Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 12 (2013) 662 666 www.elsevier.com/locate/jcf Original Article Eradication of chronic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in cystic fibrosis patients. An observational prospective cohort study of 11 patients Eef Vanderhelst a, b,, Elke De Wachter b, Julie Willekens b, Denis Piérard c, Walter Vincken a, Anne Malfroot b a Respiratory Division, University Hospital UZ Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium b Cystic Fibrosis Center, University Hospital UZ Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium c Department of Microbiology, University Hospital UZ Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium Received 13 February 2013; received in revised form 23 April 2013; accepted 23 April 2013 Available online 21 May 2013 Abstract Background: Chronic airway infection with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) is an increasing clinical problem, and therapeutic options are limited. Because chronic infection with MRSA can be associated with accelerated decline in lung function, eradication of MRSA is attempted in most CF centres today. The aim of this observational prospective cohort study was to determine whether it is possible to eradicate MRSA from airways of CF patients using prolonged oral antibiotic combination therapy together with topical decolonization measures. Results: Eleven CF patients, (median age: 9 years (range 1 43); median FEV 1 : 91%pred (95%CI 74% 100%pred)) who were chronically infected with MRSA, were treated daily for six months with rifampicin and fusidic acid orally. This study did not include a patient control group. Two patients had to switch to an alternative schedule, using rifampicin and clindamycin, due to the resistance pattern of MRSA. Topical decolonization measures were applied to all patients and included mupirocin-containing nasal ointment in both nostrils three times daily for five days and chlorhexidine hair and body wash once daily for five days. Microbiological eradication was achieved in all patients at the end of the six-month eradication protocol, even when significant time (range 18 months to 9 years) had elapsed since initial isolation. In only one patient MRSA reappeared in the six-month follow-up period after the initial study period. Side-effects, like nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea were seen in five out of eleven patients, but did not lead to therapy cessation. Conclusion: Chronic MRSA infection can be eradicated from respiratory tract samples using a six month dual antibiotic regimen and topical MRSA decolonization measures. 2013 European Cystic Fibrosis Society. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction With improved survival due to improvements in care in cystic fibrosis (CF), we are now faced with new and more resistant pathogens such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Data from the US CF Patient Registry show an increase in prevalence of MRSA infection in the CF population in the US from 2% in 1999 to 22.6% in 2008 [1]. Possible explanations for Corresponding author at: Respiratory Division, University Hospital UZ Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 101, 1090 Brussels, Belgium. Tel.: +32 2 477 4675; fax: +32 2 477 6352. E-mail address: eef.vanderhelst@uzbrussel.be (E. Vanderhelst). this rise could be the use of antibiotics, frequent hospital admissions and the increasing mean age of the CF patients. Chronic infection with MRSA in the CF population of the University Hospital of Brussels amounted to 12.6% in 2010 [2] and was associated with frequency of hospitalization, the use of broad-spectrum antibiotics and the presence of bronchiectasis [2]. Before the 1990s, MRSA isolates were clearly associated with hospitalization (HA-MRSA), but since then communityassociated strains emerged (CA-MRSA). CA-MRSA differs in genetic background from HA-MRSA and tends to be resistant to fewer antibiotic classes, but can be more virulent than the HA-MRSA strains, due to the carriage of virulence factors. Given outbreaks of CA-MRSA in the hospital or spreading of 1569-1993/$ -see front matter 2013 European Cystic Fibrosis Society. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcf.2013.04.009
E. Vanderhelst et al. / Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 12 (2013) 662 666 663 HA-MRSA in the community, the distinction between HA- and CA-MRSA becomes increasingly difficult [3]. The impact of chronic infection with MRSA on lung function or exacerbation frequency remains uncertain, and previous studies have failed to reach clear consensus on this matter. Dasenbrook et al. examined the impact of MRSA acquisition on lung function and found that the rate of FEV 1 decline was greater in the MRSA-positive patients aged 8 21 years [4]. In another study from the group of Dasenbrook, chronic MRSA infection was also shown to have a negative impact on survival, even after adjusting for severity of illness [5]. Ren and colleagues showed that CF patients colonized with MRSA have lower lung function values and an increased rate of hospitalization [6]. Conversely, Sawicki et al. also showed an association between MRSA detection and CF disease severity, but a negative effect on lung function decline was not noted in this study [7]. In a recent study from our group, we could demonstrate a more rapid decline in FEV 1 in CF patients colonized with MRSA compared to noncolonized CF patients, despite comparable FEV 1 values in both groups one year prior to the initial infection with MRSA. From our limited data we could conclude that FEV 1 itself was not a predictor for infection with MRSA, but it can provoke a more rapid FEV 1 decline [2]. The pathogenesis by which MRSA could lead to more rapid lung destruction is not fully revealed. Staphylococci can harbour a multitude of virulence factors, including membrane-damaging toxins, that promote bacterial spread in tissues. The leukocytolytic toxin Panton Valentine Leukocidin (PVL) is more frequently expressed in MRSA than methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) strains. PVL has been associated with severe and necrotizing lung infections [8].Except for the impact on lung function, MRSA infection has also other important implications for patients with CF. Segregation of patients is recommended, to prevent patient-to-patient transmission in CF as well as in non-cf individuals [9]. Strict isolation measures can have negative psychological impact and lead to depression, as shown by Tarzi et al. [10]. There is no strong consensus regarding the management of chronic MRSA infection in CF patients. A prophylactic protocol to prevent chronic infection in MRSA negative patients could enhance emergence of further resistance. Since decades there is reasonable evidence that MSSA can be eradicated from sputum with antibiotics [11], but to date there is no conclusive evidence that early aggressive treatment of MRSA respiratory infection can prevent chronic colonization or improves outcome. Several potential antibiotic regimes have been reported to achieve eradication [12 18]. In most of the studies successful eradication was achieved, using systemic antibiotics whether or not combined with topical therapy. In 2008, the UK CF Trust has also published a report which advocates eradication treatment for chronic MRSA infection [19]. The cystic fibrosis centre of the University Hospital of Brussels, a large university unit, has a strict isolation policy for MRSA-positive patients. In-patients are isolated in well-ventilated single rooms and are barrier-nursed throughout their stay. All patients in our facilities have their individual nebuliser compressor systems, oxygen delivery devices and airway clearance devices, using a strict disinfection protocol for all of them. Since the beginning of 2011 we pursued an eradication protocol for chronically MRSA-infected CF patients, consisting of a combination of topical decolonization measures and two oral antibiotics administrated daily for a period of six months. We conducted this prospective study to examine the efficacy, tolerance and feasibility of this eradication protocol. 2. Methods This prospective observational cohort study was conducted at the University Hospital of Brussels, Belgium from January 2011 to March 2013. The study was approved by the local ethics committee (BUN143201213745-registration no ISRCTN69078742) and patients provided written informed consent. Sputum as well as throat-swabs (in non-sputum-producers) were obtained by the CF physiotherapist. Samples, collected at outpatient clinic visits or during hospitalization, were cultured for MRSA in the reference laboratory of the University Hospital of Brussels. Additionally MRSA carriage was determined by collecting nose throat perineum swabs. Respiratory samples were processed by routine methodologies for CF specimens as described before [20]. S. aureus isolates were identified by coagulase test and latex agglutination test. Antibiotic susceptibility of isolates was tested in vitro, using phenotypic methods (selective media containing antibiotics, disk diffusion assay and MIC by microdilution). Chronic MRSA infection was diagnosed if at least three respiratory tract samples (sputum or oropharyngeal swabs) were positive for MRSA for a period of at least six months prior to the study. Respiratory tract samples remained MRSA positive in all patients from date of first isolate to inclusion date. Two out of eleven patients were not able to produce sputum samples throughout the study period. Strict isolation measures for MRSA-positive patients, based on infection control principles, were applied. All current MRSA positive patients (n = 15) from the registry of the CF centre of the University Hospital of Brussels [2] were screened to participate to the trial. Two patients were excluded due to chronic liver failure. Two patients refused to take part in the trial due to additional treatment burden. This study did not include a patient control group, and all patients were treated identically according to the study protocol. All included patients were in a stable condition. First line choice oral antibiotics consisted of oral rifampicin 15 mg/kg/day and fusidic acid 30 mg/kg daily during 6 months. Rifampicin and fusidic acid were chosen because of the enhanced penetration of these drugs into the airway lining fluid. In case of resistance, other regimens of bi-therapy were chosen, such as rifampicin clindamycin or fusidic acid clindamycin depending on the antibiotic susceptibility results. Topical decolonization measures were applied simultaneously to all the patients and included mupirocincontaining nasal ointment in both nostrils three times daily for five days and chlorhexidine hair and body wash once daily for five days. After the initial 6-month eradication-treatment an observational period of 6 months was applied to survey MRSA recurrence. Successful microbiological eradication was defined as the presence of three consecutive negative MRSA screens (sputum and surface screening swabs) over this period, following initial eradication treatment. Spirometric data (i.e. FEV 1 )were recorded at the start and the end of the eradication protocol and at
664 E. Vanderhelst et al. / Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 12 (2013) 662 666 the end of the follow-up period. Statistical analysis was performed using a Friedman test. 3. Results 3.1. Patient demographics Eleven patients out of 15 screened MRSA positive patients were enrolled in the eradication protocol. Two patients were rejected due to chronic liver failure, two others refused to take part due to the additional treatment burden (Fig. 2). Median age of the study group was 9 years (range 1 43 years). Three patients had CF related diabetes and none was pancreas sufficient. Seven out of eleven patients were also chronically colonized with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Six out of eleven patients were homozygous for genotype F508del. Seven out of 11 patients were MRSA carriers on nose throat perineum swabs. Median FEV 1 before eradication was 91%pred (95%CI 74% 100%pred). Clinical parameters are shown in Table 1. In vitro sensitivity testing of the isolates, cultured immediately before eradication, revealed all eleven isolates to be sensitive to rifampicin, and nine to fusidic acid. 3.2. Eradication protocol Topical decolonization measures were applied to all the patients and included mupirocin-containing nasal ointment three times daily and chlorhexidine hair and body wash once daily both during 5 days. First choice eradication protocol consisting of rifampicin 15 mg/kg and fusidic acid 30 mg/kg daily for a total period of six months was completed by 9 of the 11 patients. Two patients had to switch to a combination of rifampicin and clindamycin (one after two weeks, and one after four weeks), based on the susceptibility pattern of the MRSA strain. Currently, all patients have completed the full treatment course. All patients achieved microbiological eradication after the six months treatment. All eleven patients were included in a follow-up period of at least six months. Seven out of 11 patients, who were also MRSA carriers on nose throat perineum swabs, were successfully decontaminated. Results of respiratory tract samples at different times during eradication and follow-up are shown in Table 1. Until now, we cultured MRSA in one patient (who was initially MRSA negative after the eradication treatment) four months after the end of the eradication protocol. This treatment failure was due to lack of adherence to the treatment. All skin swabs remained negative after decolonization, even in patient no. 4 who cultured MRSA again during the follow-up period. Adverse events, in particular nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea occurred in five out of the eleven patients during eradication. These side effects occurred in particular in the first and last months of the treatment, but did not lead to early treatment cessation. Spirometric data (FEV 1 in particular) during the eradication protocol and follow-up period is shown in Fig. 1. Median FEV 1 at the start of the study was 91%pred (95%CI 74% 100%pred). Median FEV 1 at the end of the follow-up period (t = 12 months) was 96%pred (95%CI 85% 104%pred). Patient no. 4, represented by open circles in Fig. 1, cultured MRSA again during the follow-up period. Excluding this patient for further statistical analysis, a trend towards improvement in FEV 1 was seen, but it did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.09, Friedman test). Until this time, none of the patients cultured any new P. aeruginosa or other Gram-negative bacteria during or after the eradication protocol. 4. Discussion The aim of this trial was to examine feasibility, tolerance and efficacy of microbiological MRSA eradication using a combination of topical decolonization measures and a 6 months oral antibiotic bi-therapy regimen in CF patients. With this study protocol we could offer a generally well-tolerated treatment in CF patients ranging 1 43 years, who harboured MRSA for years before eradication. In our centre prevalence of chronic infection with MRSA in CF amounted to 12.6%, despite a strict infection control regime, which includes segregation of the patients, barrier nursing and the use of individualized nebuliser, oxygen delivery and airway clearance devices. Previously, many centres have attempted the eradication of MRSA. The optimal regimen to eradicate chronic MRSA remains unclear, and a recent Cochrane review concluded that Table 1 Clinical characteristics of study population. Genotype First MRSA isolate Sample type MRSA carrier Age (years) CFRD Pseudomonas aeruginosa Bronchiectasis BMI Respiratory tract sample MRSA status 0 3 mo 6 mo 9 mo 12 mo F508del/F508del 1/03/2007 Swab N 4 N Y Y 14.1 1 0 0 0 0 F508del/F508del 13/02/2010 Sputum Y 9 N Y Y 14.5 1 0 0 0 0 F508del/F508del 28/12/2004 Sputum Y 43 Y Y Y 20.9 1 0 0 0 0 S1255P/F508del 14/03/2007 Sputum Y 12 N N Y 19.1 1 1 0 0 1 F508del/F508del 15/12/2008 Sputum Y 8 N Y Y 15.1 1 1 0 0 0 F508del/F508del 22/05/2008 Sputum Y 11 Y Y Y 18.1 1 0 0 0 0 F508del/F508del 29/06/2006 Sputum Y 6 N Y Y 16.6 1 1 0 0 0 F508del/R553X 7/10/2010 Sputum N 6 N Y Y 15.1 1 0 0 0 0 S1251N/L927P 29/09/2011 Swab N 1 N N N 15.7 1 1 0 0 0 R1162X/F508del 20/08/2011 Sputum N 27 N N Y 16 1 1 0 0 0 S1255P/F508del 20/11/2011 Sputum Y 25 Y N Y 21 1 0 0 0 0 MRSA carrier = carrier on peripheral skin swabs, CFRD = cystic fibrosis related diabetes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa = chronic colonisation with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, mo = months from start eradication, N = no, Y = yes, 0 = negative, 1 = positive.
E. Vanderhelst et al. / Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 12 (2013) 662 666 665 FEV 1 (%pred) 120% 110% 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 0 3 6 9 12 Months Fig. 1. FEV 1 at start of eradication therapy (time 0) and after 3, 6, 9 and 12 months. The grey area illustrates the eradication treatment period. Patient number 4 (represented by open circles) cultured MRSA in follow-up period. due to the lack of controlled trials no recommendations can be made to support a particular treatment protocol. Several studies have been conducted to examine the feasibility and efficacy of different eradication protocols using combinations of oral, intravenous and inhaled antibiotics. A step-wise eradication protocol using rifampicin, fusidic acid and teicoplanin has been developed in CF centres in Belfast [12]. Of the 17 patients in that study, 8 (47%) were successfully decolonized following a single five-day course of rifampicin and fusidic acid. The success rate increased to 71% and 94% after a second five-day course of oral treatment and a course of intravenous teicoplanin respectively. Solis et al. reported successful eradication in 7 out of 12 patients N=19 2010, ref2 N=15 screened for eradication N=11 enrolled in eradication protocol 2 patientsdied 2 patients transplanted 2 patients rejected (chronic liver failure) 2 patients refused Fig. 2. Screening and enrolment protocol for the study. From the 19 MRSA positive patients in 2010, eleven were enrolled in the eradication protocol. for a mean of 12 months using topical and nebulised vancomycin during 5 days [13]. Although until now no vancomycinintermediate (VISA) and vancomycin-resistant (VRSA) S. aureus have been cultured in the CF population due to prolonged use of inhaled vancomycin. However we should remain vigilant for this theoretical possibility, given that this is still the main option for treating serious MRSA infections. Recently, Doe et al. achieved eradication of MRSA in 81% (31 out of 37) of chronically colonized CF patients using different eradication protocols [21] chosen according to the susceptibility pattern of the MRSA strain. Nebulised vancomycin was used in combination with two oral antibiotics for a minimum of six weeks. First line choices included fusidic acid, rifampicin, and trimethoprim. In some cases, up to three courses of antibiotic treatment were required to achieve eradication. Topical decolonization methods were used to treat oral, skin and nasal carriage. At the adult cystic fibrosis centre in Brisbane seven adult CF patients were treated with a six-month course of rifampicin and sodium fusidate [16]. The mean follow-up of this treatment protocol was six months. In five of the seven patients eradication of MRSA was successful and a significant reduction in intravenous antibiotic treatment days over a subsequent period of six months (51 versus 33 days) was seen. In this treatment protocol no topical decolonization was used to clear chronic skin carriage. Since mono-therapy with only one oral antibiotic probably lacks effectiveness and may lead to increased resistance, we opted for a bi-therapy combining two antibiotics, with drugs for which long-term treatment is known to be generally well tolerated. This combination of oral antibiotics is not routinely used for CF gram-negative bacteria, so that induction of resistance in other CF-specific bacteria is probably not an issue. A total duration of six months was proposed since short-term use may lead to early relapse. None of the patients failed to complete the full treatment course and their side-effects were tolerated. Eradication was successful in all patients, even though 50% of them had harboured MRSA for many years before eradication (18 months 9 years). One patient, who was initially MRSA-negative after eradication, cultured MRSA during the follow-up period. This MRSA strain showed the same susceptibility pattern as before eradication. Treatment failure in this patient was most probably due to lack of adherence to the eradication treatment. In this study respiratory tract samples and surface screening swabs were taken routinely every three months and whenever patients were seen at the outpatient clinic or in hospital. In six out of eleven patients respiratory tract samples were MRSA-negative after three months of eradication treatment (Table 1). We did not see an association between the duration of the infection or the presence of positive skin swabs and the time to sputum negativity. Duration of eradication treatment remains debatable. Prolongation of treatment can diminish risk of false-negative cultures, mainly in the case of oropharyngeal swabs. Conversely, longer duration of treatment can enhance treatment burden and side effects, and influence adherence negatively. We suspect that the success of rifampicin and fusidic acid as an effective therapy for MRSA in CF patients may be due to the enhanced penetration of these drugs into the airway lining fluid, compared to vancomycin
666 E. Vanderhelst et al. / Journal of Cystic Fibrosis 12 (2013) 662 666 [22]. In this respect, oral linezolid could be an alternative choice of oral drug, but its use is limited by cost and the lack of clinical data in patients with CF. Moreover, prolonged or repeated courses have been reported to potentially cause irreversible neuropathy [23] and resistance of MRSA strains to linezolid has been described in CF patients with MRSA [24]. We also suspect that combining oral medication with topical measures to clear the carriage of MRSA contributed to the eradication success. There are some limitations to our study design. This is a small and non-controlled trial, and interpretation of the results and causality in particular is therefore limited. No control group was chosen, because the local ethics committee did not agree on withholding a potential beneficial treatment. Two patients were not able to produce sputum samples. Oropharyngeal swabs could lack sensitivity for detecting MRSA and other bacteria, but their specificity is acceptable, so false-positive results are rare. Molecular strain typing of MRSA strains was not performed in this study. Molecular typing could aid in identifying strains and evaluating possible patient-to-patient transmission or other sources of contamination. Household members and staff, which could be sources of re-infection, were not routinely screened in this study, but followed hospital guidelines on barrier nursing and isolation. The chronic use of parenteral, oral or nebulised antibiotic therapies was similar during each six-month period of study. However, some of these antibiotics can have an antistaphylococcal effect and could be considered a confounding factor. The balance between ensuring effective eradication of MRSA against potential adverse events and treatment burden must be sought. Six out of eleven patients did not culture MRSA after three months of treatment, so duration of treatment could perhaps be shortened. Nevertheless, cultures of respiratory tract samples can be false-negative and relapses can occur if eradication treatment is too short. Giving a certain treatment, we should also always stay vigilant for the fact that eradication of one microbiological agent can theoretically encourage the growth and colonization of other pathogens, e.g. P. aeruginosa. In conclusion, this study shows that it is possible to achieve successful eradication after several years of MRSA infection. A large randomised trial, including long-term follow-up to assess the risk for re-infection of MRSA, is required to investigate the role of this combination therapy on the eradication of chronic MRSA infection, the duration of the eradication and to establish possible beneficial effects on pulmonary status. References [1] US National CF Patient Registry; 2008. 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