Consumer Choice Between Gasoline and Sugarcane Ethanol

Consumer Choice Between Gasoline and Sugarcane Ethanol Alberto Salvo, Northwestern University May 2011, Iowa State (joint with Cristian Huse, Stockholm) 100% & 33%

Motivation Central policy aim: wean economies off fossil fuels (particularly oil derivatives) Diversify energy sources Curb emissions Sustain growth Private road transport: large and growing sector Gasoline-powered engine set to lose share Alternative energy sources: electricity, biofuels How will motorists substitute away from centuryold gasoline?? Price incentives required at pump or plug? Research is scarce: RP studies cannot be conducted Except Brazil: Gasoline Alternative (Sugarcane Ethanol)

Alternative hypotheses & Preview k e /k g.7 Null: Perfect substitutes $/km Ethanol = $/km Gasoline An example (lab measurements) Fiat Palio ELX (Flex), 2 doors, 1.0 8V, manual transm., AC, hydraulic steering, city driving cycle: Ethanol (E100): k e = 6.9 km/liter Gasoline (E22): k g = 9.9 km/liter 0 1 q e k e /k g.7 Ethanol preference e.g., green types, home bias Ethanol aversion e.g., conventional types, range anxiety State dependence e.g., short-run habit, inattentive, unwilling or unable to compare prices 0 1 q e FIND: Observed + unobserved consumer heterogeneity: +20% E v. G in $/km 20% E +20% G v. E in $/km 20% G

Outline of talk A natural experiment Our opportune survey Brief descriptive stats Empirical demand Demand estimates Probits, Multinomial probits Price sensitivity of median motorist Elasticity matrices for subgroups: aged +65y WTP for greenness and to relieve range anxiety A counterfactual Planning the energy mix (Time permitting) Consumer inattention tastes

Jan-00 Jul-00 Jan-01 Jul-01 Jan-02 Jul-02 Jan-03 Jul-03 Jan-04 Jul-04 Jan-05 Jul-05 Jan-06 Jul-06 Jan-07 Jul-07 Jan-08 Jul-08 Jan-09 Jul-09 Jan-10 R$ / liter (Brazil CPI Mar-2010) Jan-00 Jul-00 Jan-01 Jul-01 Jan-02 Jul-02 Jan-03 Jul-03 Jan-04 Jul-04 Jan-05 Jul-05 Jan-06 Jul-06 Jan-07 Jul-07 Jan-08 Jul-08 Jan-09 Jul-09 Jan-10 Oil: R$ / bbl (Brazil CPI Mar-2010) Sugar: R$ cents / lb (Brazil CPI Mar-2010) World prices local prices, 2000-2010 250 200 Sugar (ISA) 50 45 40 35 World prices* WTI R$/bbl & ISA R$ cents/lb 150 100 50 Oil (WTI) Oil, World Price (WTI) Sugar, World Price (ISA) 30 25 20 15 10 2003, 2006 and...2010: The pump price of Ethanol peaks when the world price of Sugar peaks 3.50 3.00 2.50 Gasoline (regular, E20-25) Ethanol (E100) Prices at the pump in the city of São Paulo* R$/liter 2.00 1.50 v 1.00 Gasoline "C", Retail Price São Paulo city Ethanol, Retail Price São Paulo city * Constant prices in Brazilian Real (R$), base Mar/10. Sources: EIA, ISO, IBGE (IPCA), Bacen

World/local sugar/ethanol markets: Arbitrage

Jan-00 May-00 Sep-00 Jan-01 May-01 Sep-01 Jan-02 May-02 Sep-02 Jan-03 May-03 Sep-03 Jan-04 May-04 Sep-04 Jan-05 May-05 Sep-05 Jan-06 May-06 Sep-06 Jan-07 May-07 Sep-07 Jan-08 May-08 Sep-08 Jan-09 May-09 Sep-09 Jan-10 May-10 Jan-00 May-00 Sep-00 Jan-01 May-01 Sep-01 Jan-02 May-02 Sep-02 Jan-03 May-03 Sep-03 Jan-04 May-04 Sep-04 Jan-05 May-05 Sep-05 Jan-06 May-06 Sep-06 Jan-07 May-07 Sep-07 Jan-08 May-08 Sep-08 Jan-09 May-09 Sep-09 Jan-10 May-10 Demand responds: Market-level data 3,000,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 1,000,000 500,000 0 Gasoline (E20-25) Ethanol (E100) FFVs introduced Fuel shipments to stations, Total Brazil* m 3 / month Early 2010: Fuel mix shifts Ethanol Gasoline Ethanol 900,000 800,000 700,000 600,000 Gasoline (E20-25) Fuel shipments to stations, State of São Paulo* m 3 / month 500,000 400,000 300,000 200,000 100,000 0 Ethanol (E100) Market-level study: - Consumer heterogeneity? - Poor data (e.g., FFV fleet size and usage) * Source: ANP

50 60 70 80 90 Percent (%) 50 60 70 80 90 Variation in relative per-liter prices, Evolution of the relative price of ethanol in the weeks about the week of January 25 2010 Percentiles of the distribution across stations surveyed by the regulator in each city Belo Horizonte Curitiba Porto Alegre Approximate parity ratio, = 70% Recife Rio de Janeiro Sao Paulo Week of Week of 11 Jan 25 Jan 2010 Week of 29 Mar 2010-6-5-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9-6-5-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9-6-5-4-3-2-10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Number of weeks prior to (negative) or after (positive) week of January 25 2010 pe_rel_pg_p5 pe_rel_pg_p75 pe_rel_pg_p25 pe_rel_pg_p95 Graphs by city 5 th, 25 th, 75 th, 95 th percentiles of distribution of Ethanol-to-regular- Gasoline price ratio over 1 st Qtr 2010 in 6 main cities (source: ANP) Vertical lines: 9 city-weeks in our survey

Survey design 6 cities: SP, CTB, REC, RJ, BH, POA 9 city-weeks (3 weeks) in Jan and Mar 2010 2160 FFV motorists in 180 retail fueling stations 12 motorists/station: pass filter & agree to interview Private use (exclude cab and corporate use) Week days + Saturday, rush + off-peak hours Branded stations (29% BR, 27% Shell, 19% Ipiranga...) Instructed field representative to: (Quietly) observe motorist s choice (revealed preference) E G regular (plus, if available: G midgrade, G premium) (Only then) approach motorist for short interview ( stated preference) E.g.: Main reason(s) behind fuel choice ( spontaneous response); Car usage (km/week); Schooling

Fueling stations visited São Paulo Curitiba Rio de Janeiro Porto Alegre Belo Horizonte Recife

Station-level data (selected) Variable January visits Mean (N,Std.Dev.) Ethanol price, p e (R$/liter) SP1 1.89 (20,.12) SP2 1.88 (20,.14) CTB 1.91 (20,.06) REC 1.89 (20,.04) RJ 2.18 (20,.15) BH 2.06 (20,.11) POA 2.32 (20,.10) Per-liter ethanol-toregular-gasoline price ratio, (%) Midgrade gasoline markup over regular (%) SP1 74% (20,3%) SP2 75% (20,3%) CTB 75% (20,2%) REC 75% (20,2%) RJ 81% (20,4%) BH 85% (20,3%) POA 90% (20,4%) March visits Mean (N,Std.Dev.) SP 1.46 (20,.14) CTB 1.33 (20,.06) SP 59% (20,4%) CTB 58% (20,2%) Total visits Mean (N,Std.Dev.) 104% (164,3%) Number of nozzles 13 (180,6) E:4,G:5,midgrG:3 Duration of station visit (hours) Price variation: Opportunity 2.5 (180,1.0)

Motorist-level data (selected) 22 liters (< half tank) Median: 1 visit/week

40 60 80 Per-liter ethanol price relative to regular gasoline in % 40 60 80 100 100 Fuel choices aggregated to station level Vertical axis: (per-liter prices) 0.2.4.6.8 1 Share of FFV motorists who chose ethanol as their main energy source 0.2.4.6.8 1 Ethanol's share of the aggregate energy embedded in the 12 FFV motorists purchases Station visits in January 2010 Station visits in March 2010 Station visits in January 2010 Station visits in March 2010 Horizontal axis: Unweighted Ethanol share: Horizontal axis: Weighted Ethanol share:

-20 0 20 40 Controlling for parity differences across models Vertical axis: 1 ppt bins: p ei /p gi k ei /k gi E.g.: Motorist in Belo Horizonte in January, drove a VW Gol 1.0: 88.2% 69.9% 18% Enters the 18 ppt bin Choosing Ethanol when Gasoline is cheaper per km (i.e., where p ei /k ei > p gi /k gi ) Choosing Gasoline when Ethanol is cheaper per km (i.e., where p ei /k ei < p gi /k gi ) (Equivalently: p ei /k ei 0.28 R$/km p gi /k gi 0.22 R$/km 0.06 R$/km, or 21%, discount represents 624 R$ per year) 0.2.4.6.8 1 Empirical choice probability for ethanol Horizontal axis: Proportion of motorists in bin who chose ethanol as their dominant source of kilometers

Discrete choice specifications Binary choice models: Probit: Logit: Multinomial response models (multinomial probits): Motorist i chooses fuel with maximal utility and thus (to state one choice probability): Note 1: Standard errors clustered at the station visit level Note 2: Relying on the moderate (within-route) price dispersion and consumers professed station loyalty, we ignore any substitution across stations

Multinomial probit marginal effects (other results omitted) 40<Age< 65y Age > 65y Heavy user Pricey car Home bias Environmental. Invoke engine

0.2.4.6.8 Marginal effect on ethanol's choice probability x100 -.08 -.06 -.04 -.02 1 0 Considerable unobserved consumer heterogen. The median motorist s price responsiveness Male, 25-40y, some college, neither uses car heavily nor drives a pricey model, invokes neither the environment, the engine nor range Varying the ethanol price holding gasoline prices constant Baseline specification excluding city fixed effects (to conservatively reduce price range for switching) Fuel choice probabilities for median motorist in specification without city fixed effects Energy-adjusted gasoline prices held constant at 0.246 R$/km regular and 0.256 R$/km midgrade Effect on the probability of choosing ethanol from raising the ethanol price by 0.01 R$/km Energy-adjusted gasoline prices held constant at 0.246 R$/km regular and 0.256 R$/km midgrade Ethanol = 50% = 60% Parity: = 70% = 80% = 90% = 50% = 60% Parity: = 70% = 80% = 90% Regular gasoline Midgrade gasoline Estimated marginal effect on ethanol and 95% confidence interval.146.196.246.296.346.396 Energy-adjusted ethanol price in R$/km.146.196.246.296.346. Energy-adjusted ethanol price in R$/km

0 0.2.4.6.8 Simulated choice probability.2.4.6.8 1 1 Observed heterogeneity: Hypothetical extremes Ethanol fan : Younger (<25y), some college, resides in Curitiba (capital of ethanol-producing state), spontaneously invokes the environment Gasoline fan : Older (>65y), no more than primary, resides in Porto Alegre (ethanol importer), heavy commuter, drives expensive model, invokes engine Baseline specification (hereafter) Fuel choice probabilities for ethanol fan Energy-adjusted gasoline prices held constant at 0.246 R$/km regular and 0.256 R$/km midgrade Fuel choice probabilities for gasoline fan Energy-adjusted gasoline prices held constant at 0.246 R$/km regular and 0.256 R$/km midgrade Ethanol 50% 60% Parity: 70% 80% 90% 50% 60% Parity: 70% 80% 90% Regular gasoline Regular gasoline Midgrade gasoline Midgrade gasoline Ethanol.146.196.246.296.346.396 Energy-adjusted ethanol price in R$/km.146.196.246.296.346. Energy-adjusted ethanol price in R$/km

Price elasticity matrices: Effect of age Evaluated at the median of regressors: Recall per-liter : 74% 74%

0 Simulated choice probability.2.4.6.8 1 Willingness to pay for greenness Median motorist in each of 3 cities with varying home bias Horizontal shifts provide natural measures for: Greenness : Switch environ.-invoking reason on/off:.12 R$/km (.10 $/mi) Ethanol choice probabilities for median motorists with and without environmental concerns Energy-adjusted gasoline prices held constant at 0.246 R$/km regular and 0.256 R$/km midgrade Ethanol Curitiba Porto Alegre Rio de Janeiro 50% 60% Parity: 70% 80% 90%.146.196.246.296.346.396 Energy-adjusted ethanol price in R$/km

A counterfactual: Planning the energy mix A planner in the Amazonian state of Pará (pop 7.6m, 2/3 urban) Nation s highest state sales tax on ethanol: 28% ICMS (v. 12% SP) Consider a plan to wean PA motorists (FFVs 45%) off gasoline Different scenarios, common message: Uptake of ethanol would remain limited Qualifier: Ignores long run changes (preferences, behavior, information)

Consumer inattention versus tastes Restrict sample to: Observably-average motorists facing sufficiently unequal prices across G and E In such markets, which observable characteristics help explain the choice of the dear fuel over a cheaper close substitute?

Binary probit marginal effects: Choice of dear fuel Controls for gender, age, education and car price included but not significant Larger stake, better informed? Conscious of habit playing a role Magnitude effect Information diffusion effect

Takeaways Direct & transparent empirical strategy uncovers substantial consumer heterogeneity in the choice among century-old gasoline and a less-established alternative motor fuel Likely to generalize to other markets---and perhaps even in a magnified way This setting: G & E similarly distributed, comparably priced and billed, almost identically consumed Gasoline v. Alternative: Comparison can be less transparent! Observed heterogeneity E.g., Green consumers do exist (not Prius status-seekers), Consumer s age, Confusion about engine aspects Unobserved heterogeneity Salience-raising policy considerations

Salience-raising example (among others) Mail cost conversion tables to households (or mandate per-liter price ratio to be displayed at the pump) P R E Ç O G A S O L I N A R$/litro 2.00 2.02 2.04 2.06 2.08 2.10 2.12 2.14 2.16 2.18 2.20 2.22 2.24 2.26 2.28 2.30 2.32 2.34 2.36 2.38 2.40 2.42 2.44 2.46 2.48 2.50 2.52 2.54 2.56 2.58 2.60 2.62 2.64 2.66 2.68 2.70 2.72 2.74 2.76 2.78 2.80 2.82 2.84 2.86 2.88 2.90 2.92 2.94 2.96 2.98 3.00 P 1.20 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.40 0.40 R 1.22 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 E 1.24 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.41 Ç 1.26 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.42 0.42 O 1.28 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.43 1.30 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 E 1.32 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 T 1.34 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.45 A 1.36 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.45 N 1.38 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 O 1.40 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 0.47 0.47 L 1.42 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.47 1.44 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.48 1.46 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 1.48 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 1.50 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 1.52 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.51 1.54 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 0.52 0.51 1.56 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 0.52 0.52 1.58 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 0.53 0.53 1.60 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.53 1.62 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.54 0.54 1.64 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.55 0.55 0.55 1.66 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.55 1.68 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.56 0.56 1.70 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 0.57 0.57 1.72 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 0.57 1.74 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.58 0.58 1.76 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 0.59 0.59 1.78 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 0.59 1.80 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.60 0.60 1.82 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 0.61 0.61 1.84 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 0.61 1.86 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 0.62 0.62 1.88 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.63 0.63 1.90 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 0.63 1.92 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 0.64 0.64 1.94 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.65 0.65 1.96 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 0.65 1.98 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.66 2.00 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.67 2.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 0.67 2.04 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.68 2.06 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.69 2.08 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 0.69 2.10 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 0.70 0.70 2.12 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 0.71 2.14 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.88 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 0.71 2.16 1.08 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.86 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.82 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 0.72 0.72 2.18 1.09 1.08 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.84 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.78 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73 0.73 2.20 1.10 1.09 1.08 1.07 1.06 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1.00 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.93 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.90 0.89 0.89 0.88 0.87 0.87 0.86 0.85 0.85 0.84 0.83 0.83 0.82 0.81 0.81 0.80 0.80 0.79 0.79 0.78 0.77 0.77 0.76 0.76 0.75 0.75 0.74 0.74 0.73