South Africa Training Manual Limpopo Wildlife Programs
Table of Contents Welcome 3 Mammal and Herbivore Introduction 5 - Types of Mammals 5 - Communication 5 - Social Structure 6 - Territories and Home Ranges 6 Herbivore Identification 7 - Antelope 7 - Other Herbivores 9 - Primates 10 Focus Animals 11 Large Herbivores 20 - African Elephant 20 - Rhinoceros 22 - Hippopotamus 24 Smaller Carnivores and other interesting animals 25 Birds 30 Snakes, Spiders and Scorpions 32 Telemetry and Spotlighting 35 Data 37 Vehicles 38 Reserve Work & Alien Invasive Control 40 Community 47 Global Vision International 2
Welcome to Karongwe! Karongwe Game Reserve (KGR) was once made up of separate land owners and individual farms. In 1998 a conservancy was formed to create an 8,000 hectare wildlife reserve. Currently there are seven eco-tourism operations, plus GVI, EcoTraining and landowners houses. GVI was brought onto Karongwe in May 2001 to work in conjunction with KERI (Karongwe Ecological Research Institute) to monitor the large predators and mega-herbivores on the reserve. Our current partners include KGR landowners, the Reserve Manager, the University of Pretoria, the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve, Queens University in Belfast, Mpumalanga Parks Board (MPB) and Department of Agriculture, Forestry & Fisheries (DAFF), Endangered Wildlife Trust. We also do a large variety of research on an ad hoc basis for other Universities and Research Institutes and Conservation Organisations. Research on KGR consists of determining and monitoring predator numbers, monitoring feeding behaviour of large predators, determining the impact predators have on prey densities and populations, monitoring spatial utilisation of predators and monitoring intraspecific and intraguild competition/relationships. Other research may be conducted during your time on KGR, but this is dependent on our partners requirements. Karongwe is located near the town of Hoedspruit, a 50 minute drive away, within the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Reserve. The Biosphere represents only 1.4% of the land in South Africa, but contains 55% of the total natural life found on the subcontinent! Trips to Hoedspruit are conducted every Tuesday and volunteers will have a chance to either go into town themselves or have someone pick up anything they may need. Hoedspruit is small but has all of the basics you will need during your stay. Volunteers have one day off a week (Sunday) when they can explore the area by renting cars from Hoedspruit or signing up for a trip through GVI. These extra-day trips may include Kruger National Park and exploring the Panorama Route. The accommodation on Karongwe is very basic. Volunteers sleep in bunkbeds in mixedsex dormitories, each bunk has its own drawer and storage cupboard. There are two bathrooms for the volunteers to share, so be prepared to queue for your shower. There is a sink and a washing line to handwash and hang your clothes. There is a generator which is run approximately three hours a day during which volunteers can charge cameras and phones at a specific charging station, but bear in mind there are a limited number of plug sockets at the charging station for people to share. Power and space to charge is limited so we request you only bring what is necessary. Please do not bring items such as hair dryers or straighteners as they require too much power and will overload our generator. During generator time you will have the opportunity to use your laptop or the base laptop to access the internet. The camp does have wifi, which is usually available between the hours of 7am and 5pm but the bandwidth is limited and therefore downloading and uploading of large documents and Global Vision International 3
images is not possible. Volunteers can purchase vouchers for the wifi from a member of staff. Karongwe also has our very own base dog, named Zuri. She is a Weimaraner/Border Collie cross and is very friendly. If you have any concerns about Zuri before you come please contact someone from GVI so we can accommodate you. Global Vision International 4
Mammal and Herbivore Introduction What is a mammal? Mammals have unique features. They all have hair and females have mammary glands and give birth to live young, mammals are also endothermic (they can regulate their own body temperature, regardless of the environmental temperature). They have three ear ossicles (bones in middle ear) and their lower jawbone is one structure. Mammals have also have a four-chambered heart, although this feature is also shared with crocodiles. Types of Mammals There are three types of mammal. 1. Monotremes are primitive, egg laying mammals. Milk is suckled through the skin of the mother (e.g. platypuses and echidnas). There are no monotremes in Africa. 2. Marsupials have an abdominal pouch in which young are reared. The young are born early in their development, travel to the pouch and attach to a nipple where they complete their development (e.g. koala and kangaroo). There are no marsupials in Africa. 3. Placentals have an advanced placenta, which means that the young remain in the mother until the embryonic development is complete (e.g. humans). All African mammals are placentals. There are 343 mammal species in South Africa. Communication Visual Visual communication is important for mating displays, parental care, submissiveness, dominance, anti-predator behaviour etc. For example: the black and white markings on animals tails or rumps are follow-me signs for other individuals of the same species. Predators and primates have forward facing eyes, which mean they have a wide field of binocular vision. This enables them judge distances better, for example, decide whether to jump to the next branch or launch an attack. Herbivores, however, have eyes on the side of their head, which means that they have a narrow field binocular vision. This allows them to see almost 270 around them in order to spot danger approaching whilst grazing or browsing. Nocturnal mammals have a reflective layer of crystals at the back of their eyes called a tapetum. This is what reflects in the spotlight at night. This helps improve their night vision. Vocal Vocal communication has numerous advantages in that it can be turned on and off quickly and a lot of information can be transmitted over large distances. Calls can be used to attract prospective mates, maintain contact within social structures as well as between mother and offspring. Alarm calls can also indicate danger. Vervet monkeys, for example, have different alarm calls for dangers such as an eagle from the sky versus a snake. Global Vision International 5
Olfactory or smell Animals use skin gland secretions, urine or faeces to convey information such as sex, age, social status, reproductive condition, emotional state and/or group membership. Olfactory communication is used mainly for territory boundaries and assessing reproductive condition. Some mammals have a Jacobson s organ that is used to pick up olfactory signals. The flehmen response is the name for the behaviour when a mammal uses the Jacobson s organ to smell. For example, this lion is testing a lioness urine for signs of pending oestrus. Tactile or touch This type of communication is usually exhibited by social mammals and can take various forms, for example, play behaviour, courtship, grooming or parental care. Mammals are the only animals that play. Social Structure Animals can either be solitary or social, with different types of social structures. The most common are: 1. Monogamous (e.g. klipspringers, steenbok, bat-eared foxes and jackals). These animals pair bond for life. 2. Polygamous, such as the harem system, where there is one male that has many females (e.g. lions and many antelope species). 3. Matriarchal (e.g. elephants and hyenas). This system is where a group of females is lead by one individual, who is often the oldest (in the case of elephants) or leadership is passed on from mothers to daughters (e.g. hyenas). Territories versus Home Ranges Territories are areas where resources are actively protected and defended against other animals of the same species (i.e. other individuals of the same species are excluded from using these resources). They are generally marked by a variety of methods including dung middens, roaring, anal pasting and urine spraying. Home Ranges are areas of resources that are utilized regularly by animals but are not defended. For example, an elephant herd would have a home range or an area they spend most of their time in because it includes resources that are necessary for their survival or reproduction. However, they do not exclude other elephants from using resources in their home range nor do they defend it from other elephants. Home ranges may change seasonally in response to changing supplies of water or food. Global Vision International 6
Herbivore Identification A herbivore is any animal that feeds on plants, algae or their products including seeds, fruit and nectar. In order to correctly identify kills and take prey survival data, we need to be able to accurately identify prey species, their age and sex. Each week during your stay different prey species are counted. For example during week one zebra and wildebeest are the prey survival species. Nyala, Steenbok, Common Duiker and Bushbuck are counted every week. Antelope Species on Karongwe where the male antelope have horns while females do not, include: Impala, Kudu, Bushbuck, Waterbuck, Grey Duiker, Steenbok and Nyala. Impala Kudu Bushbuck Waterbuck Global Vision International 7
Steenbok Common Duiker Nyala The only antelope on Karongwe where both sexes have horns is the blue wildebeest. Generally females have thinner horns, while males have thicker horns and thicker bases. Male Female Global Vision International 8
Other Herbivores Warthog male Warthog young and female Bushpig Burchell s Zebra Giraffe Global Vision International 9
Primates The primate species seen on Karongwe include: Chacma Baboon Vervet Monkey Lesser Bushbaby Global Vision International 10
Focus Animals LION (Panthera leo) - Lions are the largest cats in Africa. - Males weigh between 180-240 kg and females 120-180 kg. - Lions are unique as they are the only social cats and live in prides. - Males grow a mane. - The average lifespan of a wild lion is 14 years; usually females live longer. Social Structure A typical pride consists of 2-18 females and their cubs. Often this is a lifetime bond and the females are related (e.g. sisters). There is usually a male or a coalition of males associated with the pride. The benefit of males forming coalitions is that they are able to take over a pride at a younger age and hold tenure over prides for longer ensuring that they sire more offspring. Pride males can have territories for up to six years. They tolerate their own cubs, however, they kill cubs when taking over a pride for the first time. This makes the females to come into oestrus earlier so the new males can sire their own offspring much earlier than if they had to wait for existing offspring to be weaned. There are numerous benefits to being social for females, including the ability to bring down larger prey, communal suckling and communal defence of cubs from other females and, in some cases, avoiding pregnancy if they have dependent cubs by chasing males off. Prides have dynamic, fluctuating territories, with neighbouring prides always in competition with each other. The movement of prey also changes boundaries of territories, as does the movement of strange males. Pride members are not always together, especially the males who might spend extended periods of time away from the pride patrolling territory boundaries. Communication Both males and females mark territories. Males scent mark by urine spraying, while both males and females will roar to advertise territoriality and to maintain contact between pride members. Vocal moans between pride members are used as short-range contact calls. Social contact between pride members consists of licking and rubbing. The black tips on lions tails and behind their ears are used by cubs to follow their mothers and by pride members to maintain visual contact when hunting. Oestrus Like many cats, lions are induced ovulators, meaning they will only release eggs from their ovaries if they are inseminated. Oestrus lasts four days and also occurs after females have given birth. A male will use the flehmen response to test a female s urine in order to determine the reproductive status of that female. Lionesses begin to breed at Global Vision International 11
Five cubs on average are born, with both males and females being equal size at birth. High mortality rates in the first few weeks are not uncommon. Cubs are left alone for long periods and stay at the den for 6-8 weeks before joining the pride. At three months cubs will chew meat, if they are hungry, but don t usually eat meat until they are 5-10 months old. 2½ 3 years, while males reach sexual maturity and have their own territories about one year later. Mating Once a female is in oestrus and accepts a male, they mate approximately every 15 minutes for 4-5 days. Copulation is quick, each lasting about 21 seconds, with typical aggression at the end. Lion Cubs Gestation is 110 days, where after the lioness selects a secluded den site to give birth. Cubs are born very small (±1.5 kg) and defenceless, with closed eyes. Juveniles and Sub-adults Young lions experience rapid growth from 12 months old. Sexual dimorphism becomes apparent with the development of manes in males and a size difference becoming apparent between the sexes. Sexual mounting starts and they become interested in hunting. At 2½-3 years old they are the size of adult females. Nomadic Phase Females inherit territory (stay with the natal pride) or link up with other prides. Males often form coalitions and wander between territories until they are large or strong enough to challenge dominant males for a territory. Hunting and Scavenging Lions are diurnal and nocturnal hunters. In other words, they can hunt during the day or at night. Most often they are active during the early morning and late afternoon. They kill small to large prey, ranging from warthog to giraffe. Certain prides in Botswana have been recorded specializing in hunting elephants. Lions rely primarily on stalking before launching into a short sprint. Their maximum speed is 80 kph, but this can only be maintained for approximately 100 m. Although the hunting success rate is low, it increases when pride members all hunt together. Lions will scavenge readily on carcasses. Global Vision International 12
Tracks and Signs Lion tracks are the largest cat track. They have the typical three lobes of a cats print on the back of the pad and there are no claw marks. Conservation The Red Data Book lists lions status as Vulnerable. Lions can be conserved within reserves. CHEETAH (Acinonyx jubatus) Cheetahs are the fastest land mammals, reaching a top speed of 120 kph. Although there is little sexual dimorphism in cheetahs, males are slightly heavier than females, weighing 35 65 kg, while females weigh 35 45 kg. Cheetahs have solid black spots with white under parts and distinctive tear marks on their faces. They are long legged, slender cats with long tails and small heads. Cheetahs claws are not fully retractable, giving them grip for running at speed. The approximate lifespan of cheetahs is 12 years. There are no cheetah sub-species. The king cheetah is a mutant gene that coalesces the cheetah s spots together to form stripes. All cheetahs are genetically similar because of a genetic bottleneck, which the species was exposed to approximately 10,000-20,000 years ago, when the population decreased to fewer than a few hundred animals. This, however, has not lowered their reproductive performance. Cheetahs are diurnal which means they are usually active during the day. Social Structure Females separate from their mother at approximately 1½ years old, which coincides with their first oestrus cycle. They then have no interaction with other females or males, except to mate. All offspring will stay within their mother s home range. Females are not territorial and can move up to 4 km a day. Males often form coalitions that consist of two to four individuals, which are usually brothers. Breeding males have territories and kill other males to defend them. Males can move up to 8 km a day. Global Vision International 13
Communication Cheetahs have black markings behind their ears and a white tip to their tail to act as a follow me sign for cubs. They use a high-pitched chirrup for short-range contact calls and greetings, they also purr when contented. Mating Females urinate more often when in oestrus - in order to attract males. Mating is seldom seen in the wild and copulation is quick. Cheetahs reach sexual maturity at approximately two years old. Cubs Gestation is 90 95 days. Females give birth in cover and keep the cubs hidden for the first month. However, they move their cubs frequently, sometimes as often as every second day. Normally there are 3 4 cubs in a litter. Cubs are blind and cannot walk when born. Cheetahs lose approximately 50% of their young within the first three months. This low cub survival rate is because they are solitary parents (only the female raises the cubs), a high predation of cubs by other carnivores, having no den to protect the young and generally a low hunting success rate. Cubs younger than 12 weeks have a long mantle of grey hair on their back that mimics honey badgers in an attempt to deter predators. When cubs are less than six months old, they follow their mother except when the mother hunts. After the mother has successfully killed, cubs are then led to the kill. When cubs are six months old, their mother starts to bring live lambs or hares etc. for the cubs to practice and hone their own hunting skills. Cheetah sub-adults are seldom successful on bigger prey until they are 15 months old. Diet and Hunting Cheetahs hunt mainly during the day. They can hunt in any area, not just on open plains, although they do have higher success rates when they can use their speed. Cheetahs can only run at full speed for approximately 300 m before their body temperature gets too high. Their classic hunting technique is a high-speed chase and tripping the prey with their front paws or dewclaws. Cheetah s skulls are adapted to maintain a strangle hold on their prey for up to 20 minutes. This includes having enlarged nasal passages for better recovery from the exertion of the hunt. Once the prey is killed, cheetahs need to rest to let their body temperature recover. Global Vision International 14
Cheetahs will typically begin eating from the rear of the prey and then move through to the front. They are the weakest of the large predators and prefer to leave their kills rather than risk being killed or injured when approached by other large predators. As a result, they often lose their kills to other large predators. Once cheetahs have eaten their fill, they will move away from the carcass to digest. Their usual prey is small antelope or the young of larger antelope. Cheetahs do not scavenge and are independent of water. Tracks and Signs Cheetahs tracks are more oval than other cats. They still have three lobes on their pads but the biggest difference is that their claws are not retracted, therefore, claw marks are often seen. Conservation The Red Data Book lists cheetah s conservation status as Vulnerable. Cheetahs are protected in South Africa and can t be hunted or their skins sold. Cheetahs can be confined within enclosed areas and are, therefore, relatively easy to protect within conservation areas. LEOPARD (Panthera pardus) Leopards are long, low, stocky cats with wide heads and short powerful jaws. Their limbs are short, thick and strong. Leopards are mainly nocturnal. Apart from size (males can weigh 40-90 kg whereas females are 30-60 kg) there is little sexual dimorphism in leopards. The spots on a leopard s coat are arranged in rosettes. Leopards have vibrissae (stiff whiskers) on their face which extend to the width of their nody. This helps them navigate quietly knowing if their body will brush against any vegetation and alert their prey. Leopards are arguably the most successful feline in that they are very adaptable, versatile, elusive and can survive in many areas where other cats cannot. Although there is discussion about whether sub-species exist within Africa, no sub-species have yet been genetically determined. Social Structure Leopards are solitary and territorial. In general, adults only associate long enough to mate. Territories of females often overlap, but those of males do not. Territorial males have priority access to females and territorial females have priority access to food. Global Vision International 15
Communication Scent marking is used to both communicate and mark territories. Bushes and trees are urine sprayed and faeces are used on paths that other leopards are likely to use. Males often scrape the ground with their hind legs. Their distance call is a sawing sound and they mainly call at dawn and dusk. The white tip of their tail and the black behind their ears is a follow-me sign for cubs. Mating Leopards are sexually mature at 2-4 years. Females normally initiate the mating. The male mounts briefly then leaps off as she turns snarling. Mating takes place every 15 minutes for up to 4-5 days. Leopard males do not help raise their offspring. Cubs Gestation is approximately 105 days, with a typical litter being 1-3 cubs. Cubs only weigh ½ kg at birth and are dark-grey/black. The cubs are concealed in dense thickets, koppies (rock outcrops) or caves and are moved by their mother every few days. Their eyes open after 6-10 days, but cubs only venture out of hiding after six weeks. Cubs make their first kills at around 11 months old but only become independent at approximately 22 months old. Diet and Hunting Leopards are opportunistic hunters. They are secretive and elusive, relying on good camouflage. They use a stalk and ambush technique, stalking to 5-20 m of prey before pouncing. They rarely run after prey. Leopards consume protein in any form, from mice to baby giraffe, however, they mainly eat medium sized antelope (e.g. impala) and young of larger species (e.g. zebra and wildebeest). They readily scavenge and will eat decaying meat, but will pluck feathers and fur from kills. Often leopards will drag kills into trees or cover with vegetation to avoid scavenging by lions and hyenas. Leopards do not need to drink water often, as they get enough water from their food. Tracks and Signs The leopard s tracks are very similar to lion tracks, although they are smaller. Conservation The leopard s conservation status is listed by the Red Data Book as Least Concern and hunting leopards is allowed with a permit. Destruction permits for problem animals can also be obtained in South Africa. They are hard to protect in conservation areas, as they cannot be confined with fences. Global Vision International 16
HYENAS Hyenas only occur in Africa, where they are widely distributed. There are three species of hyena, however, some consider the aardwolf part of the hyena family too. The spotted hyena is an opportunistic hunter and a scavenger, while the striped hyena mainly scavenges and is distributed only in north and northeast Africa. The brown hyena is mainly a scavenger but does hunt and is only found in southern Africa. The aardwolf is insectivorous and is found in south and east Africa. SPOTTED HYENAS (Crocuta crocuta) Spotted hyenas have a massive build in front with sloping hindquarters. Initially hyenas were thought to be hermaphroditic until as late as 1938 as both females and males appeared to possess male genitalia. Hyenas are almost identical in both sexes externally but females have almost typical female mammal anatomy internally. They can be identified by their single set of abdominal mammary glands. Spotted hyenas range in size averaging 40-55 kg, but have reached over 80 kg. Males weigh less than females. Spotted hyenas can be active in the day but are generally nocturnal. Their lifespan is 15-20 yrs. Social Structure Spotted hyenas usually live in clans ranging from 15 18 animals. The clan is led by a matriarch who is typically the largest and most aggressive female. She has unusually high levels of testosterone in her body. Next in the hierarchy is the matriarch s female offspring, which will dominate her brother and be next in line to be the matriarch. All clan females are dominant over clan males. Clan males also have a hierarchy; firstly the accepted immigrants, then natal males (born into that clan) and then non-accepted peripheral males. Spotted hyenas territories are maintained and defended against other clans. They are marked by anal pastings, defecating and scratch marking using an inter-digital gland. Communication As well as the olfactory marking of territories, spotted hyenas are also extremely vocal and have a repertoire of calls with different functions. A long drawn out whoop is used as a long range contact call. Around carcasses or in interactions with lions they giggle, whoop, scream, growl etc. Clan members also greet each other in a unique way that includes genital licking. Mating Only the most dominant, accepted, immigrant male will have mating rights. All the females in the clan will breed and den together but each mother suckles only her own young. Global Vision International 17
Cubs Gestation is 90 days with litters of 1-2 born with their eyes open and with teeth. Siblicide is common especially if both cubs are female. Cubs are dark brown when they are born, only showing spots at about four months old. Weaning starts at 9 months old and is only complete when the young are 12-16 months old. Cubs start to go out with adults at 6-9 months. Spotted hyenas will generally not bring food back to the den. Hunting and Scavenging Spotted hyenas are known for their ability to cover long distances during a night. They will maintain a walking speed of 4 km/hr and are capable of galloping at 40-50 km/hr for up to 5km. Their killing method usually involves running down and disembowelling their prey. Their maximum speed is around 60 km/hr. They are opportunistic hunters and scavengers and are able to consume up to 15 kg of meat at a sitting. Spotted hyenas have a complex relationship with lions, where individuals may be hunted down by male lions. However, a group of hyenas can intimidate a lioness separated from her pride. Conservation Status The Red Data Book lists spotted hyena as Near Threatened due to hunting persecution and cultural use for traditional medicine. BROWN HYENAS (Hyaena brunnea) Brown hyenas are less well known than spotted hyenas as they are more shy and secretive. They have a medium, shaggy build and only weigh 40-50 kg, with females being larger than males. Their coat is longer than the spotted hyena s and their ears are more pointed. Their lifespan is up to 16 years. Brown hyena are nocturnal but are often seen at dawn and dusk. Social Structure Live in clans with up to 12 members or as solitary nomadic males. Communication Territories are marked with anal pastings and dung latrines along borders. Brown hyenas are generally silent. Mating Usually only one female breeds in the clan. She will mate with males that are nomadic or are immigrants to the clan. Global Vision International 18
Cubs Gestation is 90 days with litters of 1-4 cubs born. Weaning starts at 3 months old and is complete at 12 months old. This is possible due to the adult s habit of bringing food to the den. Hunting and Scavenging Brown hyenas are mainly scavengers, with a typical daily intake of 2½ kg. Although they live in clans they forage alone and can walk up to 30 km a night. They rarely interact with lions on a kill, however, they have been known to steal prey from leopards. Conservation Status The Red Data Book lists Brown hyenas as Near Threatened due to persecution by farmers as they are seen as vermin. Diet of Hyenas Hyenas eat everything, including scavenging the faeces of other carnivores, skin, bone, teeth, offal and even their own dead. Spotted hyenas will hunt and eat rodents, birds, small carnivores, reptiles, large to medium ungulates and old or injured lions. Hyenas also consume grass, fruit and vegetable matter. Human rubbish, livestock and humans are also occasionally eaten. In order to eat some of this food, hyenas are equipped with a heavy skull with a pronounced sagittal crest to which massive masseter and temporalis muscles are attached. They have heavy canines and their upper and outer incisors can hold and tear any flesh while the conical premolars are capable of breaking the heaviest bones. They have well designed carnassial teeth for slicing thick hide and gristle. Hyenas are also equipped with an acute sense of smell to find food sources. Tracks and Signs Hyenas have a dog-like track with two lobes on the back pad. They have half moon shaped outer toes. Brown hyenas tracks often have hair marks surrounding the toes and their tracks tend to be smaller than the Spotted hyena. Other hyena evidence includes faecal middens that are used as territorial markers and anal pastings on grass stalks. Spotted hyenas leave one brown pasting whereas brown hyenas leave two pastings one brown and one black. Hyenas faeces often turn white because of the large bone content in their diet. Global Vision International 19
LARGE HERBIVORES AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (Loxodonta africana) African elephants are the largest land mammals. Males weigh 5,000-6,000 kg and females 3,600-4,000 kg. Males have a rounded forehead, when viewed from the side and generally have thicker tusks. Female have flattened, pointed foreheads with generally more slender tusks. Elephants are very adaptable in their habitat requirements, however, they are water dependant and need about 200 L of water a day. Life expectancy is about 65 years and is dependent on their dentition. Elephants only have 6 sets of teeth during a lifetime. Once all the sets of teeth have been used and the last pair is too worn to break up food material, old individuals will die of starvation. The tusks of an elephant are their incisor teeth. Although the only way to accurately determine an elephant s age is by its teeth, there are numerous ways that some idea of their age can be determined in the field. These include shoulder height, the depth of the indentations on the side of their foreheads, the size of the hourglass shape of the head and the length and thickness of their tusks. In older males, the thickness of the base of the trunk can also be used for ageing. Field Age Criteria for Aging African Elephant Thermoregulation Elephants have no sweat glands and, therefore, have other ways to prevent overheating. They have large ears with big veins that they flap to cool to the blood going to the brain. They also engage in mud bathing, swimming, water spraying and dust bathing to cool themselves. Protection against the sun and ectoparasites are other reasons they mud and dust bath. Social Structure Females live in breeding herds that consist of related females (sisters or daughters). Males leave their natal herd when they reach adulthood at approximately 15 years and may spend most of their time in established bull areas separate from the herds. They form loose associations with other bulls as well as breeding herds. Bulls join herds when in musth to search for females in oestrus. Global Vision International 20
Communication Elephants communicate almost constantly. They vocalize mostly on a low frequency called infrasound that is below the hearing of humans. The rumbles we can hear are part of the low frequency communication. Elephants can trumpet loudly when excited. In herds they also use touch and smell to greet and identify individuals. Reproduction - Musth Bull elephants go through periods of high testosterone levels called musth. This is indicated by swollen temporal glands and temporal secretion. There is a distinct musth smell resulting from fungal growth due to continuous urine dribbling and wet hind legs. Bulls in musth are generally more aggressive and their behaviour can be very unpredictable. However, when in oestrus females will prefer to mate with a musth bull. Musth periods can vary in length from a few days to a few months, dependant on bulls age. Generally the older and more dominant bulls tend to be in musth for longer periods. Breeding Females come into their first oestrous cycle at about 10-15 years old. Elephants have a long gestation of about 22 months. Generally they give birth to a single calf that weighs approximately 100 kg at birth. Calves stay close to their mother for their first year and are generally weaned at 3 years old when the next newborn arrives. Diet Elephants are bulk feeders, consuming about 150 kg of food a day. They eat grass, leaves, branches, bark, roots and fruit, using their trunk and tusks to feed. Tracks and Signs Elephants walk on their toes and have a thick cartilage layer that allows them to walk very softly. Each elephant print is unique, just like a human s fingerprint. Elephant signs in the bush include debarked and felled trees, mud on trees from rubbing and holes dug for water or roots/bulbs. Conservation On small, enclosed reserves, population control of elephant is important. Elephants are destructive feeders and high numbers can be detrimental to the environment. Present strategies to decrease this impact include: increasing the conservation area (dropping fences), translocation, culling, hunting, immunocontraception, sterilization and introduction of older individuals to normalize the age structure of the population. Elephants are considered of Least Concern in South Africa in the Red Data Book, an improvement on the global status in 1996 of Endangered. Global Vision International 21
RHINO (Rhinocerotidae) There are five rhino species left in world. In Africa there are Black and White rhinos, while in Asia there are the Indian, Javan and Sumatran rhinos. The most endangered rhino is the Javan rhino, with only 60 surviving individuals. WHITE RHINOS (Ceratotherium simium) The white rhino is the second largest land mammal. Males weigh up to 2,000 kg and females about 1,600 kg. Their lifespan is approximately 40-45 years. White rhino are grazers, feeding almost exclusively on grass. Social Structure Males are normally solitary, with dominant bulls usually displaying territoriality by their posture, dung middens and urine spraying. Dominant bulls will allow subordinate males into their territory, as long as they show submission. Bulls usually only associate with females in order to check their reproductive status. Adult females live in overlapping home ranges that usually encompass six to seven bull territories. Females usually associate in pairs; typically a female with her most recent offspring, although white rhino can be in groups called crashes of up to 13 animals. Reproduction Gestation is 16 months, at the end of which a single calf is born weighing 40 kg. The calves are weaned at one to one and a half years old. Ties between offspring and mother is only broken when the female gives birth again. BLACK RHINOS (Diceros bicornis) Black rhinos are smaller than white rhinos, weighing up to 1,000 kg. Their lifespan is generally 30-40 years. They are browsers, eating leaves and twigs. Social Structure Male black rhinos are solitary and territorial and mark their territory in a similar way to white rhino males. They might even share midden sites with white rhino, with no competition between the two species. Female black rhinos also use dung middens to defecate, but only dominant males spray urine and drag their feet. Adult females live in overlapping home ranges. Black rhino are less social than white rhino; groups seldom number more than four animals. Reproduction Global Vision International 22
Gestation in black rhinos lasts 15 months with a single calf born weighing 40 kg. The young are weaned at about 1 to 1½ years old. Ties between offspring and mother are only broken when the female gives birth again; usually when the calf is 2-4 years old. Differences between black and white rhinos Black rhino White rhino Smaller size Larger size Hooked Lip Square Lip Browser Grazer Young behind mother when walking Young in front of mother when walking 15 month gestation 16 month gestation Aggressive Less aggressive More solitary More social Head held high Head lower Dung middens twigs with 45 angles Dung middens dried grass Saddle back (2 humps) Three humps on back Rhinos in General Rhinos have very good hearing and an excellent sense of smell but their eyesight is very poor. They have no front teeth so their lips are used to gather browse and grass, taking the place of incisors. Rhinos often drink twice daily but can go for two to four days without water. While rhinos look heavy, they re extremely agile with a top speed of 45 km/hr. Tracks and Signs Rhinos have three toes/hooves and are classed in the same order as zebra (uneven toed ungulates). White rhino tracks are larger and more oval with a pronounced W at the back of the track. Black rhinos tracks are smaller and more rounded and the outer toes tend to stick out more. Rhinos are fond of mud wallows and have favourite rubbing posts such as trees, stumps, or termite mounds, which can indicate their favourite spots. Rhino middens are a good indication of a territorial bull in the area. Conservation Poaching is currently a major concern in southern Africa. Rhino horn is made of compacted hair and although it has been chemically tested and shown to have no aphrodisiac or medicinal qualities, it is still highly sought after in the East. Black rhinos are still hunted for Middle Eastern markets, as the horn is made into ceremonial knife handles. White rhinos nearly became extinct in the 1930s when there were as few as 150 animals after heavy poaching, but they made a comeback to over 10,000 individuals and in the early 2000s were listed as being of Least Concern. However with the currently high rates of poaching they have moved from the back up to Near Threatened category again. Global Vision International 23
There are two subspecies of Black rhino, one (Diceros bicornis minor) which is considered Vulnerable, while the other, the desert Black rhino is still considered Critically Endangered with only 30 animals remaining in 2002. HIPPOS (Hippopotamus amphibious) Male Hippos can weigh up to 2,000 kg, while females weigh up to 1,700 kg. They are grazers and consume up to 13 kg per day, quite a little considering their size. They are very energy efficient compared to animals of comparable size, spending most of their day in the water and expending very little energy. Typically Hippos are active and out of water at night. They will walk up to 30 km per night to reach grazing. Hippos have an approximate lifespan of 35 years. Social structure Hippos live in groups called schools of up to 30. These schools consist of females, young males and a single dominant male. Hippos are territorial and territories are marked by dung scattering and urine spraying by the male and do not extend out of the water. Young males are driven out by the dominant bull at about six years old, while the females remain. Reproduction Gestation length is about eight months, which is short considering the size of the adults. Females give birth to single calves weighing 30 kg, which can suckle underwater. Female hippos mature at five years and the males at six to eight years. Mating takes place underwater. Hippos can hold their breath underwater for up to six minutes. General Information Hippos are responsible for many human deaths; they are very aggressive and territorial. They walk on the bottom of watercourses rather than swimming. Hippos sweat contains a red pigment that acts as a sunscreen. Tracks and Signs Hippos leave an unmistakable four-toed, large, round track. They also use paths routinely in and out of water leaving a distinctive trail. Global Vision International 24
SMALLER CARNIVORES AND OTHER INTERESTING MAMMALS Carnivora This order contains mostly meat eaters, however, some carnivora are omnivorous and others insectivorous. Almost all have carnassial teeth which are big premolars adapted for slicing meat. Carnivora includes felines (cats such as lion, leopard and cheetah), canines (dogs such as wild dogs, jackals and foxes), hyenas, mustelids (such as badgers and otters) and viverids (such as mongoose, civets and genets). Felids Caracal Red cat with shortish tail Long black tufts on ears Striking black facial marks Largest of the smaller cats stands up to knee high Widespread in southern Africa Wide range of prey species up to smaller antelope Generally solitary Nocturnal African Wild Cat Looks like a tabby cat with long legs Red-russet tufts on top of ears Can crossbreed with domestic cats so the genetic integrity of this species is threatened Take prey species up to size of hares, the young of small antelope and birds as big as guinea fowls Usually active at night Serval Spotted cat with long legs, short tail and large rounded ears Prey consists of small mammals up to size of hares, birds, reptiles and insects Usually nocturnal, solitary and terrestrial but is also a good climber Global Vision International 25
Canides Black-backed Jackal Black tip to tail Omnivorous and does scavenge Can catch anything up to young antelope Nocturnal usually Long-range contact call is wailing and eerie Very common Territorial in pairs Mate for life Both parents care for pups as they can regurgitate food Side-striped Jackal White tip to tail Pale saddle on back Similar social behaviour as Blackbacked jackal Generally distributed in more arid regions More rare than Black-backed jackal Mustelids Honey Badger Stocky silver/white and black animal (this pattern is a warning to other animals to stay away!) Has a reputation for toughness and tenacity Usually solitary and mostly nocturnal Very long sharp claws used for digging into ground and rotten trees for food and for climbing trees for food and shelter Eats anything from beetle grubs to venomous snakes, raids beehives, scavenges etc. Status: Vunerable as habitat declines Viverids African Civet Hunched posture, black and white spotted/striped Nocturnal, solitary, mostly terrestrial Omnivorous fish, rodents, insects, fruit and frequently grass (one of few animals that can ingest millipedes) Global Vision International 26
Defecates in middens Scent marks with anal gland lasts up to three months Genets There are two species: Large spotted and Small spotted genet. Both are; Strictly nocturnal, usually solitary Omnivorous eating mostly small mammals, birds, insects Forage on ground usually, but very agile in trees Large Spotted Genet Also known as the rusty spotted genet Larger more rusty spots Tip of tail is black White on chin Small Spotted Genet Smaller black spots Tip of tail is white Chin is usually dark Slender Mongoose Solitary long mongoose Many colour variants but usually grey brown. Black tip on tail Mostly insectivorous with some reptiles and small mammals in diet Active during the day Banded Mongoose Greyish mongoose with dark bands on back Mainly insectivorous especially beetles and their grubs Active during the day Lives in groups up to 30 Forage together but each mongoose finds its own food The group posts alarm sentries on look out for predators Global Vision International 27
Territorial and can have clashes between groups Several females will breed in the group all group members care for young Dwarf Mongoose Smallest African carnivore Small dark brown mongoose living in groups Active in day Insectivorous Only dominant pair breeds Hyeanids Aardwolf Thought to be related to hyenas Small jackal sized Nocturnal, solitary Eats almost exclusively Harvester termites (up to 300,000 per night) Teeth are too small to prey on mammals Other Mammals of Interest Other more rare animals we may see on the reserve Pangolin or Scaly Anteater Covered in unmistakable hard scales Eats mainly ants and some termites Nocturnal, solitary Aardvark Unique animal - only one in the world in its order Large males weigh up to 65 kg Eats ants and termites Has massive claws for digging into termite mounds Nocturnal digs burrows for shelter Its disused burrows are used by at least 17 other mammal species plus birds, insects and reptiles Status: Vulnerable Global Vision International 28
Rolls up to protect head and soft under parts Scales are sought after for traditional medicine Often roll up around electric fences and get killed. Susceptible to insecticides Status: Vulnerable African Porcupine Unmistakable animal Largest rodent in Africa 25 kg Quills are not barbed and cannot shoot out Will back into a threat. Some quills are loosely attached in skin so they can fall out when the porcupine comes into contact with the threat Lives in groups but only the dominant pair breeds. They mate for life Nocturnal Eats roots, which is digs for Rock Hyrax or Rock Dassie Not a rodent Distantly related to elephants o Incisors are tusks o Antibodies are similar o Internal testicles o Leg structure is similar Used to be the dominant grazer on the continent before ruminants/antelope Lives in colonies on rock cliffs Feeds on grass, leaves, mosses etc. Global Vision International 29
BIRDS Birds are a major component of the food cycle. They are a food source for a number of animals ranging from snakes to sharks. Some of the roles birds play in the environment include insect population control, pollination of flowers, seed dispersal and they can also be vectors of disease. By being aware of birds in the environment, it can help our research. For example, vultures can indicate the presence of kills or red-billed oxpeckers can alert us of the presence of large animals. Identification of Birds With close to 850-900 bird species in the southern African sub-region (South Africa, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana and Namibia), it is quite daunting to try and identify one bird. However, certain steps can be followed in order to narrow down the process and make identification easier. Factors used to identify birds GISS stands for General Indication of Size and Shape (developed in World War 2 for fighter pilots to identify enemy aircraft). To help identify birds use birds that you know the size of such as a chicken, a parrot or dove. Ask yourself is this one smaller or larger? Is the bird more slender or fatter etc? Beak consider the shape as well as colour. Various beak shapes might describe the bird s feeding behaviour (insect feeders versus seed eaters versus nectar feeders). Legs and feet look at length as well as colour. Where is the colour e.g. Egrets these birds are all white but some have black legs with yellow feet and vice versa, while in some the legs are all black. Perching birds have a tendon in their palms that snaps closed around a branch when they land. Terrestrial birds such as the ostrich do not have this ability. There are different foot structures for different types of birds perching, wading, webbed etc. Colour and Markings Where does the coloration occur and what types of markings are there? Speckles, arrow marked, barring etc. Are there any markings around eyes, etc? Behaviour What is the bird doing? Is it on the ground or in a tree? Is it social or gregarious? What is its flight behaviour? Is it noisy? Habitat Where are you? You will not look for an ocean bird in the desert etc. Distribution This is especially useful when trying to distinguish between two similar birds. Check if they both occur in the area. Global Vision International 30
SNAKES, SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS A venomous animal is an animal that bites or stings another and injects venom. Poisonous refers to a toxic substance (poison) that is eaten or ingested by an animal. Generally poisons are produced by plants. Most venomous animals can be eaten as the venom is digested by stomach acid. Consequently, the correct term for dangerous snakes, scorpions and spiders is venomous NOT poisonous. Uses of venom Although prey immobilisation is a common use of venom, venom can also be used to digest prey before consuming it. Venom is also useful for protection and defence. Types of venom 1. Cytotoxic venom leads to tissue destruction around the site of the bite and causes localized bleeding. Animals that use cytotoxic venom include Adders, Violin spiders, Sac spiders and Six-eyed crab spiders. No scorpions use cytotoxic venom. 2. Neurotoxic venom affects the nervous system and causes paralysis of the muscles. Typically symptoms are nausea and vomiting, with difficulty breathing. Animals that use neurotoxic venom include Cobras, Mambas, Buthidae and Parabuthus scorpions, Black button spider, Brown button spiders and the Lesser baboon spider. 3. Haemotoxic venom affects the ability of blood to coagulate causing continued, spontaneous bleeding. Animals that use haemotoxic venom include the Boomslang and Vine snake. Global Vision International 31
SNAKES Snakes are classified by their dental structure. Black Fanged Snakes These snakes have 1-3 pairs of recurved, grooved fangs situated towards the back of the upper jaw. They tend to have hemotoxic venom if they are venomous. e.g. Boomslang (photo) and Vine snake Fixed front fanged snakes These snakes have specialized fangs with a tubular structure that allows the injection of venom. Fangs of spitting snakes are modified to spray venom. Most of these snakes use neurotoxic venom. e.g. Cobras (photo), Rinkhals and Mambas Hinged front fanged snakes These snakes have a pair of large, functional fangs at the front of the upper jaw. The fangs have a hinge mechanism that allows them to fold flat when they are not in use. Most of these snakes use cytotoxic venom e.g. Adders (photo) Solid toothed non-venomous snakes These snakes have solid, recurved cylindrical and sharply pointed teeth. There is no transport mechanism in these teeth for venom and most of these snakes rely on constriction to immobilize their prey, e.g. African rock python Common Snakes of Karongwe Puffadder, Black Mamba, Mozambique Spitting Cobra, Snouted Cobra, Boomslang African Rock Python, Red-Lipped Herald, Spotted Bushsnake, Brown House Snake. Interesting facts about snakes: Some snakes can fake death (e.g. Rinkhals). Venomous snakes can sometimes only strike with a dry bite (e.g. Cobras) and choose whether to release the venom when they bite. Newborn venomous snakes are just as venomous as adults. Global Vision International 32
SCORPIONS Thin tailed Scorpions These scorpions are not dangerous to humans, however, they still possess weak venom. They are characterized by a slender tail and big pincers. The reason for this is that they need to grip their prey for longer as their venom is weaker and takes a longer time to take effect. Thick tailed Scorpions These scorpions are venomous to humans. They have a thick tail and small pincers. Their powerful venom works faster on their prey, therefore, there is little need to hold on for long. Parabuthus transvaalicus Interesting Fact about Scorpions: Scorpions fluoresce under ultraviolet light; the glow is a result of light reflected by the hyaline layer in their exoskeletons. SPIDERS What makes spiders different from insects? Spiders Insects Legs 8 legs 6 legs Breathing Booklungs Tracheae Digestion Takes place outside body Takes place inside body Poison Present in all but 1 family Absent in most Silk Always present Only present at stage of cocooning Venomous spiders of Karongwe: Neurotoxic venom Brown button Spider (photo) Identified by a red hour-glass on ventral side of abdomen. Black button spider Global Vision International 33
Identified orange-red marking on the dorsal side of the abdomen, however, it can be completely black. Small Baboon Spider (photo) The only venomous Baboon spider species. This spider is normally relaxed and slow moving, but can become aggressive when taunted. If any adult baboon spider is removed from its mature barrow it cannot dig another one. Cytotoxic venom Violin Spider (photo) This spider is free running and ground living. It has a characteristic dark brown or black violin shape marking on the carapace. Sac Spider The Sac spider is also a free roaming spider. These spiders are responsible for 90% of South African spider bites. Bites are painless but destroy a large amount of tissue. Red Roman Spiders / Solifugae Red romans are large eight-legged invertebrates that look similar to spiders. They are generally nocturnal and often are attracted to light or fires. These animals are not true spiders and are harmless. They have no fangs, no venom glands and no silk apparatus. They digest food internally, whereas spiders use venom to digest their food externally. IN GENERAL No expedition members are allowed to catch any snakes, spiders or scorpions, even if they are qualified. Please call a staff member to remove them from unwanted places! Identification of these invertebrates is difficult, therefore treat everything as if it is venomous. Don t fear them, but respect them! Global Vision International 34
TELEMETRYAND SPOTLIGHTING This section covers the techniques and tools we use to do research. These techniques are tested and expedition members need a 100% pass mark to be allowed to participate in these activities on the reserve. These techniques are important in that, if done properly, they allow us to do our work efficiently and safely. Telemetry There are a number of different types of collars or implants that can be used to monitor the locations and movement of animals. Telemetry collars are only tracked via radio waves with telemetry equipment. Cell phone collars use a combination of telemetry, but also download GPS positions on a computer via cell phone towers. These collars have a counter weight so the transmitter remains on the top of the animal. Satellite collars also use both telemetry and download GPS positions to a computer via satellites. These collars are also counter weighted. Radio implants can also be used and can be implanted into stomach linings (cats), in horns (rhinos) or onto tail feathers (birds such as ground hornbills). Telemetry Procedure Set the telemetry set to the correct frequency. There is a list in the data folder if you need to check what the frequency is. Always start with horizontal search on frequency (photo) and listen for signal beeps in 360 direction. If there are no beeps on a horizontal search, try the vertical search. Vertical means that the aerial looks like an H when scanning. Using the solid metal aerials the back of the antennae is where the cable attaches to the antenna. When signal is heard: o Get the general direction of the strongest signal range (always check for back signal). o Turn the fine-tune dial slowly to determine the actual direction (always turn it towards the negative side). o Tell the driver which direction the strongest signal is, using the clock dial assuming the front of the vehicle is 12 o clock. Mobile tracking Set the correct frequency. Turn the fine-tune dial down but loud enough to determine direction. Stop the driver when signal is at a 90 angle to the road (give direction in chronological clock time e.g. 3 or 9 o clock to the vehicle). While driving off-road FREQUENTLY update the driver. First give the direction (in chronological clock time) and then the distance (as it stands on the fine-tune dial such as -1). Give the information clearly to the driver, but without being too loud to scare animals off (telemetry person to sit on front back seat of truck). Global Vision International 35
Telemetry person only gives the direction of the animal.the driver will pick the appropriate route to get there. Telemetry tips A vertical signal is a non-directional signal. A horizontal signal is directional. The signal of a mobile animal comes and goes (beeps are not evenly loud). If you struggle to get direction between a back and front signal, wind the fine turn dial down, wind down the volume, or cover the back of the aerial with your hand. If the signal suddenly disappears while tracking, wind the fine turn dial back to the starting frequency. If you re too close to the animal to determine direction (a strong -5 signal) and you don t have visual, turn the volume down. Always go back to the starting frequency for the next search. Some telemetry sets have a blind-spot so make sure you turn down past where you can hear the beeps. Telemetry Rules Always check that you are on the correct frequency and starting frequency for each animal you track. Always stand up while doing telemetry except for while mobile tracking and when close to or within sightings (i.e. a -4 frequency). If you don t get any beeps on your first 360 rotation, do it again. Remember your head-torch when doing telemetry after dark. Spotlighting The spotlight is ONLY to be used on nocturnal animals, animals that are active at night time.e.g. lions, leopard, bush-baby etc. - nocturnal animals eyes generally reflect a reddish colour in the spotlight and will have two forward facing eyes. Please do not spotlight diurnal animals - which are active during the day. - e.g. elephant, rhino, any antelope, giraffe, zebra, wildebeest etc. - diurnal animals eyes generally reflect a greenish-white colour in the spotlight, but this is highly dependant on the angle of incidence, any animals eyes can appear red. If you see a lot of eyes all together it is more than likely a herd of antelope. Only one spotlight maybe be used at a time in a sighting, so if there is more than one vehicle there check with your driver if you should turn your spotlight off. Always check with staff if you are not sure if you can use a spotlight or not. Spotlight Rules No diurnal animals to be spotlighted Do not shine towards oncoming traffic or at houses. If you are approaching another game drive vehicle turn your spotlight off or shine it on to the ground to the opposite side of the vehicle from where the other truck is approaching. If driving on the fenceline be very careful not to spotlight in the direction of vehicles driving on the road outside the reserve, only shine at 90 into the reserve until the vehicle has passed. Do not shine in the cab or the wing mirrors, shine over the roof Global Vision International 36
Do not shout when you spot something, just let the driver know and they will stop and reverse. Point with your light on what you have seen Never shine the light into other people s eyes Avoid illuminating others that are on the back of the vehicle. Move the light from left to right at a regular, but at a slow pace. Shine specifically down roads, paths and open spaces to find animals. Beware of flying insects at the light and at your eyes there are safety glasses to wear if you prefer. Do not shine directly in any animals eyes. Always spotlight on the ground just to the side or in front of the animal. Use the red filter whenever available. Remember the spotlight gets very hot so never put it down on your lap, the seat or a blanket etc. DATA Generally data is collected in the field daily and recorded by an allocated data person under the supervision of a staff member. This is to ensure that the data is kept as accurate and consistent as possible. There are numerous data sheets which are used in the field. How these need to be filled in will be explained to you in due course. One of the types of data that we collect is full ratings, which give us an idea of when an animal last ate. Below is an example of a full rating guide to estimate as to whether a carnivore has had a recent meal or not. This estimation can ONLY be made if the animal is standing. Global Vision International 37
VEHICLES Vehicle checks are done twice a day before drive by the person on vehicle duty. Morning checks are: Tyre Pressure; - Front / Rear must be between1.5 2.0 bar - Spare must be between 1.5 2.0 bar Put the vehicle box in the back of the truck and a spotlight in the vehicle, checking that the spotlight is working. Check that the vehicle box contains all the necessary equipment. A list of what needs to be in your vehicle box is on the wall above the vehicle boxes. Afternoon checks are: Tyre pressures as per the morning plus: Oil Brake fluid Clutch fluid Power steering fluid Water overflow bottle Behind the seat should be: Jack Wooden block Wheel spanner First aid kit Metal bar Global Vision International 38
You also need to Clean any rubbish out of the cab Sweep the back of the vehicle Clean the inside and out of the windscreen If there is anything missing or levels are too low; TELL YOUR DRIVER AT LEAST 30 MINUTES BEFORE DRIVE. Global Vision International 39
Reserve Work and Alien Invasive Control Our focus The reserve work we undertake provides a support to the reserve manager and his team of field rangers. Reserve work all either have some positive ecological effect on the ecosystem health or benefit the infrastructure of the reserve for improved tourism activities which are ultimately responsible for the long-term sustainability of this reserve. It also gives the volunteers an opportunity to learn more about the behind the scenes side of things running a reserve. Reserve work is also very hands on so it can be very rewarding to physically be involved whilst positively impacting the reserve. Our focus is primarily concentrated on the southern farms of Karongwe, south of Rhino Rd (Monate, Northern and Southern Mundulea farms). This is mainly because we live in the area and its easier for us access and monitor works previously done. We can also conduct reserve work in drive time without having to worry about bumping sightings. The reserve manager will sometimes ask us to undertake special projects which may occur anywhere on the reserve. Incidental reserve work Can be conducted on research drives if time permits or if it is required and can take part anywhere on the reserve for example removing an obstruction from the road, removing one or two Prickly pears etc There is one volunteer on reserve work duty and one on prickly pear duty each drive. It is their responsibility to pack the required equipment on the truck before leaving on research drive. We also use research drives to scout out areas requiring reserve work. The volunteer on reserve work duty records GPS locations in the back of the drive folders on the sheet titled reserve work and off-road register. This will allow staff to plan out reserve work activities schedules and locations. Scheduled reserve work Is a drive specifically dedicated to larger long-term projects on the reserve. This usually takes part in weeks 2 and 3 of the expedition. Examples may include fenceline maintenance, bush enchroachment, road maintenance, fixing off-roads, invasives removal and special projects specified by management. Global Vision International 40
GVI requirements It is a GVI requirement that volunteers use gloves and protective eyewear for ALL reserve work activities. New volunteers have to be trained by a staff member before reserve work commences about how to use all tools correctly and carry out the activity safely. Volunteers are off the truck for the majority of reserve work activities and are expected to adhere to the staff member instructions. Volunteers should never be too far away from the vehicle and the staff member must always be able to see every volunteer at all times. Volunteers will be instructed what to do if encountered by a dangerous animal and must adhered to those instructions Tools and tool Maintenance Tools used vary depending on the activity conducted on the reserve work drive. It is also important to pack enough tools for every volunteer on the truck. The staff member will tell the volunteers in charge if any extra equipment needs to be packed before leaving for the reserve work drive. Volunteers must pack the truck with; o o o o o o o o Reserve work folder Reserve work box which includes at least 6 pairs of working gloves and safety goggles 2 x pangas one set of clippers 1 x shovel 1 spade 1 x pitch fork 2 x saws All the equipment must be placed neatly in one of the black trays. Extra items may include wire cutters, pick axe, sledge hammer, rake, pitch fork, grass slashers, wheelbarrow. It is important to remember to also carry general monitoring equipment, ie telem set, gps etc. This can help to take the pressure off the General Monitoring drive if focus animals are in the area. Please do not mix the reserve work gloves with the prickly pear gloves. We keep them separated because of the prickles. The tools are cleaned and sharpened each week. Make sure after each drive the volunteers put the equipment away neatly in the designated area. This prevents damage to the tools. Volunteers must also sweep out the vehicle after each drive. Global Vision International 41
Safe use of a panga Backswing- should nearly always be at 45 degrees to the vertical, whether striking out to in or in to out (demonstrate). Downswing- likewise at 45 degrees to the body, even if the branch you are aiming at is lying horizontal. In all cases think: If the swing follows through, will it strike my body somewhere? This can always be avoided by stance and technique (demonstrate). Work gloves are compulsory when using a Panga. You should aim for the contact of the strike to take place half to two thirds of the way along the blade away from the handle If the branch you are aiming at is whippy, flexible or simply thin, try to hold it with the other hand to prevent it whipping you in the face, but only hold it at least 40cm away from where you aim to strike Time and energy-efficient use of a panga is all about angle of strike and technique, and has very little to do with brute strength. If it is the type that has a hook on the upper edge, this can be used to dislodge branches and pull them away from your work area, particularly useful if working in thorny bush Safe use of a Bow-saw The bow-saw simply requires a constant and regular push and pull action, allowing the whole length of the saw blade to pass back and forth through the branch/ stem you are cutting Downward force does not make very much difference, concentrate on the sawing action and the saw blade will do the rest The placement of the cut is important. It should always be on the side of the branch/ stem with tension-wood rather than compression-wood. That is, if a branch is bending down then saw from above; If a branch is bending to the right, saw from the left; This tension can often be countered by pressure applied with your free hand, or help from someone else to keep the cut open as it gets deeper Safe use of a Pick Hold the pick handle at the end closest to your body with one hand, this grip should never shift, and is the anchor grip. With the other hand, grip the pick handle about two thirds of the way towards the metal head. Backswing- With the above grip, the backswing is not so much overhead, more of a round-house swing, then shifting into a vertical downswing. Downswing- The initial power for the downswing comes from the front (top) hand and then as gravity takes over, that hand is slid back away from the metal head to join the anchor hand at the end of the handle closest to the body (demonstrate). Work gloves are compulsory when using a pick. The pick has two points that can be used: One is a spike and simply used when soil or ground is hardest or stoniest. The other side is slightly broader, or spatulate, so should be used if trying to dig something up, such as plant roots, and when the ground is fairly soft. Global Vision International 42
Safe use of a sledge hammer Hold the sledgehammer handle at the end closest to your body with one hand, this grip should never shift, and is the anchor grip. With the other hand, grip the sledgehammer handle about two thirds of the way towards the metal head. Backswing is not so much overhead, more of a short side-lift or, if maximum force is needed, a down, out, and up-swing, then shifting into a vertical downswing. Downswing- The initial power, and all the aim for the downswing comes from the front hand and then as gravity takes over, that hand is slid back away from the metal head to join the anchor hand at the end of the handle closest to the body (demonstrate). Work gloves are compulsory when using a sledgehammer. Obviously this is a very heavy tool and so gravity will often be enough to create enough force for the strike. So only lift the head as high as you think is required for the blow. Rather do more, lighter and more controlled strikes than try to complete the job with 5 massive blows from over your head! Although it is very heavy, technique is still more important than brute strength with this tool Types of Reserve Work Fenceline Maintenance We monitor and report any problems occuring on the fenceline, so this would include any breakages after rain where the fenceline crosses rivers and drainage lines and may have been washed away, fallen trees could either break strands or cause electric wires to touch and short, potentially you could find signs of forced entry by poachers where they have cut strands. Any compromises of the fenceline, the person on conservation duty takes a GPS point and records in the back of the black drive folder. This helps the management team to respond and rectify any issues with the fence as quickly as possible which obviously is in the best interest in the safety of all the animals in the reserve. The rock-packing project is something we ve been specifically asked to do by reserve management. We are currently rock packing the Gravellotte fenceline and the Mafunyane boma. We use a sledge-hammer to break up redundant concrete water troughs around the reserve, collect the rubble material and take it to the fenceline. We then pack a rocky barrier at the base of the fence to height of about 30cm. Bush Encroachment We contribute to bush encroachment management on the reserve in a number of ways. Sicklebush removal, overhanging branch removal and road blockage removal. Global Vision International 43
Sicklebush removal is something that reserve management control and occassionally ask us to collaborate on because it is incredibly labour intensive. When blocks with particularly thick stands of sicklebush are identified and not deemed to be sensitive to opening up, as many sicklebushes as possible are physically removed with pangas/saws/clippers etc. The material is then used for brush-packing areas sensitive to erosion such as a dam wall or a gully cutting its way towards a road. We also help with removing woody material which become obstructions in the road. When come across trees blocking the road we will usually try to tow them out the way or if too big for us to handle we will GPS and notify reserve management who will deal with it as soon as possible. This prevents unnessecary road widening at the expense of habitat every time a tree blocks the road. Road Maintenance Roads get degraded during the wet season and most of the road repairs are done at the start of the dry season. When particularly bad ruts begin to form in the road we fill in the ruts with rocks and soil otherwise these weak points are likely to erode further into gullies which can threaten the roads ability to be used. It also helps minimize damage to vehicles and tyres. Bolster and mitre drain and maintenance There are a number of bolsters and mitre drains around the reserve already but over time they fill up or are washed away. The management team builds them Global Vision International 44
with a small grader/digger but sometimes we build them or repair them simply with spades or shovels. Mitre drains are used along high level roads to prevent build-up of water in the side drains. Depending on the gradient, mitre drains should be spaced 20 to 250m apart, using the closer intervals where rainfall is heavy, the soil is prone to erosion, or the gradient is steep. The mitre drain should block off the water flow in the side drain with a bolster block at an angle of about 30 degrees and lead the water well away from the road with a wide, shallow channel having a gradient of 1 in 125. The water is discharged 30 to 40m away from the road over as large an area of land as possible to prevent erosion. Remove sediment build-up in the mitre drain and any windrowed soil blocking the inlet. If the road is lower than the mitre drain inlet, reopen by either deepening the inlet or raising the surface of the road by regrading. In either case, inspect the table drain and next drainage structure downslope for any evidence of erosion. If a mitre drain is eroding consider: additional drainage structures upslope, reducing the grade of the mitre or stabilising the structure with rock Global Vision International 45
Alien plant removal Prickly pear GVI are contributing heavily to the reserve s legal obligations to control alien invasives through our Prickly Pear project. Prickly pear are more prevalent than most other invasives on Karongwe. Our objectives are to reduce prickly pear occurrence on the reserve to as low a level as possible, through mechanical and biological methods which I will come to in just a moment. Mechanical control Means physically digging up and removing the plants. Smaller prickly pears we simply dig out from the roots using pitchforks, larger specimens we strategically cut down to a manageable size with pangas (or machetis) and again remove from roots upwards with pitchforks. Be careful not to leave any root or stems behind otherwise the prickly pears are able to regenerate and spread. Then transport them in bags back to base, store them in a redundant watertank cut in half, when we have a sufficient quantity of dried out plants we take them to a concrete trough and incinerate them. Biological control The biological control species we use on Karongwe prickly pears are called Cochineal beetles. They feed throughout their life on prickly pears for moisture and nutrition, it can take up to a year but when they reach a suitable population density on a plant in an area those cactuses will start to die. We obtained our Cochineal beetles from Kruger National Park by transporting infected plants and storing them along with the beetles in the water tank cut in half outside the generator room. We maintain a stock here by continually supplying them with fresh cactuses removed from the field and only removing dried cactuses from here for burning. When we find areas we d like to target for control with the beetles we simply take some infected plant material and apply it to those cactuses. Once the beetles reproduce the nymphs will disperse to other cactuses in the area by means of waxy filaments which enable them to disperse in the wind. Global Vision International 46
Community The community project at GVI Karongwe has been around for a very long time, but it s constantly evolving to fit the needs of the community. Our new program is fun and educational for both volunteers and students. We mainly work in the community of the Oaks, which is about 10min drive away from base. We try to have a positive impact on the community. We do this by always looking presentable while we are visiting The Oaks. Inappropriate clothing is not tolerated (no short shorts or mini skirts, or any revealing clothes or inappropriate slogans) and volunteers are encouraged to wear their GVI t-shirt to show unity amongst our volunteers and staff members. We also have a positive impact on the community by being friendly and respectful to all local people we meet. Respecting their culture is one of our keys objectives. This way volunteers get to learn and experience a different and fascinating culture, to their own. One of the main reasons for GVI s involvement with the community is environmental education. Some of the lessons we do with our young students have a nature theme. By doing this we hope to instil a love and respect for all nature from a young age. Hopefully, this will continue into adulthood so they can help protect the natural environment and take a stand against poaching if they are ever unfortunate enough to be pressured into poaching animals, big or small. GVI is involved with two different educational institutes. Diphuti Primary School and Mmakadi Creche. Diphuti Primary School is the only public primary school in The Oaks and has all the basic school structures. However, there are a lot of kids crammed into classrooms as the school is over capacity, but they cannot turn kids away. So it might differ a lot from the school environment you are used to in your home country. The government gives each public school, in disadvantaged areas, an allowance each month to give each student one meal per day. In many areas in South Africa this is often the only meal those kids will receive. Despite the cramped situation the children at Diphuti are very friendly and cute. You will definitely have fun with them and many new experiences. Mmakadi Crèche is one of our newer projects. A crèche is a day-care centre or kindergarten. Gloria, the owner, is a very passionate and friendly person. She will always try to answer all your questions, even if her English isn t that great (according to her)! She has Global Vision International 47
about 62-70 children at her crèche, ranging from 1-5 years. The crèche only has two basic buildings that serve as classroom, kitchen, library, nap room and play room when it is rainy or cold outside. Community combo This is one of the add-ons we offer at Karongwe alongside our general research program. Community Combo volunteers spend half their time in the community and the other half at Karongwe doing research drives. Any other general volunteers can sign up to attend a community session as an optional extra. Community schedule: Monday, Wednesday and Friday we go to the school and offer lessons to the children. We teach grade 4 (10 years old) and 5 (11 years old). The day starts at 7am and ends at noon (12pm). An average day will look like this 7:00- leave base 7:25- class starts (5, 30min classes) 9:45- break 10:35- class again (3, 30min classes) 12:05- come back to base We teach the kids under beautiful Marula trees at the school. Each group consists of 10-12 kids. There are a variety of activities to choose from, to ensure the enjoyment of the volunteers and children On Wednesday lunchtimes we also go to the Mmakadi Creche. Our work at the crèche is more physical, since we help out with structural work and basically trying to improve the environment for the children. When there is no physical work for us to do, we just play soccer with the kids or sing songs with them. Just don t ever try to challenge one of them to a dance off, because you WILL lose!! Global Vision International 48