Study on Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Poultry Coccidiosis in and Around Hawassa Town, South Ethiopia

British Journal of Poultry Sciences 4 (): 34-43, 015 ISSN 1995-901X IDOSI Publications, 015 DOI: 10.589/idosi.bjps.015.4..9565 Study on Prevalence and Risk Factors Associated with Poultry Coccidiosis in and Around Hawassa Town, South Ethiopia Alemayehu Negash, Abdu Mohamed and Kalkidan Wondimu School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, P. O. Box 307, Jimma, Ethiopia Abstract: Coccidiosis is major parasitic disease of poultry. It is caused by the Apicomplexa protozoal parasite of genus Eimeria. It seriously impairs the growth and feed utilization of infected chickens resulting in loss of productivity. Cross sectional study was conducted from November 014 to March 015 in Southern Nation Nationality and People s Regional State (SNNP), Sidama Zone in and around Hawassa town, South Ethiopia. Chickens were selected randomly to determine prevalence and risk factors associated with poultry coccidiosis in selected farm and backyard rearing system. A total of 384 fecal samples were collected from Bovans White Leg Horn (BWLH), Rhodo Island Red (RIR), Mixed (hybrid) and Indigenous breeds of chickens by including both younger and adult age groups from different management system. Fecal flotation technique was performed by using saturated sodium chloride solution. Out of the total 384 fecal samples examined, 77 samples were positive for Eimeria oocyst giving the overall prevalence of 0.10%. The rate of 7.78% in BWLH, 9.10% in RIR,.6% in Mixed and 1.10% in indigenous breeds of chickens were recorded between breed of chickens and the association was statically different (P <0.05) (P=0.004, X =13.0). The rate of infections were 7.68% in younger and 16.30% in adult age groups were also recorded between age groups and the occurrence was statically different (P < 0.05) (P=0.004, X =8.05). On the other hand the occurrence of this poultry Coccidial diseases between management systems were also different (P < 0.05) (P=0.005, X =10.46) with the rate of 17.0% in Backyard rearing system, 7.78% in Modern deep litter and 8.34% Modern cage management system. In conclusions, the occurrence of this Eimerial disease when it occurred was more severe in BWLH breed, younger age groups of chickens and modern deep litter management system than the other. This indicates that it is an alarming the need for control and prevention measures in the BWLH, growers and modern deep litter management system. Finally some managements and control measures of poultry coccidiosis was forwarded. Key words: Coccidiosis Eimeria species Hawassa Oocyst Poultry Prevalence SNNP Sidama zone INTRODUCTION chicken, is estimated at 56.5 million [6, 7]. With regard to breed, 96.9%, 0.54% and.56% of the total poultry were Agriculture is a corner stone system is known to reported to be indigenous, hybrid and exotic, respectively possess desirable characters such economic and social []. life of the peoples of Ethiopia [1]. Within agriculture, In most tropical countries chicken production is livestock comprises an extremely important sector of the based mainly on scavenging production systems, which economy. It accounts for about 18.8% of the national GDP makes substantial contributions to household food and 40% of the agricultural GDP []. The country has an security throughout the developing world [9]. In Ethiopia estimated livestock population of 38.7 million cattle, 18.08 chicken populations are widespread and almost every million sheep and 14.9 million goats [3]. Poultry is the rural family owns chicken, which provide a valuable largest livestock species worldwide [4]. Approximately 0 source of family protein and income [10]. The majority of billion poultry exist worldwide and of this about 75% are these chickens are maintained under a traditional in developing countries [5]. In Ethiopia the population of system with little or no inputs for housing, feeding or Coresponding Author: Abdu Mohamed, School of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University, P. O. Box 307, Jimma, Ethiopia. 34

British J. Poultry Sci., 4(): 34-43, 015 health care. The most dominant chicken types reared in agent [31]. Its incidence is being increased in poultry due this system are local ecotypes, which show a large to higher stocking densities and intensive husbandry variation in body position, color, comb type and practices [3]. productivity [11-14]. The disease inflicts the birds in two forms, clinical Recently, commercial flocks have been also emerged and sub-clinical forms. The clinical form of the disease in urban and peri-urban areas in central parts of the manifests through prominent signs of mortality, morbidity, country [15 & 16]. This industry occupies an important diarrhea or bloody feces, birds become depressed, have position in the provision of animal protein (meat and egg) ruffled feathers, the wings droop and tend to huddle. to man and generally plays a vital role in the national The occurrence of clinical coccidiosis is directly related to economy as a revenue provider [17]. The total national the number of sporulated oocysts ingested by a bird at annual poultry meat and eggs production is estimated at one time, the pathogenecity of the Eimeria species, the 7,300 and 78,000 metric tons, respectively and age of the infected chicken and the management system. indigenous poultry contribute almost 99% of the national Sub-clinical coccidiosis on the other hand manifests egg and poultry meat production [18]. mainly by poor weight gain and reduced efficiency of feed With the increase of poultry production, several conversion and performance and gives rise to highest problems were risen which led people to refrain from proportion of the total economic losses [33]. investing in poultry farming for fear of mortality due to Quantitative losses due to coccidiosis without bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases [19-4]. Among the including the sub clinical coccidiosis are estimated to be infectious diseases, Newcastle disease, salmonellosis, billion US$ throughout the world [34, 35]. In Ethiopia is coccidiosis and fowl pox are considered the most not well documented, but has reported that it contributes important causes of mortality in local chicken while to 8.4% loss in profit in large scale farms and 11.86% loss predators are an additional causes of loss [5]. in profit in small scale farms. Losses due to mortality Parasitism is one of the major problems which inflict following a severe outbreak may be devastating and heavy economic losses to the poultry in the form of incidence rates as high as 80% were observed to occur in retarded growth, reduced weight gain, decreased egg the form of an outbreak in Ethiopia [36]. production, diarrhea and obstruction of intestine, poor In all parts of the world poultry coccidiosis feathers, replacement birds that take long to reach represents a major disease problem. With increasing maturity, morbidity and mortality. Stress from parasites interest in poultry production evidenced by the could affect the blood picture and cause anorexia [6]. proliferation of poultry farms, it is pertinent to continually Coccidiosis is one of a serious poultry parasitic evaluate the prevalence, frequencies of the different disease that infects the epithelial lining of the intestines Eimeria species and management issues associated with and has greatest economic impact on poultry industries common poultry diseases such as coccidiosis in any worldwide Due to production losses and costs for given zone and In Ethiopia despite the immense research treatment and prevention [7, 8]. The disease is works done by several outstanding researchers in the manifested clinically by intestinal hemorrhage, area of poultry coccidiosis in different parts of the malabsorption, diarrhea, reduction of body weight gain country [37-4]. The disease is still continued being a due to inefficient feed utilization, impaired growth rate in major problem demanding much research and broilers and reduced egg production in layers [9-31]. investigation. The prevalence of this disease in and Poultry coccidiosis is caused by several distinct around Hawassa town, south Ethiopia was not well Eimeria species [3]. In many countries, nine species of addressed yet though the problem is the risk of poultry Eimeria have been reported in chickens in surveys of producer. The objective of this to determine prevalence commercial poultry farms [33] of these seven species are and risk factors associated with poultry coccidiosis in regarded as valid: E. acervulina, E. maxima, E. praecox, selected farm and backyard rearing system in and around E. mitis, E. necatrix, E. tenella and E. brunetti. These Hawassa town. Eimeria species are distinguished by: (a) The morphology of oocysts (b) their localization in the digestive tract and MATERIALS AND METHODS (c) their degree of pathogenecity [9, 30]. The disease is endemic in most of the tropical and subtropical regions Study Area: The study area is located 07 0 N to where ecological and a management condition favors an 38 9 16 E at an altitude of 1,690 m above sea level all-year round development and propagation of the causal (GPS reading). It is located at a distance of 75 km 35

British J. Poultry Sci., 4(): 34-43, 015 Fig. 1: Map of study area (SNNP, Sidama zone, Hawassa town, Tula town and Tulu town) Source: GPS reading south of Addis Ababa in Ethiopian Great Rift Valley. (-8 weeks) and adult (above 8 weeks of age). The study The average monthly minimum and maximum temperatures was conducted from two selected poultry farm in Hawassa and mean annual rainfall were 1 C, 7.6 C and 951 mm, town, Hawassa poultry farm enterprise and Hawassa respectively. The wet season begins in April and extends university poultry farm which 19 of the total population to the end of September, while the dry season starts in size of the study, from these 144 from deep litter farm October and extends to March. The entire town is spread system, Hawassa poultry farm enterprise and the rest 48 over an area of 1,950 hectares, of which 787 ha. (40%) is from cage system Hawassa university poultry farm. developed and the remaining 1,163 ha (60%) is vacant Another 19 from backyard rearing system of indigenous [43]. The total population of the area is 399,461(199,768 and mixed (Hybrid) breed were collected based on male and 199,693 female) [44]. geographical location and easily accessibility in and around Hawassa town, Tula and Tulu town. The owners Study Population: The study populations were Bovines of the flock were interviewed and information about flock White Leg Horn (BWLH), Rhodo Island Red (RIR), Mixed size, breed and management system were asked, then after (Hybrid) and indigenous breed of chicken in poultry farm representative chickens were selected and the samples of Hawassa University, Hawassa poultry farm enterprise were taken. and owned by local farmers in and around Hawassa town, Tulu and Tula town. Chickens were kept both under Study Design and Methods: A cross-sectional study was extensive backyard system and intensively with deep litter done from November 014-March 015on randomly and cage system. In Hawassa poultry farm enterprise selected chickens to determine the prevalence of poultry BWLH breed was rearing intensively in deep litter system coccidiosis and associated risk factor in selected two whereas Hawassa University was rearing RIR breed in poultry farm in Hawassa town and extensively reared cage system. The other indigenous and mixed breeds chicken in and around Hawassa town, Tulu and Tula were collected by rounding in the small holder s owner s town, Southern Nation Nationality and Peoples Sidama home in and around Hawassa town, Tulu and Tula town. Zone, south Ethiopia. The fecal samples were collected The study birds were grouped into breed (BWLH, RIR, directly from the rectum and put in plastic bottles from Mixed (Hybrid) breed and indigenous), management farm each chicken and brought to Parasitology laboratory of type (intensive with deep litter and cage system and the Department of Veterinary Laboratory, Hawassa extensive backyard rearing system) and ages as young University for examination [45]. 36

1.96 x 0.5(1-0.5) n= (0.05) =384 British J. Poultry Sci., 4(): 34-43, 015 Sample Size Determination: Since the prevalence of A statically significant association between variables was coccidiosis in chicken in and around Hawassa town, considered to exist if the computed P value was less than south Ethiopia, poultry farm and extensive back yard 0.05. All statistical analyses were done using SPSS rearing system has not been reported, 50% expected statistical software version 17. prevalence rate was used. In addition, 95% confidence interval (CI) and 5% desired absolute precision were also RESULTS used [46]. Therefore, the total sample was calculated using Thrusfield formula. The Overall Prevalence: The results prevalence of chickens Coccidiosis in the samples under examination in 1.96 Pexp (1- P exp) and around Hawassa town was summarized in Table 1. n = Out of the total 384 fecal samples of chickens examined, d infections at different age, breed and management system, where 77samples were positive for coccidial oocyst giving the n = required sample size overall prevalence rate of 0.10%, Whereas the rest 307) P exp=expected prevalence were negative up on fecal examination for oocysts of d= required precision coccidial parasite Table 1. The expected prevalence of coccidiosis is 50% with the required precision (d) of 5% (0.05). By substituting the value in the above formula, we get the sample size: Prevalence of Coccidiosis Between Breeds: Within breed more positive result was evaluated for Eimeria oocyst up on microscopic examination in BWLH breed than the rest. A rate of 7.78% in BWLH breed, 9.10% in RIR,.6% in Mixed and 1.96% in indigenous breed respectively (Table ) were evaluated. The association was statically significant P<0.05 (P=0.004, X =13.0). Therefore, the total sample size required was 384. Prevalence of Coccidiosis Between Age Groups: Age wise prevalence of the Eimeriosis was mentioned in Methodology: Coprological Examination: Birds fecal (Table 3), this table suggested that out of the total 384 samples was collected per cloaca where possible or with fecal sample of chickens examined 43 samples were from a spatula for freshly voided feces. The fecal sample will be adult chickens and the remaining 141 were from younger placed into plastic bottles, identified appropriately and age groups. The prevalence rate is relatively higher in transported to University of Hawassa, school of younger age of chickens than adult age groups, 7.66% veterinary medicine, parasitological Laboratory for and 15.64% in young and adult age respectively groups. o examination. Samples were kept in refrigerator at 4 C to be The association between expected prevalence and new examined for coprological examination. The observation prevalence were significance significant P<0.05 (P=0.004, of parasitic forms in the feces was evaluated by using the X =8.05). Coprological flotation technique using sodium chloride (Nacl) solution as flotation medium. Gross fecal Prevalence of Coccidiosis Between Management System: examination was done before the samples subjected to The results of Prevalence of Coccidiosis between microscopic examination [47]. management system was explained in Table 4. In the deep litterfarms out of 144 fecal sample of chickens examined 40 Data Analysis: The data which was collected from the samples were positive for coccidial oocyst with study area, the result obtained from fecal examination was prevalence rate of 7.78%, while in cage system out of 48 recorded in the format developed for this purpose and fecal sample of chickens examined only 4 samples were later on the raw data were entered and managed in positive and the prevalence rate of 8.34% was evaluated. Microsoft Excel worksheet and descriptive statistic was From backyard home rearing system 19 fecal samples utilized to summarize the data. The point prevalence was examined 33 samples were positive for chicken coccidial calculated for all data by dividing positive samples by parasite. The association between expected prevalence total number of examined samples and multiplied by and new prevalence were 10.46% and the significance hundred. The association between the prevalence of the between association was P<0.05(P=0.005, X =10.46), disease and risk factors was assessed by Chi-square (X ). (Table 5). 37

British J. Poultry Sci., 4(): 34-43, 015 Table 1: The association between risk factor and occurrence of coccidial diseases Risk factor No of chicken examined No of positive result Prevalence (%) X P-value Breed BWLH 144 40 7.78 13.04 0.004 RIR 48 4 8.3 Mixed 84 19.6 Indigenous 108 14 1.96 Age Young 141 39 7.66 8.044 0.004 Adult 43 38 15.64 Farm type Backyard 19 33 17.18 10.456 0.005 deep litter 144 40 7.78 Modern cage system 48 4 8.34 Total 384 77 0.1 Table : The association between breed of chickens and occurrence of coccidial diseases Breed No of chickens examined No of positive result enumerated Prevalence (%) X P-value RIR 48 4 8.3 13.0 0.004 BWLH 144 40 7.78 Mixed 84 19.6 Indigenous 108 14 1.96 Total 384 77 0.10 Table 3: The association between age of chickens and occurrence in coccidial diseases Age No of chickens examined No of positive result Prevalence (%) X P-value Young 141 39 7.66 8.05 0.004 Adult 43 38 15.64 Total 384 77 0.10 Table 4: The association between age of chickens and occurrence coccidial diseases Age No of chickens examined No of positive result Prevalence (%) X P-value Young 141 39 7.66 8.05 0.004 Adult 43 38 16.30 Total 384 77 0.10 Table 5: The association between management system of chickens and occurrence of coccidiosis Farm type No of chickens examined No of positive result Prevalence (%) X P-value Backyard rearing system 19 33 17.0 10.46 0.005 Deep litter 144 40 7.78 Modern cage system 48 4 8.34 Total 384 77 0.10 DISCUSSION Gyorke et al. [54]. This result might be attributed to high stocking density and absence of intervention between The overall prevalence rate of 0.10% of coccidial flock resulting in high contamination rate of poultry house infection in different age, breed and management system with oocyst of Eimeria and lack of regular disposal of was registered in fecal sample of the sampled chickens litters. On the other hand, the present study chickens from which further confirm the endemicity of coccidiosis in and different management system, age and breeds were around Hawassa town, south Ethiopia This rate is low collectively examined that is little exposure to oocyst of when compared to investigations in other countries. Eimeria species, low density of flocks were the resuns for In previous studies, the infection rate was reported to be reduction of the rate of this diseases. The present result 54.3% in Turkey by Karaer et al. [48], 31.7% and 39.6% in is in consistent with the findings of [35, 55], who assessed India by Sharma et al. [49] and Nikam et al. [50], 36.7% prevalence rates of.58% in deep litter system and 3.1% and 5.9% in Nigeria by Muazu, Masdooq and Ngbede in small and large scale production systems respectively. [51], 71.9% in Pakistan by Khan et al. [5], 78% in Jordan This result also agrees with the finding of [56]. 5.4%, in by Al-Natour et al. [53] and 9% in Romania by Kombolcha Poultry Breeding and Multiplication 38

British J. Poultry Sci., 4(): 34-43, 015 Center,[57]. 19.5% in Nekemte town East Wollega, [58].) birds picking activity increases. At this time exposure to.58% in RIR and 1.5% Indigenous breed in Tiyo coccidial oocyst is very high and on the other hand as the District, East Arsi Zone, [59]. 3.1% and [60]. 5.4%. This age of the bird increases the birds get immunized and finding was disagreed with the finding of [39]. 48.80% in resistant to the infections. Therefore, the infection rates deep litter system. However this disagreement observed decrease with age of the birds. was due to the effect of environmental and management Research done in different parts of the country system in spite of the genotypic factor. This variation in suggest that coccidiosis is the major health problem for prevalence of the disease may be due to difference in chickens especially confined in the houses of deep litter management system. system and major economic loss directly due to chicken The existence of genetic variation in resistance to mortality and morbidity, cost of treatment and vaccination coccidiosis among breeds and strains has been reported or indirectly due to reduction in performance, reduced by [61]. The current study also shows the rate of 7.78% weight gain, feed conversion rate, for the owner of the in BWLH, 9.10% in RIR,.6% in Mixed and.6% in animals. In free-ranging local chickens, non-selective Indigenous breed was recorded among breed of chickens. picking behavior during feeding can expose chickens to In previous studies no association was found between infection [54]. High moisture conditions of the farm infection rate and breed, in contrast to the present study favorably influence oocyst sporulation and development [35, 6 and 63], e current study revealed that statically to the infective stage were the potentially increase risk of significant P<0.05 (X=13.0, P=0.004) difference between coccidiosis [53, 54]. The current study also reveal that breeds and occurrence of coccidiosis was seen. This is statistically significant difference P<0.05 (X=10.46, the fact that not only variation in genetic makeup of the P=0.005) between occurrence of coccidial diseases and chickens, but also difference in geographical location and management system of chickens. The prevalence rate of agro ecology of the study area. The difference in 17.19% in backyard rearing system, 8.34% modern cage prevalence among these breeds may be due to the variety system and 7.78% modern deep litter system was of intervention and management system. recorded. Coccidiosis is the most common to birds under Age is one of the most principal factors in intensive management system especially those on deep coccidiosis [63], the significant relationship was observed litter system due to relatively higher oocyst accumulation in agreement with other researchers [33, 51, 5, 6, 63]. in the deep litter system. This finding suggests that the Suggested that all ages of poultry are susceptible to exposure to coccidiosis was higher in modern deep litter infection but usually resolves itself around 6-8 weeks of system than the other management system. This is the age. It seems that the relationship between age and fact that in deep litter system the exposure to prevalence rate of coccidiosis is direct due to complete contaminated coccidial oocyst was high as compared to life cycle and the increase of oocysts consumption. other system of management. This finding was agreed The current study revealed that the prevalence of with the finding of [39] The prevalence rate of chickens coccidiosis was higher in younger age groups, 7.66%, that was relatively less exposed to litter was smaller than than in adult age groups, 15.64%, group, The difference the other this is why is that, because they are manage in was statically significant P<0.05 (X =8.05, P=0.004) was cage system and less exposed to the litter of the bird observed. This finding agrees with previous reports [39,65] and also in congruent with the findings of other CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION authors and researchers regarding the frequency of occurrence of coccidiosis with respect to the age of birds Conclusions: In support of stimulating growth, economic [39, 40, 65], but disagree with the record of Oljira [63] who development, food security and alleviating poverty, the reported the prevalence of coccidiosis was almost analysis of disease of poultry plays an important role in similar in young and adult age groups and [60] who an ongoing or future development plan of the country. reported the prevalence of clinical coccidiosis in adult The result of the present study indicate that the overall parent stock is significantly higher than the young prevalence rate of 0.10% were registered, this result (1-60days). This disagreement it might be due to variation indicates that the endemicity of this Eimerial disease in in age categories. The current finding also disagrees with the study area. The diseases is more sever in WLHB, the previous report by [66] who recorded a higher growers and modern deep litter management system, this prevalence of coccidiosis in adult layer birds than the is an alarming the need for control and prevention other age categories. During the first 6-7 weeks of age the measures in the WLHB, growers and modern deep litter 39

British J. Poultry Sci., 4(): 34-43, 015 management system, so management system, breed and age of chickens were the predisposing factor to coccidial disease. Infections with coccidia are often associated with severe economic losses. Based on the above conclusion the following recommendations were forwarded. Recommendations: Coccidiosis is still a major burden to poultry producers and veterinary health professionals in the farm and back yard rearing system by changing its mode of occurrence from time to time as to the variation in the conditions of the management system. Hence, demanding a lot of interventions and research to develop long lasting and sustainable prevention and control strategies so as to get rid of the disease and boost the economy of the country. These principles will come out true by doing research on this disease up to species level. Eimeria Species should be identified in and around Hawassa town by other researcher, externship student etc. As long as birds are reared in contact with their feces, as when they are raised on built-up litter, then coccidiosis will continue to occur. Alternative production systems might limit such contact, such as the raising of birds on wire floors or cage system, but such systems are uneconomical. If producers keep hygienic poultry house, continuously disposal of the litter and churning of the bedding it s the best ways to control this diseases. Management system of the poultry house, litter management must be followed by the owner of the chickens. Coccidiosis is a major economic problem for poultry producer; it is due to problems of easily accessibility of the required chickens, transportation service is costy, chemicals are scarce and so these must be fulfilled by the government, NGOs and the concerned bodies as well. Vaccination is often promoted as the control of coccidiosis and indeed is the method of choice for the prevention of the coccidial disease. By this means, longterm, sustainable control of coccidiosis may be achieved. So continuous and sustainable anticoccidial vaccines must be given to chickens regularly at a recommended dose. Poultry coccidiosis is a problem wherever chickens are raised under intensive and extensive conditions of poultry rearing system. This is particularly true for the high stock density of chickens, which was access to the litter contaminated by oocyst of coccidian parasite were reared together. So continuous and regular changing of bedding and litter management must be followed by the poultry farm workers farmer and management bodies of the farm. Similar drugs were giving for long time for chickens this can leads to drugs resistance, so drug sensitivity test must be conducted in order to test the sensitivity of these Eimerial species and reduce financial losses. Awareness should be created about the effect of this coccidial disease on the economy of the country by veterinary technicians, animal health workers and all concerned bodies to the farmers, poultry farm owners and managers of the farm. Early identifications of diseased chickens and isolations from healthy chickens were important. This activity can help reduce continuous shading of the oocyt of Eimeria species in dropping and contaminations of the litter. This should be followed by the concerned bodies. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Jimma University for the financial support. Hawassa poultry farm enterprise, Hawassa University poultry farm and back yard rearing system respectively for cooperation in sample collection. REFERENCES 1. Serkalem Tadesse, Hagos Ashenafi and Zeleke Aschalew, 005. Sero-prevalence study of Newcastle disease in local chickens in central Ethiopia. Int. Appl. Res., Vet. Med., 3(1): 5-9.. Central Statistics Agency (CSA), 013. Agricultural Sample Survey, 01/13 (005 E.C.), Volume II: Report on Livestock and livestock characteristics (Private peasant holdings). Statistical Bulletin 570. Central Statistical Agency (CSA), Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. 3. FAO, 004. Livestock sector brief: Ethiopia. FAO, Livestock information, sector analysis and policy branch AGAL. 004. Rome. 4. Jens Christian, R., P. Anders, V. Charlotte, M.C. Ainsh and F. Lone, 004. Keeping village poultry. A technical manual for small scale poultry production. Copenhagen, Denmark, pp: 34. 5. Gebremariam, M.K., S. Devarajan and B. Ahmed, 011. Prevalence of Helminth Parasites in Indigenous Fowls of Zoba Anseba of Eritrea, North-East Africa. Vet. World., 4(11): 49-494. 6. Ashenafi H. and Y. Eshetu, 004. Study on Gastrointestinal Helminths of Local Chickens in Central Ethiopia. 7. Gueye, E., 003. Gender issues in family poultry production systems in low-income food-deficit countries. Amer. J. Alternative Agri., 18(4): 185-195. 40

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