Philips and Dindal--Nests as Habitat 87 RAPTOR NESTS AS A HABITAT FOR INVERTEBRATES: A REVIEW

Winter 1977 Philips and Dindal--Nests as Habitat 87 RAPTOR NESTS AS A HABITAT FOR INVERTEBRATES: A REVIEW by James R. Philips and Daniel L. Dindal Department of Forest Zoology State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry Syracuse, New York 13210 Abstract Invertebrates in raptor nests may be classified into three maior groups: parasite fauna, animal saprovores, and humus fauna. The parasite fauna includes raptor and prey parasites and their corresponding parasites and predators. The animal saprovore fauna includes the invertebrates associated with the decomposition of such material as carrion, excreta, pellets, and molted feathers. The humus fauna includes invertebrates associated with decomposition of nest material such as litter and wood. Introduction Raptors nest in a wide variety of locations below, on, and above the ground level. Occasionally raptors share their nests with other birds, e.g., the Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus) and the Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) nest together (Austing and Holt 1966); the Screech Owl (Otus asio) nests with the Elf Owl (Micrathene whitneyi), and woodpeckers, the American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) and the Purple Martin (Progne subis) (Grossman and Hamlet 1964, Sumner 1933, Wilson 1925). Small birds of several species may nest in Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) nests (Zarn 1974). However, nearly every raptor shares its nest with many invertebrates. Referring only to mites in bird nest-box debris, Herman (1936) stated that "an estimate of billions in each nest seems conservative." Actually, according to our work, "thousands" seems to be a more accurate estimate. Nests of birds and mammals are a habitat for many invertebrates including some domestic pests and arthropods of medical importance. Raptor nest fauna may be divided into three main groups: parasite fauna, animal saprovores, and humus fauna. Parasite fauna of raptor nests includes raptor and prey parasites and their parasites and predators. The animal saprovores include the invertebrates associated with the decomposition of such material as carrion, excreta, pellets, and molted feathers. The humus fauna includes invertebrates associated with nest material such as litter, soil, and wood. Bird Nest Community Studies There have been few studies of the entire invertebrate community within nests. Most investigators have only sampled one animal group from a nest, such as fleas or beetles. Others have sampled old nests, without knowing which bird species built or used the nest. Consequently, data on nest invertebrates is scattered in the literature and incomplete. A few extensive studies of bird nest fauna have been made (Nordber 1936, Wood- Raptor Research 11(4): 86, 1977

88 RAPTOR RESEARCH Vol. 11, No. 4 roffe 1953). Woodroffe and Southgate (1951) studied nests of the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus), Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) and Robin (Erithacus rubecula). In these nests, there was a definite succession of invertebrates. Ectoparasites of the bird dominate during initial nest construction and occupation. After the nest was deserted, scavenging invertebrates were dominant as the feather debris and excreta passed through varioustages of decomposition. The final stage of decomposition of nest material was dominated by humus fauna. If the nest was used as a winter roost and reused the next year, then it acted as a refugium, and the scavenging fauna persisted. Open, exposed nests decomposed faster and the scavenging stage was reduced or absent. Differences in the fauna of nests of different bird species were correlated with differences in the composition of the nests. The successional pattern was not consistent for all birds' nests. Freitag and Ryder (1973) studied Ringbilled Gull (œarus delawarensis) nests and found almost no ectoparasites. Saprophagous mite populations, however, peaked after gull egg-laying while predatory mite populations peaked at or after egg-hatching (Freitag et al. 1974). Arthropod numbers averaged 302 per small nest and 876 per large nest (Ryder and Freitag 1974). Nests may be regarded as habitat islands, and colonization of nests may occur by many means. Some invertebrates may crawl or fly directly to the nest. Considerable numbers are carried into the nest with nesting material. Parasites may be broughto the nest by the bird; other invertebrates may also reach the nest in this manner (Worth 1975). Raptor nests often contain parasites from vertebrate prey species broughto the nest. In addition, invertebrate prey species broughto the site may escape and colonize the nest (Woodroffe 1953). Chmielewski (1970) demonstrated the possibility of endozoi colonization of nests by mites. He fed astigmatid mites to mice, sparrows, and hens and found that 1-7 percent of the mites survived passage through the alimentary canal. Raptor Nest Fauna A summary of arthropod nest fauna for American raptor species is presented in tables 1 and 2 although most of these data are not from North American nests. The work of Hicks (1959, 1962, 1971) is an invaluable guide to the insects known from birds' nests. No such checklist exists for arachnids and other invertebrates. References to mites and ticks from raptor nests are few and often hidden in the literature. Nordberg (1936) lists mites from several raptor nests, but an error in the work confuses the data from Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) and Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) nests. The importance of mites is shown by our findings. We examined a Screech Owl nest and an American Kestrel nest, and each had a total of over 10,000 mites. Samples from two Great Horned Owl nests have yielded 100 and 83 percent mites. Nest Parasites The best known group of invertebrates nests of raptors in North America are the nidicolous raptor parasites. There have been occasional reports of parasites causing the death of raptor nestlings. Bloodsucking Protocalliphora larvae attack nestlings of many birds, including raptors (Hill and Work 1947). The maggots attack the feet, eyes, ears, nares, legs, or anus making entry into the body. Nestling songbirds in nest boxes have been killed, e.g., the Bluebird (Siali sialis) and Tree Swallow (Iridoprocne

Winter 1977 Philips and Dindal--Nests as Habitat 89 bicolor) (Mason 1944, Owen 1954). Species with open nests are less susceptible. Sargent (1938) found nests of large hawks to be nearly 100 percent infested but found no evidence of mortality. Buckner and Cole (1971) found a young Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) nearly comatose because of larvae in its ear. The bird recovered after removal of the larvae. White (1963) reported extensive mortality in the young Prairie Falcon (Falco mexicanus) from these maggots. Blackflies have caused mortality in nestling Merlin, Falco columbarius (Trimble 1975), and Red-tailed Hawks (Brown and Amadon 1968). Ticks were stated to cause 65 percent mortality of young Prairie Falcons in Colorado from starvation in their first month (Webster 1944). Williams's (1947) observations did not agree with this, but recently Oliphant et al. (1976) reported the deaths of two nestling Prairie Falcons from a massive infestation of a bird tick Ornithodoros concanensis. The tropical feather mite Ornithonyssus bursa is known to have been the cause of the death of a captive European Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) (Mites 1963). Ian Newton (pers. comm.) observe deaths of European Sparrowhawk nestlings due to mite attacks. Cooper (1972) noted that mites are more common parasites of hawks than ticks and often infest holding facilities. Chiggers may be present in nests, but we know of no instances where they cause death. The Mexican chicken bug, Haematosiphon inodorus (Cimicidae), is related to the common bedbug and has caused mortality in young Prairie Falcons and Red-tailed Hawks (Platt 1975). Infestations may be quite severe, as shown by Lee (1959) who found 1,778 in a single Barn Owl (Tyro alba) nest. According to Cooper (1972) fleas are not common on birds of prey, and we know of no raptor nestling mortality due to fleas. Fifteen species of fleas have been found in Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) burrows, but many of them came from previous rodent inhabitants of the burrow. Also, prey brought into the nest is the source of many raptor nest fleas. Eetoparasitie flies-the louse flies (Hippoboseidae) and Camus hemapterus (Milichiidae) suck blood and may be found on birds and in their nests. Owls are important breeding hosts of hippoboseids, and are favorite winter hosts for species for louse flies that exhibit little host specificity. The plumage of owls offers ideal shelter for eetoparasites, and the beak is poorly adapted for preening (Bequaert 1953). Hippoboseids also may transport phoretie Mallophaga and pseudoscorpions to new hosts and nests (Keirans 1975, Bequaert 1953). We know of no fatal nestling infestations of these flies. Feather lice and feather mites have been found in raptor nests, but they are generally restricted to the bird's body. They may, however, accidentally fall into the nest when transferring to a new host. These feather parasite obligates normally do little harm to a healthy bird but may increase in numbers and affect a bird already sick and unable to preen. Parasite Load in Nests. The flying squirrel (Glaucomy spp.) is colonial in winter, and parasite levels in nest and resting holes sometimes become so high the hole has to be abandoned (Muul 1968). Data is needed on whether such infestation may also occur in winter colonial roosts of raptors like the Short-cared Owl (Asio fiammeus). Raptors frequently return to the same nest or build another nearby. Possibly high nest parasite levels make the old nest uncomfortable and unsuitable for reuse in another year.

90 RAPTOR RESEARCH Vol. 11, No. 4 Predatory Behavior of Ants. Although not parasites, fire ants (Solenopsisaevissima richteri) and carpenter ants (Camponotusp.) may kill nestling songbirds (Coon and Fleet 1971, Conner and Lucid 1976). Parker (in press) observed ant predation on Mississippi Kite (Ictinia misisippiensis) nestlings. Sykes and Chandler (1974) mentioned a possible predatory ant problem in Everglades Kite (Rostrhamusociabilis) nests. In their view, antproof artificial nesting structures would help eliminate threat. Natural Biological Control. Next predators and parasites of raptor parasitese are important in determining nest parasite population levels. Staphylinid and histerid beetles present in nests often prey on fleas. Many mites and insect larvae prey on fly larvae: Nasonia vitripennis, a wasp parasitic on Protocalliphora, has been reported from Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) nests (Jellison 1940). The exact trophic interrelationships of many nest species are unknown. Nest Animal Saprovores Hide or carpet beetles (Dermestidae) are important in causing the decomposition of animal remains in raptor nests, and Balgooyen (1976) observed them in every American Kestrel nest he studied. He described the symbiotic relationship between beetle and falcon as facultative mutualism. This association would be termed passive protocooperation according to Dindal (1975) since mutualism must be obligatory. The falcon provides the beetle with food and shelter, and the beetle disposes of unused animal debris. However, Rothschild and Clay (1952) note that when the larder beetle (Dermestes lardarius) is numerous, it may attack and kill n.estling birds. It has sometimes bored into the wing bones of young pigeons and eaten the tissue while the bird was still alive. Skin beetles (Trogidae) are also important in the role of decomposing animal remains. Most trogids eat hair, feathers, and dried skin and are especially common in owl nests. Trox tytus has been found only in Barn Owl nests while Trox striatus is known only from owl pellets and nests (Vaurie 1955). Larvae of the clothes moths (Tineidae) eat hair and are common in birds' nests. We have found both moths and carpet beetles in debris from a porch in Syracuse, N.Y., on which an injured Great Horned Owl was kept. The housing of captive raptors may thus serve as a source of infestation of households with these domestic pests. Scavenging mites and other insects are also involved in the decomposition of the animal remains in the nest. We have found scavenging mites (fig. 1) to be numerically dominant in an American Kestrel nest. Nordberg (1936), however, found that dermestid and trogid beetles were dominant by volume in nests of Peregrine Falcons and Eagle Owls. Humus Fauna in Nests The humus fauna includes invertebrates associated with the decomposition of the nest plant material. Many mites and insects such as springtails (Collembola) are involved in the decomposition of litter, moss, and wood, and are brought to the nest along with that material. In a Screech Owl nest we found the humus fauna, especially Oribatid mites (fig. 2) to be numerically dominant. Conclusions There is at present little evidence that arthropods are a very common cause of raptor nestling mortality (Keymer 1972). However, there are few data on raptor nest in-

Winter 1977 Philips and Dindal--Nests as Habitat 91 vertebrates. Many raptors are marginal or endangered species. We need to know what invertebrates may be a source of mortality and how frequently it occurs. After investigating the entire nest community and working out details of trophic relationships, biological control measures against any undesirable invertebrates may be possible. Mason (1944) has suggested use of the parasitic wasp Nasonia vitripennis to help control Protocalliphora. The problem is complicated because other species of maggots are more preferred hosts. At least, as he recommends, one should avoid cleaning out nest boxes until the wasps have hatched. With the increased use of artificial nests, we have the capability to more carefully control the nest environment as well as its fauna. Possible addition of an inorganic desiccating agent might make nests less favorable as a habitat for parasites, or kill parasitic occupants. Obviously much more study is needed to elucidate the dynamics of the total community of invertebrates the nest microhabitat. Acknowledgments We thank Dr., Grainger Hunt for stimulating discussions and Dorothy Crumb and Chris Spies for assistance in nest collecting. Dr. Roy A. Norton assisted in identification of microarthropods. Literature Cited Austing, G. R., and J. B. Holt. 1966. The world of the Great Horned Owl. J.P. Lippincott, New York. 158 pp. Balgooyen, T. G. 1976. Behavior and ecology of the American Kestrel (Falco sparverius L.) in the Sierra Nevada of California. Univ. California Publ. Zool. No. 103. 83 pp. Bequaert, J. 1953a. The Hippoboscidae or louse-flies (Diptera) of mammals and birds. Part 1. Structure, physiology, and natural history. Ent. Amer. 32(N.S.):1-209. 1953b. The Hippoboscidae or louse-flies (Diptera) of mammals and birds. Part 1. Structure, physiology, and natural history. Ent. Amer. 33(N.S.):211-442. Brown, L., and D. Amadon. 1968. Eagles, hawks, and falcons of the world. Vols. 1, 2. McGraw-Hill, New York. Buckner, C. H., and T. V. Cole. 1971. Parasites of a Red-tailed Hawk. Manitoba Entomol. 5:56. Chmielewski, W. 1970. The passage of mites through the alimentary canal of vertebrates. Ekol. Pol. Ser. A. 18(35):741-756. Conner, R. N., and V. J. Lucid. 1976. Interactions between nesting birds and carpenter ants. Bird-Banding 47(2):161-162. Coon, D. W., and R. R. Fleet. 1971. The ant war. Environment 12(10):28-38. Cooper, J. E. 1972. Hawks and parasites. Hawk Chalk 11:31-35. Dindal, D. L. 1975. Symbiosis: Nomenclature and proposed classification. The Biologist 57(4): 129-142. Freitag, R., and J.P. Ryder. 1973. An annotated list of arthropods collected from Ring-billed Gull nests on Granite Island, Black Bay, Lake Superior, 1972 and 1973. Entomol. Soc. Ontario 104:38-46. Freitag, R., J. P. Ryder, and P. Wanson. 1974. Mite (Acarina) populations in Ring- billed Gull nests. Canadian Entomol. 106:319-327.

92 RAPTOR RESEARCH Vol. 11, No. 4 Grossman, M. L., and J. Hamlet. 1964. Birds of prey of the world. Bonanza Books, New York. 496 pp. Herman, C. M. 1936. Ectoparasites and bird diseases. Bird-Banding 7(4):163-166. Hicks, E. A. 1959. Check-list and bibliography on the occurrence of insects in birds' nests. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa..1962. Ibid. Suppl. I. Iowa State ]. Sci. 36(3):233-344.. 1971 Ibid. Suppl. II. Iowa State ]. $ci. 46(3):123-338. Hill, H. M., and T. I. Work. 1947. Protocalliphora larvae infesting nestling birds of prey. Condor 49:74-75. Jellison, W. L. 1940. Biologic studies on the faunae of nests of birds and rodents. Univ. of Minnesota Library, Mil/neapolis. 144 pp. Keirans, J. E. 1975. A review of the phoretic relationship between Mallophaga (Phthiraptera: Insecta) and Hippoboscidae (Diptera: Insecta). ]. Med. Ent. 12(1):71-76. Keymer, I. F. 1972. Diseases of birds of prey. Vet. Rec. 90(21):579-594. Lee, R. D. 1959. Some insect parasites of birds. Audubon Mag. 61(5):214-215, 224-225. Mason, E. A. 1944. Parasitism by Protocalliphorand management of cavity-nesting birds. ]. Wildl. Manage. 8(3):232-247. Mites. 1963. Hawk Chalk 2(3):40-41. Muul, I. 1968. Behavioral and physiological influences on the distribution of the flying squirrel, Glaucomys volans. Misc. Publ. Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool. 134. 66 PP. Nordberg, S. 1936. Biologisch-okologische Untersuchungen uber die Vogelnidicolen. Acta Zool. Fenn. 21:1-168. Oliphant, L. W., W. J.P. Thompson, T. Donald, and R. Rafuse. 1976. Present status of the Prairie Falcon in Saskatchewan. Canadian Field-Nat. 90(3):365-367. Owen, D. F. 1954. Protocalliphora in birds' nests. Brit. Birds 47:236-243. Platt, S. W. 1975. The Mexican chicken bug as a source of raptor mortality. Wilson Bull. 87(4):557. Rothschild, M., and T. Clay. 1952. Fleas, flukes, and cuckoos. A study of bird parasites. Collins, London. Ryder, J.P., and R. Freitag. 1974. Densities of arthropod populations in nests of Ring-billed Gulls. Can. Entomol. 106:913-916. Sargent, W. D. 1938. Nest parasitism of hawks. Auk 55(1):82-84. Sumner, F. A. 1933. Young Sparrow Hawks and a Screech Owl in the same nest. Condor 35:231-232. Sykes, P. W., and R. Chandler. 1974. Use of artificial nest structures by Everglades Kites. Wilson Bull. 86:282-284. Trimble, S. A. 1975. Habitat management series for unique or endangered species. Report 15. Merlin Falco columbarius. USDI-BLM Tech. Note 271.41 pp. Vaurie, P. 1955. A revision of the genus Trox in North America (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Bull. American Mus. Nat. Hist. 124(4):101-167. Webster, H., Jr. 1944. A survey of the Prairie Falcon in Colorado. Auk 61:609-616. White, C. M. 1963. Botulism and myiasis as mortality factors in falcons. Condor 65(5):442-443. Williams, R. B. 1947. Infestation of raptorials by Ornithodorus aquilae. Auk 64:185-188.

Winter 1977 Philips and Dindal--Nests as Habitat 93 Wilson, R. R. 1925. Screech Owl and Martins nest in same box. Bird-Lore 27:109. Woodroffe, G. E. 1953. An ecological study of the insects and mites in the nests of certain birds in Britain. Bull. Ent. Res. 44:739-772. Woodroffe, R. R., and B. J. Southgate. 1951. Birds' nests as a source of domestic pests. Proc. Zool. Soc. London. Worth, C. B. 1975. Pseudoscorpions on a Dark-eyed Junco, Junco hyemalis. Bird- Banding 46(1):76. Zarn, M. 1974. Habitat management series for unique or endangered species. Report No. 12. Osprey Pandion haliaetus carolinensis. USDI-BLM. Tech. Note No. 254. 41 pp. Table 1. Known Raptor Nest Arthropods Total Total Raptor Families Species Haliaeetus leucocephalus 1 1 Aquila chrysaetos 5 6 Pandion haliaetus 6 20 Falco columbarius 2 5 Falco mexicanus 4 4 Falco peregrinus 15 22 Falco sparverius 6 8 Accipiter cooperii 2 3 Accipiter gentills 8 28 Accipiter striatus 1 4 Buteo jamaicensis 4 5 Buteo lagopus 6 45 Buteo lineatus 2 3 Buteo platypterus i 3 Buteo regalis 1 1 Buteo swainsoni 4 5 Buteogallus anthracinus 1 1 Circus cyaneus 4 5 Elanoides forficatus 1 1 Elanus leucurus 1 1 Aegolius acadicus 1 1 Aegolius funereus 12 31 Asio flammeus 8 46 Asio otus 17 40 Bubo virginianus 8 11 Glaucidium brasilianum 1 3 Micrathene whitneyi i 1 Nyctea scandiaca 2 5 Otus asio 4 6 Speotyto cunicularia 21 39 Strix nebulosa 1 1

94 RAPTOR RESEARCH Vol. 11, No. 4 Strix occidentalis Strix varia Surnia ulula Tyto alba Cathartes aura Coragyps atratus Gymnogyps californianus I 1 I 2 I 1 22 40 3 4 I 2 I I Table 2. Insect Families Common in Raptor Nests Diptera Coleoptera Hemiptera Siphonaptera Calliphoridae Dermestidae Cimicidae Ceratophyllidae Helomyzidae Histeridae Hystrichopsyllidae Hippoboscidae Ptiliidae Milichiidae Staphylinidae Muscidae Trogidae Simuliidae

Winter 1977 Philips and Dindal--Nests as Habitat 95 Figure 1. A hypopus, the nonfeeding transport stage of the mite Lardoglyphus (Astigmata: Acarina), is phoretic on dermestid beetle larvae. Thi specimen is a new species found in a Kestrel nest. A description of it is in preparation.

.. 96 RAPTOR RESEARCH Vol. 11, No. 4 ß. -- ::? '"...'::i :: :. :....: f........ : ;.:.... ".;?..::?.;....... :..:...; - :::... --;? -: :'. '.;:... "..:...: :. :........]>:...:...... '? :.:: -:....:::;.. -:k ß ß - --.:.. ß :; ::? ::. -::? :.%._ -%...?.:... "%. :. ::....;?::: ;:.... :....... -.. '- ):...-;.... " -].. '. Figure 2. An oribatid mite, Oppia clavipectinato (Oribatei: Acarina), from a Screech Owl nest.