William J. Fielding a, Melanie Gall b, Dick Green c & Warren S. Eller d a Planning Unit, The College of The Bahamas, New

This article was downloaded by: [Dr Kenneth Shapiro] On: 09 June 2015, At: 10:34 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/haaw20 Care of Dogs and Attitudes of Dog Owners in Port-au-Prince, the Republic of Haiti William J. Fielding a, Melanie Gall b, Dick Green c & Warren S. Eller d a Planning Unit, The College of The Bahamas, New Providence, The Bahamas b Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge c International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth Port, Massachusetts d Department of Public Administration, University of North Carolina at Pembroke Published online: 28 Jun 2012. To cite this article: William J. Fielding, Melanie Gall, Dick Green & Warren S. Eller (2012) Care of Dogs and Attitudes of Dog Owners in Port-au-Prince, the Republic of Haiti, Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 15:3, 236-253, DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2012.683760 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2012.683760 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content ) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views

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JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL WELFARE SCIENCE, 15:236 253, 2012 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1088-8705 print/1532-7604 online DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2012.683760 Care of Dogs and Attitudes of Dog Owners in Port-au-Prince, the Republic of Haiti William J. Fielding, 1 Melanie Gall, 2 Dick Green, 3 and Warren S. Eller 4 1 Planning Unit, The College of The Bahamas, New Providence, The Bahamas 2 Department of Geography & Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge 3 International Fund for Animal Welfare, Yarmouth Port, Massachusetts 4 Department of Public Administration, University of North Carolina at Pembroke This article reports the first known study on dogs in Port-au-Prince. Interviews with 1,290 residents provided information on 1,804 dogs. More than 57.7% of homes kept dogs. Not all the dogs received vaccinations for rabies (41.6%), even though 28.2% of households had had a household member bitten by a dog. Although the owned dog population had decreased as a result of the earthquake in January 2010, the number of roaming dogs appeared to have been uninfluenced by the disaster. Given that 64.8% of dogs probably had access to the street and only 6.0% of the females were spayed, to humanely contain the dog population will require both confinement and neutering. Although roaming dogs were considered a nuisance by 63.3% of respondents, 42.6% of households fed dogs they did not own. Dogs have been present in many pre-columbian communities in the Caribbean (M. Schwartz, 1997); yet, compared to other regions of the world, there appears to be little research on the care of, and attitudes toward, dogs in the Caribbean. In recent years, welfare issues for nonhuman animals in the Caribbean have Correspondence should be sent to William J. Fielding, Director of Planning, Planning Unit, The College of The Bahamas, Oakes Field, New Providence, The Bahamas. Email: wfru@hotmail.com 236

CARE OF AND ATTITUDES TOWARD DOGS IN HAITI 237 been promoted by Caribbean animal welfare conferences and an ever increasing body of literature (Fielding, 2007; Fielding & Ostberg, 2008). However, as far as we know, no study on companion animals has been attempted in the Republic of Haiti. Haiti, with a population of about 9.7 million (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011), occupies a unique position in the Caribbean. On one hand, it was the first country in the region to obtain its independence; on the other, it remains the poorest country in the region (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011) and is commonly considered a failed state (Natsios, 2010). Compounding this situation was a major earthquake in January 2010, which destroyed large parts of the capital. The earthquake was thought to have killed 230,000 people and left 1.3 million homeless (International Rescue Committee, 2011), but these widely reported figures were later revised downward to between 46,190 and 84,961 killed and between 866,412 and 894,588 homeless (T. Schwartz, Pierre, & Calpas, 2011). The earthquake made many of Port-au-Prince s estimated 2.1 million human population (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011) homeless and devastated by already limited social and governmental services; this placed even greater strains on an already fragile public health system (Dowell, Tappero, & Frieden, 2011). Against this background of distress and poverty, with 56% of the country living on less than US$1 per day (Faubert, 2006), it should be noted that rabies occurs in both the human and dog populations (Schneider et al., 2011). In 2003, Haiti had the second highest mortality rate due to rabies in the Latin America region (Schneider et al., 2007). Dogs are considered the primary cause of rabies worldwide (Cleaveland, Kaare, Knobel, & Laurenson, 2006) and also in urban populations such as Port-au-Prince (Organización Panamericana de la Salud, Área de Prevención y Control de Enfermedades, Unidad de Salud PúblicaVeterinaria, 2005). Of the 39 human deaths due to rabies in Haiti during the period 1993 2002, 29 were due to dogs, one due to a cat, and the rest attributed to unidentified animals (Belotto, Leanes, Schneider, Tamayo, & Correa, 2005). However, some cases of humans contracting rabies in Haiti resulted in deaths outside the country, so these figures may be underestimated (Immunization Action Coalition, 2005). Initially, after the earthquake, concerns were raised that dislocated companion animals will form roving packs, facilitating greater transmission of rabies among canine populations and perhaps place them in conflict with humans in their search for food (Wilson, 2011). This raised concerns that the earthquake might cause a rise in the number of rabies-related deaths. Dr. Millien, the head veterinarian in Haiti, indicated that the earthquake killed dog caregivers (owners), leading to an increase in the number of stray dogs (American Veterinary Medical Association, 2010). According to the Pan American Health Organization (2010), Human rabies transmitted by dogs is a priority disease in Haiti. The importance of this disease

238 FIELDING, GALL, GREEN, ELLER has been recognized by international agencies assisting in the vaccination of dogs against rabies in Haiti (Pan American Health Organization, 2008). In 2008, 355,000 cats and dogs were vaccinated against rabies (American Veterinary Medical Association, 2010). In the first 7 months of 2010, 455,000 dogs and cats were vaccinated, and 40 people contracted rabies in Haiti (Larkin, 2010). The World Society for the Protection of Animals (2010), quoting Haitian government statistics, claims 100,000 dogs in a population of 500,000 had been vaccinated in the previous year. These figures help to give an idea of the possible size of the dog population, although the basis of these estimates is not known. Although the importance of vaccination in the eradication of rabies is appreciated (Clifton, 2011), its effectiveness depends upon knowing the size of the population of the animals who need to be vaccinated. There were no established animal welfare groups in Haiti prior to the earthquake. A number of animal welfare groups offered their assistance shortly after the disaster, including the Animal Relief Coalition for Haiti (ARCH), comprised of 21 national and international agencies and led by the International Fund for Animal Welfare and the World Society for Protection of Animals. During ARCH s 14-month relief effort, it treated more than 50,000 animals, including providing vaccinations for rabies (World Society for the Protection of Animals, 2011). It was against this background and these concerns that this survey was undertaken. Its purpose was to assist the Ministry of Agriculture (MARNDR) and the international animal welfare groups to be more effective in their animal welfare programs, to provide information on the population of animals, and to gain an understanding of the attitudes and care of dogs and cats in Port-au- Prince. At the same time, it appears to be the first systematic study on animal ownership in Port-au-Prince. METHOD In collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Haiti, the authors and ARCH devised a questionnaire capturing general information about dog and cat populations, animals on the farm, rabies, and animal care. The questionnaire differentiated between owned and roaming dogs in the respondents respective neighborhoods as well as animal populations before and after the earthquake. In this article, we use the term owned to refer to dogs whom respondents would regard as their property, irrespective of the legality of the ownership. Unowned dogs are those dogs whom the respondent did not claim and presumed to be no one else s property. Stray is rather a loosely used term in the Caribbean (Fielding, 2008b); they should probably be considered uncared for and possibly feral, or, at least, with a long flight distance.

CARE OF AND ATTITUDES TOWARD DOGS IN HAITI 239 TABLE 1 Questions Included on the Survey Form General Information About Rabies Do you know that rabies exists in Haiti? Have you ever heard of this disease occurring in your neighborhood before the earthquake? Do you know it is a very dangerous disease? Do you know someone who died from rabies in your neighborhood before the earthquake? Specific Information of Dogs and Cats of Your Household How many dogs and cats belong to your household? How many of these animals are males and females? How old are these animals? What breeds are your dogs? How many of these dogs have been fixed? How many of your animals had a litter in the past 6 months? How often do you bathe or groom the animals? Where do you keep your animals? How many of your animals have received veterinary treatment in the last 12 months? How many of your animals have been vaccinated against rabies? How often do you feed your animals per day? How often do you give drinking water to your animals per day? Do you agree with the statement Your dogs are part of your family? What and HOW many other animals belong to your household? Information We Would Like to Know About Animals in Your Neighborhood About how many dogs and cats who are not yours live in your current neighborhood now? How many dogs and cats who are not yours does your household feed now? How many dogs and cats did your household own just before the earthquake? How many dogs and cats who were not yours did your household feed just before the earthquake? About how many dogs and cats who are not yours lived in your neighborhood before the earthquake? To your knowledge, how many roaming animals in your current neighborhood does anyone feed, other than a member of your household? Do you consider roaming dogs a nuisance (e.g., barking, defecating, turning over garbage)? If yes, what do you consider the SINGLE biggest problem with roaming dogs? Have you or anyone in your household been bitten by a dog in the last year? Note. In addition, location and global positioning system data were recorded. The surveyors were selected by MARNDR and were subjected to an intense, 3-day training session, including practice interviews and use of global positioning system (GPS) devices. They were supervised while in the field, and care was taken at all stages to ensure their personal safety. The members of the training team also supervised the surveyors on the first 2 days of data collection. This article focuses on rabies-related issues and the care of dogs from data collected through a survey. Table 1 provides a summary of the survey questions. The questionnaire consisted of 28 numbered questions; however, 13 of them

240 FIELDING, GALL, GREEN, ELLER required answers on both cats and dogs. Typically, the survey took about 15 min to administer. The survey was administered in downtown Port-au-Prince (see shaded areas in Figure 1), which had an estimated population of 700,000 people prior to the earthquake according to the 2003 U.S. Census gridded population data (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Ideally, the authors wished to conduct a household survey. In the absence of resources to include every household, as in a census, they utilized a sampling plan a structured approach to estimate the number of animals before and after the earthquake from a subset of the population. For the purpose of this study, an estimate of 4.5 to 5 people per household was used, which was established by Kolbe and Hutson (2006) and T. Schwartz et al. (2011) for the greater Port-au-Prince area. To achieve a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 1.5%, it would have been necessary to survey 4,000 random households. Given the lack of demographic data by which the population could have been stratified, the survey data were collected by a spatially stratified sampling FIGURE 1 Data collection strategy. Darker shaded grids indicate areas of higher population density and, therefore, the collection of more surveys. Triangles represent camp locations.

CARE OF AND ATTITUDES TOWARD DOGS IN HAITI 241 method. This is a common approach in geography, geology, or epidemiology, where study units cannot be stratified based on demographics or addresses or in developing countries where stratification data are often not available (DeSanty, Flock, & Applegate, 2001; Perry & Gesler, 2000; Roberts, Riyadh, Garfield, Khudhairi, & Burnham, 2004).To avoid convenience sampling along main roads and easily accessible areas and to increase accuracy, we partitioned the downtown area into grids of 200 200 m; this resulted in a total of 554 grids (Figure 1). The planned sample of 4,000 households was then proportionally distributed across these 554 grids according to population density. In survey grids where more people lived, more surveys were administered. The gridded population by the U.S. Census Bureau from 2003 and weekly updated camp populations from the Camp Coordination and Camp Management Cluster served as baseline data for the population. Over the course of 2 weeks in September 2010, survey teams attempted to interview local residents within each interview grid. Four teams, consisting of four to five interviewers each, traveled on foot from grid to grid using handheld GPS devices. When interview teams arrived at their destination grid, team members selected participants randomly after establishing that the participant lived in the neighborhood and/or camp. Each survey was georeferenced to ensure coverage and allow for spatial data analysis. Surveys were conducted in street-intercept fashion due to their generally higher response rate and to ensure inclusion of all segments of the urban population, including people living in camps (Miller, Wilder, Stillman, & Becker, 1997). For security reasons, no interviewer was allowed to enter homes, tents, or businesses. The interview administration generally occurred between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m., Monday through Saturday. Daily morning briefings ensured interview consistency. Due to security restrictions, interviews were not conducted in the evenings, which could have resulted in an underrepresentation of the working population in our survey. Because the goal of the survey was to collect data on household attitudes and neighborhood characteristics rather than individual attitudes, the developed survey method is applicable and reliable. It should be noted that the definition of a neighborhood was independent of administrative or geographic boundaries. It was left to a participant to declare his or her belonging or nonbelonging to the neighborhood in which the interview was conducted. Due to turmoil and security concerns associated with the impending presidential elections, parts of the densely populated southern areas of downtown Portau-Prince and industrial zones along the coast could not be surveyed (Figure 2). As a result, the data collection did not cover the study area as planned. The data management and analysis occurred in SPSS as well as in ArcGIS 10. A select group from the surveyors with experience in Excel were selected for data entry.

242 FIELDING, GALL, GREEN, ELLER FIGURE 2 Location of collected surveys. Darker shaded grids indicate higher frequencies of planned data collection (based on population density). The white dots indicate where the data were actually collected. RESULTS Dog Ownership and Dog Demographics A total of 1,290 people were surveyed, each presumed to represent a different household. Of these respondents, 744 kept a total of 1,804 dogs. As not all survey questions were answered, these numbers represent the maximum sample size. For ease of presentation, only where the number of responses is very different from these figures do we give the total number of responses. Extent of Dog Ownership and Dog Demographics Across all households, the mean number of dogs per household was 1.40, standard error D 0.054. A majority of households (57.7%) kept dogs. In 744 dog-owning homes, a mean of 2.42 dogs, standard error D 0.075, were kept.

CARE OF AND ATTITUDES TOWARD DOGS IN HAITI 243 TABLE 2 Demographics of Owned Dogs Demographic % N Population, male 61.2 1,774 Age <6 months 33.1 3 Age 6 months 2 years 31.7 7 5 1,663 Age over 2 years 21.5 Age unknown 13.7 Male dogs were more popular than female dogs (61.4% vs. 38.6%). Relatively few dogs were over 2 years old (Table 2). Most of the dogs kept by respondents were locally bred; 79.5% of the dogs were domestic mixed breeds, 18.6% Creole (local mongrel dogs), 1.0% foreign pure-breed, and 0.9% foreign mixed breed. Breeding Status and Care The breeding status and health care of owned dogs are summarized in Table 3. Overall, 41.6% of dogs were reported as being vaccinated against rabies, and 5.1% of the respondents were uncertain as to whether their dogs had been vaccinated. Consequently, less than half the dogs were vaccinated against rabies. In the smaller group of dogs for whom age and vaccination status were reported, proportionally more older dogs than younger dogs were vaccinated against rabies. The most common place where dogs were kept was in the yard (49.7%) with only 4.9% fenced in. While 1.3% of dogs were tied, 35.2% were either kept TABLE 3 Breeding and Health Characteristics of Owned Dogs Characteristic % n Males, neutered 22.1 1,106 Females, spayed 6.0 695 Females, over 6 months, spayed 6.4 524 Females, over 6 months, whelping in previous 6 months 34.8 509 Taken to veterinarian in previous 12 months 31.0 1,799 i Vaccinated against rabies 41.6 1,802 Vaccination status uncertain 5.1 Vaccinated against rabies, age D <6 months 30.5 465 Vaccinated against rabies, age 6 months 2 years 37.2 452 Vaccinated against rabies, age over 2 years 41.8 285

244 FIELDING, GALL, GREEN, ELLER indoors or in a cage or doghouse. However, 88.2% of caregivers considered their dogs members of the family, even though most of the dogs were not only kept in the house. In 27.7% of the households, the animals were not fed daily. In 91.1% of the households, water was always available for the dogs, and the remainder offered it when available. Dogs Not Kept by Respondents Of 1,290 households, 42.6% of the respondents fed at least one dog whom they did not own, resulting in a reported number of 1,646 dogs being fed. Respondents also gave their guess of the number of dogs in their neighborhood. This resulted in a reported neighborhood dog population of 12,114, and respondents thought that 3,653 dogs were fed by their neighbors. Roaming dogs were a nuisance to 63.3% of respondents. According to 810 respondents, the most commonly reported nuisance activities were defecating, 47.2%; barking, 34.5%; turning over garbage, 14.0%; and biting, 4.0%. Single Dog-Owning Homes In many cases, the information previously presented, particularly the care and attitudes toward dogs, is not specific to a particular dog within a household. The analysis of the 314 homes with only one dog produced results similar to those already presented. However, we noted that animals kept inside the home were more likely to be neutered than those kept elsewhere. Of the animals kept only inside the home, 26.1% (of 111 dogs) were neutered and 12.4% (of 186) dogs kept elsewhere were neutered (odds ratio of animals kept inside the home and neutered compared with those kept outside the home D 2.51, 95% CI [1.36 4.60]). The percentage of dogs vaccinated against rabies increased with age: 41.4% less than 6 months old, 44.6% of those between 6 months and 2 years old, and 60.8% of those over 2 years old. Dogs kept inside and outside the home were equally likely to be regarded as members of the household (odds ratio of dogs being considered members of the household being kept inside the home compared with those kept elsewhere D 1.00, 95% CI [0.50 1.99]). Consequences of the Earthquake on the Dog Population Prior to the earthquake, 52.8% of respondents indicated that they kept dogs; this rose to 57.7% at the time of the study (test for two proportions, significance level, p <.01). Prior to the earthquake, respondents claimed that they owned 2,357 dogs. This figure dropped to 1,804 about one year later, indicating a 23.5%

CARE OF AND ATTITUDES TOWARD DOGS IN HAITI 245 TABLE 4 Respondents Knowledge of Rabies Aspects of Rabies Yes (%) No (%) n Know rabies exists 92.1 7.9 1,285 Heard of rabies in area before quake 82.6 17.4 1,282 Know that rabies is bad 90.9 9.1 1,290 Heard of someone dying of rabies before the quake 5.2 94.8 1,280 Seen people with rabies before the quake 8.7 91.3 1,290 Seen dogs with rabies before the quake 30.5 69.4 1,288 drop as a result of the disaster. The earthquake also caused an apparent decline in number of dogs owned per household. Ownership shrank from 1.83 dogs per household (standard error D 0.106) to 1.40 dogs per household (standard error D 0.054). The number of unowned dogs fed before and after the earthquake did not change greatly (1,618 vs. 1,646, respectively). The estimated number of dogs living in respondents neighborhoods remained fairly stable (12,361 vs. 12,114). Rabies Most respondents (92.1%) knew that rabies was present in Haiti, and a similar percentage (90.9%) knew that rabies was bad. However, only 5.2% of the respondents had heard of someone dying of rabies, although 8.7% claimed to have seen a person with rabies. Of the respondents, 30.5% said that they had seen dogs with rabies (Table 4). A household member had been bitten in 28.2% of homes. Dogs familiar to the respondent were most often responsible for bites. Less than 3% of respondents reported being bitten by street dogs (Table 5). Of the 75 dog owners bitten by their own dogs, only 41.9% had all their dogs vaccinated for rabies. TABLE 5 Percentage of 1,289 Respondents Reporting Bites by Dogs in the Previous 12 Months Respondent or Household Member Bitten No Yes, by Own Dog Yes, by a Dog You Know Yes, by a Street Dog N Currently not a dog owner 72.5 6.8 16.3 4.4 545 Currently a dog owner 71.4 10.1 16.7 1.9 744 Overall 71.8 8.7 16.5 2.9 1,289

246 FIELDING, GALL, GREEN, ELLER DISCUSSION Limitations Working in an earthquake area presented a number of challenges that impacted the project. The movement of people from permanent housing to temporary shelters resulted in a distributional shifts of households. This might have affected the data sampling, which was based on population distribution. However, we tried to account for this by including up-to-date camp data to supplement the 2003 U.S. gridded population of Haiti. Clearly, this lack of access to selected areas has the potential to introduce bias into the results. The discrepancies between samplings planned to actual can be appreciated in Figure 2. Ownership of dogs is a loosely used term in the Caribbean. Although a person may feed a dog, which is probably the extent of the care offered, the person may not regard the dog as his or her property. The number of dogs who were reported as being in the neighborhood or fed by others, including those fed by respondents, should be regarded as best guesses by the respondents. However, our interest in these responses is the difference between these numbers. Provided the bias (due to double counting) between the pre- and postearthquake estimates is not greatly different, then the bias in the difference should be of little concern. Dog Demographics The study allows a new estimate for the number of dogs in Port-au-Prince. Based on our findings of 1.40 dogs per household, we set the estimated dog population for greater Port-au-Prince at 191,477 dogs, assuming five people per household (T. Schwartz et al., 2011) and a total population of 854,807 households (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011), along with a death rate of 2.2% due to the earthquake (T. Schwartz et al., 2011). This estimate will now permit the authorities to better assess the resources required to contain the dog population and the public health issues associated with this size of population. Dog ownership does not appear as widespread in Port-au-Prince (57.7%) as in other territories of the Caribbean. For example, dog ownership is below that of St. Martin: 81% (Romey, 2004) and the Mexican State of Yucatan: between 64% and 73% (Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2007); however, it is more common than in The Bahamas: 47% (Fielding, Mather, & Isaacs, 2005) and Dominica: 39% (Davis, Alie, Fielding, Morters, & Galindo, 2007). The keeping of more than one dog per household is similar to these aforementioned studies. The preference for male dogs (61.2%) was similar to that seen in Dominica: 60% (Davis et al., 2007) but less marked than in St. Martin: 52% (Romey, 2004), The Bahamas: 53% (Fielding, Samuels, & Mather, 2002), or the Yucatan: 49% (Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2007).

CARE OF AND ATTITUDES TOWARD DOGS IN HAITI 247 Throughout the wider Caribbean region, the aforementioned studies have found predominantly juvenile dog populations. This likely reflects the lack of adequate food and health care and the presence of diseases such as heartworm (Hoff, McEwen, & Peregrine, 2008). The breed composition of the owned dogs shows a lack of imported breeds. This composition is even more marked than that found in other territories where local mongrels are a smaller percentage of the owned population: Dominica: 46%, The Bahamas: 40%, St. Martin: 38%, and Yucatan: 37% (Davis et al., 2007; Fielding, 2007; Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2007; Romey, 2004). Overall, dog ownership falls within the norms of the region. Breeding Status and Care Most dogs were intact, which explains the high percentage of females who had whelped in the previous 12 months. This breeding ability is greater than in The Bahamas: 61% of females intact (Fielding & Plumridge, 2005) or Dominica: 88% of females intact (Davis et al., 2007). Few caregivers in Port-au-Prince would be expected to be able to pay for neutering. Coupled with limited access to veterinary clinics, this may explain the low neutering rate in Port-au-Prince. In The Bahamas (Fielding et al., 2005) and Merida, female dogs are more likely to be neutered than male dogs (Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2007), whereas in Port-au-Prince, the reverse was found. It would be instructive to find out if this difference is due to gender-related attitudes toward neutering companion animals (Blackshaw & Day, 1994) or to the cost of the operation. Such information is crucial to better engage caregivers in neutering programs. Based on the frequency of feeding and general care, one could conclude that many dogs were neglected. However, many dogs roam freely, which may compensate for irregular feeding by caregivers. The observation made by ARCH veterinarians that most dogs (73.0% of 1,627 dogs) were in normal or good condition (ARCH, n.d.) supports the idea that dogs feed from multiple sources. The lack of neutering, combined with a roaming population in good condition, may explain why many of the females were able to reproduce in the previous 6 months. As has been noted in Dominica (Davis et al., 2007), pup survival may be limited. So although many females may reproduce, if puppy mortality is high, there may be natural controls on the population. Few dogs lived inside homes despite many respondents considering their dogs members of the family. Similar attitudes toward pets have been found in The Bahamas where smaller dogs tend to have better access to the home as opposed to larger dogs and/or local mongrels (Fielding, 2010). Thus, the intention of caregivers may be to include the dog in the home but constraints regarding space, hygiene, and preferences of household members may prevent this. Being tied, usually caged, or kept in a doghouse is typically not in the best interests of dogs or humans (Delise, 2002). Dog welfare could be improved

248 FIELDING, GALL, GREEN, ELLER by educating and assisting caregivers in keeping their dogs controlled by other means. Single Dogs The data regarding single-dog households reveal no significant difference in dog welfare when compared with multidog households. Dogs kept only inside the home were equally likely to be considered members of the family as those whose usual place was outside the home. However, dogs kept inside the home were more likely to be neutered than those kept elsewhere. This is similar to The Bahamas (Fielding & Plumridge, 2005) and indicates a diminished level of care for outside dogs, as noted in the United States by Shore, Riley, and Douglas (2006), possibly driven by the dichotomy between intent and ability to offer care to animals. Roaming Dogs The estimated number of roaming dogs was almost twice the owned dog population. The number of owned dogs kept outside (63.3%) could possibly contribute to this figure by being allowed to roam on the road. Inadequate feeding by their caregivers, combined with many residents who feed roaming dogs, further aggravates this problem. Although residents considered roaming dogs a nuisance, they still responded humanely toward them by feeding them an attitude seen also in The Bahamas (Fielding et al., 2005). Feeding roaming dogs will improve their chances of reproducing. Therefore, the feeding of these dogs, which appears to be common, sustains the roaming dog population. It is possible that many street dogs may have caregivers, as observed in The Bahamas where, in urban areas, almost all roaming dogs have an owner (Fielding, 2008c). Although the feeding of unowned dogs is a crucial element in the short-term survival of many dogs, recruitment to the roaming dog population is also required to sustain the unowned population, as has been seen in The Bahamas (Fielding et al., 2005) and in Italy (Boitani, Fancisci, Ciucci, & Andreoli, 1995). Clearly, further research is needed to assess the number of roaming dogs with and without caregivers. As in The Bahamas, respondents indicated that barking was a common, yet minor, nuisance associated with dogs (Fielding, 2008a). More importantly, roaming dogs undermine rabies control efforts (Wandeler & Bingham, 2000). Roaming dogs pose other public health problems and are associated with more than 60 zoonotic diseases (Beck, 1973; Jackman & Rowan, 2007). Fecal contamination is a major public health concern in developing countries (Jackman & Rowan, 2007) and was the number one nuisance listed in this survey by

CARE OF AND ATTITUDES TOWARD DOGS IN HAITI 249 our respondents, probably because it was considered an unpleasant nuisance. Consequently, rabies is not the only health concern; consideration should be given to the public health issues surrounding dog excrement (Macpherson, Meslin, & Wandeler, 2000). Rabies Where the spread of rabies by dogs is a concern, it is important that residents are aware of rabies and its impact on the community. If more than 30% of respondents have seen dogs with rabies, the number of infected dogs would appear large. The apparent discrepancy between the study results and official statistics, namely, 40 people contracting rabies in 2010, highlights the need for more and better education to spot infected animals/humans and to take protective measures. However, with clinical symptoms associated with rabies being diverse (Wandeler & Bingham, 2000), this may be difficult to accomplish. Because dog owners and their household members are at higher risk of being bitten by their own dogs than other dogs, all owned dogs should be vaccinated against rabies. The observation that only some dogs belonging to a household are vaccinated raises many questions. This finding also suggests the need for education. Vaccinations were more common in older dogs. This finding highlights the need for continuous vaccination programs. Without sustained vaccination programs, vaccination rates can decline due to the turnover of dogs. With 41.6% of owned dogs being vaccinated against rabies, this indicates a smaller proportion of protected dogs than in Merida: 90.1% (Ortega-Pacheco et al., 2007); it is a lower percentage than the 75% vaccination rate reported by the Haiti government (Praecipio International, 2010) and also lower than the 70% required to prevent a serious outbreak of rabies (Coleman & Dye, 1996). Effects of the Earthquake on the Dog Population The earthquake appears to have reduced the number of owned dogs but not the number of unowned dogs in neighborhoods. If one conjectures that confined dogs inside homes and doghouses or enclosures were most at risk of being killed by the earthquake, then about half of the animals could have been at risk of dying in the earthquake, whereas it appears that the owned dog population was only 25% less after the earthquake. Furthermore, the data do not support the idea that the earthquake generated more roaming dogs due to the death of their caregivers (Wilson, 2011). Although the numbers for the roaming dog populations provided by our respondents may be overestimated due to double counting, the pre- and postearthquake estimates provided by residents do not differ greatly (12,361 vs. 12,114), which suggests a fairly stable population of roaming dogs.

250 FIELDING, GALL, GREEN, ELLER As the total number of owned dogs decreased, the percentage of dog caregivers increased postearthquake. One conjecture could be that this wider dog ownership may be a result of respondents adopting dogs who lost their caregivers. This could be specific to this particular earthquake in terms of its magnitude, the nature of the buildings destroyed, and the way dogs are kept. Further research is needed to explore how people care for animals following a disaster and what motivates them either to adopt or to discard animals. SUMMARY This survey highlights multiple concerns regarding the care of dogs in Portau-Prince, such as the change in dog ownership following the earthquake and effective efforts for vaccination and dog control to mitigate rabies. It appears that public education related to vaccinations of all household dogs and the reduction of dog bites from owned dogs could be effective ways of reducing dog-human transmission of rabies. The low neutering rate and other animal welfare issues need to be changed to control rabies and the dog populations in the long term. By designing intervention strategies that target areas with higher rates of rabies and uncontrolled dog population, resources could be utilized most efficiently. Although this article summarizes the findings across the entire study area, the survey approach chosen for this study (spatial stratification) is capable of aiding in the design of such strategies. Integrating locational factors into the development of intervention strategies could therefore save resources, particularly in environments such as Haiti, and make animal welfare programs more effective and efficient. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We are grateful for the assistance of Dr. Jean Thomas, Country Coordinator, Animal Relief Coalition of Haiti, Petionville, Haiti, and Dr. Max Millien, Director of Animal Health, MARNDR l Agriculture, des Resources de Naturelles et du Développement Rural), Port-au-Prince, Haiti, for their assistance in this research project. This project was funded by the Animal Relief Coalition for Haiti under the leadership of Dick Green. The other authors received no payment for their contribution to this project. REFERENCES Animal Relief Coalition for Haiti. (n.d.). [Body condition score]. Unpublished raw data. American Veterinary Medical Association. (2010). Press release: Haiti s head veterinarian available at

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