meat packers who would be affected by the legislation were invited to Ottawa to discuss a draft of the proposed Regulations, which resulted in some minor changes (12). In essence, the Meat and Canned Foods Act and the associated Regulations, which were amended in 1908 and 1910 (13), required the ante- and postmortem inspection of cattle, sheep, swine, goats, game, or poultry slaughtered in all establishments engaged in export or interprovincial trade. Further details of the procedures for inspection and condemnation are given below. In addition, the legislation prescribed the sanitary conditions under which the establishments had to operate, and the inspectors were empowered to refuse inspection if these conditions were not met. In the early years of meat inspection, it is clear that, on occasions, there were major disagreements between the packers and the inspectorate, associated with the losses suffered by the former due to condemnations and the required improvements in sanitary conditions, but these appear generally to have been resolved satisfactorily (12), although from time to time, it was necessary to take legal action in cases of violation of the Meat and Canned Foods Act. The timeliness of the legislation was apparent when, in 1908, the British Government enforced restrictions under the Public Health Act of 1896 that would have banned the importation of meat from Canada had the Meat and Canned Foods Act not been in operation (14). The original legislation included foods other than meat, such as canned fruits and vegetables and various milk products, but, in 1929, administration of the Regulations governing the inspection of fruits and vegetables was transferred to the Fruit Branch of the Department of Agriculture, and that of milk products to the Dairy Commissioner (15). In 1930, Regulations for the inspection of horses and horse meat were included in the work of the Meat Inspection Division (16). In 1912, just over 4 years after the inception of the meat inspection service, members of the service met with representatives of the meat packers and transportation companies affected by the legislation. While the latter groups expressed their general approval of the manner in which the requirements of the Act and the Regulations had been administered, they raised the important issue of the admission into Canada of foreign meat and meat products (17). While the Meat and Canned Foods Act (13) required meat imported from foreign countries to have passed government inspection before leaving the country of origin, there was little subsequent control over imported meat and meat products; this problem was Can Vet J Volume 47, June 2006 543

Figure 2. Exterior view of the Toronto Municipal Abattoir, 1915 (28). resolved by an amendment to the Act in 1919, which gave control of imported foods to the Meat and Canned Foods Division (18). The original legislation, as amended, stood the test of time, since the Meat and Canned Foods Act was not replaced by the Meat Inspection Act until 1955, although the latter did not come into effect until 1959. The number of establishments under federal inspection increased from 27, located in 17 cities and towns, at the inception of the service in 1907, to 161 in 65 cities and towns at the 50th anniversary in 1957 (19), when it was estimated that over 75% of all cattle, calves, swine, and sheep slaughtered commercially in Canada were killed under the supervision of the federal meat inspection service (20). During the early years of the service, the hope was frequently expressed that complementary provincial or municipal services would be initiated, but this hope was not realized, and in Ontario (21) and British Columbia (personal communication: Larry Copeland, Director, Food Protection Services, British Columbia), provincial inspection did not begin until the 1960s, although by 1932, some cities had passed by-laws forbidding the sale of uninspected meat, sometimes permitting the sale of only federally inspected meat (22). In New Brunswick before 1967, abattoirs were licensed and inspected by Regional Boards of Health, and the city of Saint John required all meat to have been federally inspected. The Health Act of 1967 authorized the province to license and inspect abattoirs (personal communication: Louise Mason, Supervising Inspector, Agri-Food Services, New Brunswick). In Manitoba, the inspection of meat was contracted to the federal Department of Agriculture (personal communication: James Drew, Director, Food Protection, Manitoba Health). Staff The Meat and Canned Foods Act required veterinary inspectors in the Meat Inspection Division to pass an examination before they were appointed; examinations were held annually at various locations across the country. Since it was desirable to be able to exchange inspectors between the Diseases of Animals and Meat Inspection Divisions, veterinarians seeking appointments Figure 3. Interior view of one of the killing floors in the Toronto Municipal Abattoir 1915, showing an unidentified meat inspector (28). in the former were also required to pass the meat inspection examination (23). As early as 1904, Rutherford began planning a special course in meat inspection to be conducted by Charles Higgins, Chief Pathologist in the Animal Pathology Division at the Biological Laboratory in Ottawa (24). However, this proposal proved to be impractical, and in its place, Rutherford arranged, in 1907, for 59 Canadian veterinarians to take a special 5-week course in meat inspection at the Chicago Veterinary College, including practical work in the packing plants in the city (23). Of this group, 46 subsequently passed the prescribed examination and formed the nucleus of the meat inspection service, staffing the 27 establishments that initially operated under the Meat and Canned Foods Act. The Chicago Veterinary College was the largest private veterinary school in the United States, producing 2397 graduates between 1883 and 1920 (25). The course in Chicago was the only formal training program for meat inspectors organized by the Department of Agriculture, although the opening of the new Animal Pathology Laboratory in Hull in 1927 enabled inspectors to be transferred to Hull on a temporary basis from time to time for special training (26). However, from 1911 onwards, courses in meat inspection were included in the curriculum at the Ontario Veterinary College and at the veterinary faculty at Laval University (12). The first head of the meat inspection service was S.H. Ward, who was appointed in August 1907. He resigned in the following year to return to a position with the Livestock Sanitary Board of Minnesota (14); he was replaced by Robert Barnes, a graduate of the Chicago training course, who served as head of the Meat Inspection Division until his retirement in 1938. C.D. Maconachie served as Chief Inspector from 1938 to 1945; he was followed by Fred Parmiteer from 1945 to 1949 and G.A. Rose from 1949 to 1959 (1). Barnes had previously served as a traveling inspector, with the responsibility of visiting the various slaughtering plants to ensure uniformity in the inspection procedures (27). In 1915, a second traveling inspector was appointed to cover the region from Winnipeg to the west coast, restricting the responsibilities of the first traveling inspector to Can Vet J Volume 47, June 2006 545

Table 1. Number and distribution by province of inspected establishments, 1908 1957 Province 1908 1922 1932 1942 1957 Prince Edward Island 0 3 3 6 5 Nova Scotia 0 0 1 0 1 New Brunswick 0 0 3 2 3 Quebec 5 9 16 22 40 Ontario 18 15 20 29 54 Manitoba 4 8 11 11 15 Saskatchewan 0 1 4 5 13 Alberta 1 6 6 8 16 British Columbia 0 1 8 10 14 Totals 28 43 72 93 161 Data from Reports of the Veterinary Director General (19,22,23,37,38) the remainder of the country (28). The first municipal abattoir in Canada was opened in Toronto in the same year (Figures 2 and 3), and this well-equipped facility was under federal inspection from the outset. Senior inspectors were placed in charge of the inspectorate at the major centers of Montreal, Toronto, and Winnipeg; at the larger slaughtering plants, the veterinary inspectors were supplemented by lay inspectors who worked under the supervision of the former. In 1916, the Regulations under the Meat and Canned Foods Act were amended to require lay inspectors to pass an examination before they were appointed (29). The number of slaughtering plants under inspection, and hence the number of inspectors required to staff them, steadily increased, and there were recurring problems of recruitment to the service. The work was quite arduous, requiring the attendance of the inspectors for up to 10 hours per day, with additional hours during the busy fall months (30), and, on occasion, unusual levels of sickness were recorded (17). Particular staffing difficulties were encountered during World War I, when slaughtering was at a high level to meet the heavy demand for meat for the allied armies in Europe and a number of inspectors resigned in order to undertake military service (31). The problems encountered during this period led to criticism of the service by American and British officials; in response, the staff was increased and more rigid inspection put into effect, bringing the service up to the required standards (10). As a result, in 1919, the British authorities expressed their high opinion of the work of the staff during the previous year (18). However, the recruitment problem persisted in the postwar period. There was a steady decline in the number of veterinarians graduating from the veterinary colleges, and those who graduated performed poorly in the annual examinations for potential veterinary inspectors. Thus, Carcasses found to be unfit for food but suitable for rendering into lard or tallow were marked Rejected, while those marked Condemned were placed in the condemned room and subsequently disposed of under the supervision of an inspector. Table 2. Inspections and condemnations of carcasses, 1908 1957 Species Inspected Condemned % condemned Cattle 65 521 533 778 765 1.19 Sheep 31 756 556 90 314 0.28 Swine 167 717 254 462 517 0.27 Poultry 59 573 631 734 117 1.23 Data from Reports of the Veterinary Director General (19,34,39) in 1928, of the 51 veterinarians who wrote the examination, only 12 achieved the passing grade (32), and it was felt that the levels of remuneration were failing to attract the type of graduate most fitted for the service. In the following year, in order to alleviate the staffing problem, veterinarians who failed to qualify for permanent appointments were employed on a temporary basis and permitted to retake the examination in the hope of securing permanent positions (33). Ten years later, the situation had improved, with more candidates achieving success in the annual examination, and, in 1939, there were 280 full-time employees in the Meat Inspection Division (34). During World War II, there were again staffing problems. The volume of work increased, and the staff was depleted by military service. It was necessary to draw upon the field staff in the Contagious Diseases Section, which resulted in decreased activity in the bovine tuberculosis eradication program (35). Between 1945 and 1947, there were significant improvements in the salaries of veterinary inspectors, which enabled the service to retain many experienced inspectors, but it failed to attract many new employees due to competition from private practice, although the complement of full-time staff increased to 400 (36). Subsequently, there was some improvement in the staffing situation as increased numbers of veterinarians graduated in the postwar period. Inspections and condemnations The inspection procedures were laid down in the Meat and Canned Foods Act and the associated Regulations (13). All animals were examined prior to slaughter, and any found to be diseased were held and slaughtered at the end of the regular kill. Following slaughter, all carcasses were thoroughly inspected, and those found fit for food were marked with an inspection legend bearing the crown, the words Canada Approved, and the establishment number. Carcasses requiring further examination were held in a detention room for reinspection. The Regulations listed the diseases or conditions for which the whole carcass must be condemned. These included 546 Can Vet J Volume 47, June 2006

anthrax; blackleg; pyemia or septicemia; rabies; tetanus; malignant catarrh; hog cholera; swine plague; Texas fever; parasitic icterhematuria; inflammation of the lungs, pleura, intestines, peritoneum, or uterus; traumatic pericarditis; jaundice; uremia; abnormal sexual smell; recent parturition; immaturity; tapeworm cysts; emaciation; or anemia. Carcasses affected with tuberculosis, actinomycosis, or actinobacillosis were to be condemned, unless the lesions were localized, in which case only the affected portions of the carcass were condemned. The finding of abscesses, bruises, tumors, or internal parasitic infection required condemnation of the whole or part of the carcass. Other abnormalities were subject to the judgement of the inspector. The presence of any contagious disease was reported to the Veterinary Director General for possible action under the Animal Contagious Diseases Act. Carcasses found to be unfit for food but suitable for rendering into lard or tallow were marked Rejected, while those marked Condemned were placed in the condemned room and subsequently disposed of under the supervision of an inspector. Additional responsibilities (19) of the inspectors included supervision of the preparation of meat and meat by-products to ensure cleanliness, guarding against the use of harmful ingredients, prevention of the use of false and deceptive labeling, and inspection of imported meat, as well as certification for export of such diverse products as canned stewed meat, soup mix, gelatine, and pickled horse meat. The number and distribution by province of the inspected meat packing plants are shown in Table 1, and the numbers of animals slaughtered by province reflected the numbers of packing plants, with the majority being in Ontario and Quebec, smaller numbers in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia, and relatively few in the remaining provinces (19,22,23,37,38). During the first 15 years of the service, only cattle, sheep, and swine were inspected. In 1923, buffalo were added to the list of species, and, from 1924, poultry were inspected. Goats were first inspected in 1925, and the inspection of horses began in 1931. Other species inspected in small numbers from time to time included rabbits, elk, deer, moose, yaks, and bears (19,34,39). The numbers of inspected and condemned carcasses for the major species from 1907 to 1957 are shown in Table 2. While the condemnation rates did not vary greatly during this period, there were important changes in the causes of condemnation. The main reason for the condemnation of calves throughout this period was immaturity and, for many years, the major cause of condemnation of mature cattle carcasses and portions thereof was tuberculosis. To some extent, condemnations for tuberculosis may have been inflated by the requirement of the bovine tuberculosis eradication program that reactors to the tuberculin test must be slaughtered in federally inspected abattoirs to ensure that the carcasses were subject to inspection. In 1928, 22 032 tuberculin test reactors were slaughtered, but these represented only 2% of the total cattle kill, of which over 100 000 carcasses or portions of carcasses were condemned for tuberculosis, a figure greatly in excess of the number of reactors that were slaughtered (32). Condemnations of cattle due to tuberculosis peaked Figure 4. Bovine heart submitted to the Biological Laboratory of the Animal Health Division by Inspector Fisher of Winnipeg in 1908 (14). Cysts of Cysticercus bovis are shown deep in the musculature (A) and beneath the endocardium (B). in 1918 at 58% of condemnations (31) and remained at a relatively high level (33% of condemnations) as late as 1950 (40). Thereafter, the condemnation rate due to tuberculosis steadily declined, reaching a low point of 2% of condemnations in 1957 (19), associated with the increasing effectiveness of the eradication program in the field. During the latter period, emaciation was the main cause of condemnation of mature cattle, followed by peritonitis, pyemia and septicemia, and pericarditis. Tuberculosis was also the major cause of condemnation of swine for most of the first 50 years of the meat inspection service, peaking at 75% of condemnations in 1918 (31). By 1935, the condemnation rate for tuberculosis had declined below 50% of condemnations (41) and, by 1945, tuberculosis (24% of condemnations) was replaced by arthritis (27% of condemnations) as the main cause of condemnation of swine (42). In 1957, only 6% of swine carcass condemnations were due to tuberculosis, while 43% of condemnations were due to arthritis (19). Other significant causes of condemnation of swine were pyemia and septicemia, pneumonia, and emaciation. While not posing the same public health threat as tuberculosis in cattle and swine, avian tuberculosis was the major cause of poultry condemnations for many years (39), and the condemnation rate for tuberculosis remained high in 1957 (19), together with emaciation, peritonitis, and tumors. Tuberculosis was not recorded in sheep, for which the major causes of condemnation were parasitic infections, such as tapeworm cysts and flukes (27), Can Vet J Volume 47, June 2006 547

emaciation, pneumonia, pyemia and septicemia, and arthritis (19). Despite its vital role in the livestock industry, the work of the Meat Inspection Division of the Health of Animals Branch of the Department of Agriculture was perceived as being less glamorous than that of the Contagious Diseases Division. Laboratory support Laboratory support for the meat inspection service was provided by several government departments, including the Animal Pathology Division of the Health of Animals Branch, the Dominion Agricultural Chemist, the Dominion Agricultural Bacteriologist, and the Chief Dominion Analyst of the Department of National Health and Welfare (42). In the fiscal year ending March 31, 1957, a total of 3450 samples of diseased tissues or animal products were subjected to laboratory examination (19). Meat inspectors began to submit specimens (Figure 4) to the Animal Pathology Division as early as 1908 (14). At this time, the Division operated out of the Biological Laboratory in Ottawa under Charles Higgins, who was succeeded by Seymour Hadwen in 1917. The laboratory moved to a house on Cliff Street in Ottawa in 1922; in the following year, Edward Watson was appointed Chief Pathologist. The service moved again in 1927 to the new Animal Diseases Research Institute in Hull, and Charles Mitchell succeeded Watson in 1943. Branch laboratories that also provided some support for the meat inspection service were located in Lethbridge, Alberta; Agassiz (later Saanichton and Vancouver), British Columbia; and Sackville, New Brunswick (1). The main submissions to the Animal Pathology Division were diseased tissues for confirmation of diagnosis; in 1957, 937 such samples were examined (19). In response to specific requests, the meat inspectors also forwarded pathological specimens of animal tissues to research and educational institutions for scientific study (19). A collection of museum specimens was developed, and some of these, together with fresh tissues, were included in exhibits at Public Health Exhibitions in Toronto and Ottawa in 1909 (43) and in Winnipeg in 1913 (44). The conditions illustrated included tuberculosis in cattle and swine, actinomycosis, measly beef and pork, and hog cholera. In addition to diseased tissues, canned meats suspected of being unwholesome were submitted to the pathologists for examination from time to time (45). In 1912, Higgins reported on extensive studies on the quality of gelatine used in the preparation of jellied food products, in an attempt to develop a standard for this product (17). However, it was not until 1936 that a standard for edible gelatine was established by the Dominion Agricultural Chemist and included in the Meat and Canned Foods Act (46). Like the Animal Pathology Division, the Agricultural Chemist, Frank Shutt, examined a variety of samples submitted by the Meat Inspection Division from as early as 1908 (28). These included food preservatives, coloring matters, meat products, and lard. Samples of pharmaceutical gelatine and edible bone flour were regularly submitted to the Food and Drug Division of the Department of National Health and Welfare for analysis (37). In 1957, 1901 samples of gelatine and 26 samples of bone flour were examined (19). Beginning in 1942, regular surveys of manufactured meats from inspected establishments were conducted by the Agricultural Chemist and Agricultural Bacteriologist (47), and this was later extended to include the testing of cooked meat and meat products for pathogenic bacteria by the Animal Pathology Division s Laboratories at Hull, Lethbridge, Sackville, and Vancouver (37). Conclusions The initiation of the federal meat inspection service was one of several major achievements by John Rutherford as Veterinary Director General. The contribution of Robert Barnes, who served as head of the service for 25 years, was also noteworthy. The growth of the service during its first 50 years was also remarkable. However, despite its vital role in the livestock industry, the work of the Meat Inspection Division of the Health of Animals Branch of the Department of Agriculture was perceived as being less glamorous than that of the Contagious Diseases Division. By 1957, the work of the latter had led to the eradication of dourine, glanders, and foot-and-mouth disease, and to major progress in the control of hog cholera, bovine tuberculosis, and bovine brucellosis. More recently, as the federal role in the control of contagious diseases has declined, food inspection has received greater prominence, as exemplified by the replacement of the Health of Animals Branch by the Food Protection and Inspection Branch of Agriculture Canada in 1977, and by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency in 1997. Acknowledgments George Fleming, Larry Copeland, Louise Mason, and James Drew kindly provided information on the initiation of provincial meat inspection services in Ontario, British Columbia, New Brunswick, and Manitoba. Scott McEwen directed the author to the above sources and generously reviewed the manuscript, making valuable suggestions for revision. CVJ References 1. Dukes T, McAninch N. Health of Animals Branch, Agriculture Canada: A look at the past. Can Vet J 1992;33:58 64. 548 Can Vet J Volume 47, June 2006

2. Wiser V. Meat and poultry inspection in the United States Department of Agriculture. In: Wiser V, Mark L, Purchase HG, eds. 100 Years of Animal Health, 1st ed. Beltsville: Associates of the National Agricultural Library Inc, 1986:169 205. 3. Libby JA. Meat Hygiene, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, 1975:1 15. 4. Schwabe CW. Veterinary Medicine and Human Health, 3rd ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1984:539 541. 5. Saunders LZ. Virchow s contributions to veterinary medicine: celebrated then, forgotten now. Vet Pathol 2000;37:199 207. 6. Dunlop RH, Williams DJ. Veterinary Medicine. An Illustrated History, 1st ed. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, 1996:576 577. 7. McEachran D. Report on visit to Germany as representative of the Dominion at the Seventh International Congress of Veterinary Surgeons held from August 7 to August 18, 1899 in Baden-Baden. In: Report of the Minister of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada for the Year Ended October 31, 1899. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1900:126 130. 8. Pearce JWR, Pugh LP, Ritchie J, eds. Animal Health A Centenary 1865 1965, 1st ed. London: Her Majesty s Stationery Office, 1965:283 288. 9. Perren R. The Meat Trade in Britain 1840 1914, 1st ed. London: Routledge & Kegan, 1978:148 156. 10. Anonymous. History of Health of Animals Division, Department of Agriculture 1790 1960. Archival Collections, University of Guelph, XA1 MS A061. 11. Wallace WS, ed. The Macmillan Dictionary of Canadian Biography, 4th ed. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, 1978:735. 12. Rutherford JG. Report of the Veterinary Director General and Livestock Commissioner for the year ending March 31, 1911. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1911:48 54. 13. Rutherford JG. Report of the Veterinary Director General and Livestock Commissioner for the year ending March 31, 1911 Appendix No. XVIII. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1911:53 269. 14. Rutherford JG. Report of the Veterinary Director General and Livestock Commissioner for the year ending March 31, 1909. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1911:21 67. 15. Barnes R. The Meat and Canned Foods Division. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1929. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1929:51 56. 16. Barnes R. The Meat and Canned Foods Division. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1930. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1930:53 59. 17. Rutherford JG. Report of the Veterinary Director General and Livestock Commissioner for the year ending March 31, 1912. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1912:24 78. 18. Torrance F. Meat and Canned Foods Division. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the years ending March 31, 1919 and March 31, 1920. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1921:18 24. 19. Rose GA. Meat Inspection Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1957. 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Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 1, 1931. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1931:11. 27. Rutherford JG. Report of the Veterinary Director General and Livestock Commissioner for the two years ending March 31, 1908. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1909:38 77. 28. Torrance F. Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1915. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1916:35 126. 29. Torrance F. Meat and Canned Foods Division. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1916. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1917:24 35. 30. Barnes R. Appendix No. II. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General and Livestock Commissioner for the year ending March 31, 1911. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1911:99 101. 31. Torrance F. Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1918. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1919:17 23. 32. Hilton G. Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1928. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1928:6 49. 33. Hilton G. Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1929. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1929:12. 34. Maconachie C. Meat and Canned Foods Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1939. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1939:31 41. 35. Barker M. Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1944. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1944:5. 36. Parmiter F. Meat and Canned Foods Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1947. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1947:32 41. 37. Torrance F. Meat and Canned Foods Division. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1922. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1923:22 30. 38. Maconachie C. Meat and Canned Foods Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1942. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1942:33 45. 39. Rose GA. Meat Inspection Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1954. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1954:54 67. 40. Rose GA. Meat and Canned Foods Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1950. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1950:45 53. 41. Barnes R. Meat and Canned Foods Division. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1935. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1935:29 35. 42. Parmiter F. Meat and Canned Foods Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1945. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1946:29 37. 43. Higgins CH. Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1910. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1911:57. 44. McGilvray CD. Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1914. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1915:42. 45. Parmiter F. Meat and Canned Foods Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1946. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1947:29 37. 46. Hilton G. Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1937. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1937:7. 47. Maconachie C. Meat and Canned Foods Section. In: Report of the Veterinary Director General for the year ending March 31, 1943. Ottawa: Department of Agriculture, 1943:28 41. Can Vet J Volume 47, June 2006 549