Four-year epidemiological study of extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in a French teaching hospital

ORIGINAL ARTICLE BACTERIOLOGY Four-year epidemiological study of extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in a French teaching hospital L. Gibold 1,2, F. Robin 1,2,3, R.-N. Tan 1,3, J. Delmas 1,2 and R. Bonnet 1,2,3 1) Laboratoire de Bacteriologie, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Centre de Biologie, 2) Microbes, Intestins, Inflammation et Susceptibilite de l H^ote, INSERM U1071, INRA, USC2018, Clermont Universite, Universite d Auvergne and 3) Laboratoire Associe Enterobacteries BLSE/Cephalosporinase, Centre National de Reference de la Resistance aux Antibiotiques, Clermont-Ferrand, France Abstract Since the end of the last century resistance to oxyimino b-lactams has steadily increased in Enterobacteriaceae. In the present work we studied extended-spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae strains isolated in the teaching hospital of Clermont-Ferrand, France, between 2006 and 2009. A total of 1368 ESBL-producing isolates were collected. Most of these isolates (69%) were CTX-M-producing Escherichia coli. During the study, the clinical incidence increased by more than 400%, even in the emergency department, and especially in community-acquired infections, as is the case elsewhere in the world. Most of the ESBL-producing isolates remained susceptible to furans and fosfomycin, but only 50% to fluoroquinolons. In conclusion, ESBL-producing bacteria constantly increased during the study period. Unlike many studies, this increase was associated with the wide dissemination of three different CTX-M enzymes: CTX-M-14, CTX-M-15 and CTX-M-1. Keywords: Antibiotic resistance, Enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia coli, extended-spectrum b-lactamase, b-lactamase Original Submission: 26 March 2013; Revised Submission: 21 June 2013; Accepted: 30 June 2013 Editor: R. Canton Article published online: 4 July 2013 Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20: O20 O26 10.1111/1469-0691.12321 Corresponding author: F. Robin, Laboratoire de Bacteriologie, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, 58, rue Montalembert, 63003 Clermont-Ferrand, France E-mail: frobin@chu-clermontferrand.fr Introduction ß-Lactams are currently the main antibacterial agents used in medicine because of their bactericidal effect, low toxicity and broad spectrum of efficiency. However, their increasing use has led to the emergence of extended spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL)-producing strains. These enzymes confer resistance to penicillins, cephalosporins and oxyimino b-lactams (such as cefotaxime), but remain susceptible to b-lactamase inhibitors and inactive against carbapenems and cephamycins [1]. The first ESBLs were identified during the 1980s. They belonged to the TEM and SHV b-lactamase families. These ESBLs were produced by nosocomial strains, in particular Klebsiella pneumoniae and Enterobacter sp., and were mainly observed in intensive care units [2,3]. Since the middle of the 1990s new ESBLs, designated CTX-M, have appeared within Enterobacteriaceae strains worldwide [4 6]. These enzymes were mainly observed in Escherichia coli strains, which are now found in both hospitals and the community [7,8]. The spread of these resistant bacteria has resulted in a frequent use of carbapenems, which were kept as a drug of last resort to combat multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae [9,10]. To assess the diffusion of these widespread CTX-M enzymes, we performed a retrospective study of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in the French teaching hospital of Clermont-Ferrand, France, between 2006 and 2009. Materials and Methods All ESBL-producing strains isolated from 1 January 2006 to 31 December 2009 in the microbiological laboratory of the teaching hospital of Clermont-Ferrand were included. This Clinical Microbiology and Infection ª2013 European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases

CMI Gibold et al. Epidemiology of ESBL-producing bacteria O21 hospital has about 2000 beds and 61 wards, with almost 550 000 hospitalization days and 650 000 consultations in 2009. Bacterial isolates Identification and susceptibility testing were performed using GN cards for identification, and AST-N103 and EXN8 cards (Vitek2 â system, BioMerieux, Lyon, France) for Enterobacteriaceae susceptibility testing according to the manufacturer s recommendations (Biomerieux). ESBL-producing strains were detected by decreased susceptibility to oxyimino cephalosporin using a breakpoint of 1 lg/ml for cefotaxime, ceftriaxone and ceftazidime throughout the whole study. ESBL confirmation tests Extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing strains were confirmed by the double-disk-diffusion test (synergy test) as recommended by the Comite de l antibiogramme of the French Society of Microbiology [11]. Antibiotic disks containing cefotaxime (30 lg), ceftazidime (30 lg) or cefepime (30 lg) were placed on a plate, 30 mm (centre to centre) from a disc of amoxycillin-clavulanate (20/10 lg). The interdisk distance was increased to 40 45 mm for Proteus and Providencia isolates, as recommended. After overnight incubation at 37 C, an increase in the edge of an antimicrobial inhibition zone towards the disk containing clavulanate was considered to indicate synergy and hence the production of an ESBL. b-lactamases were further investigated by isoelectric focusing as previously described [12] and finally identified by specific PCR and sequencing experiments using specific primers as previously described [13]. Epidemiological data Patient data, clinical departments, ESBL-producing bacterial species and their content in b-lactamase were extracted from the software of the microbiological laboratory (Inlog, Braintree, United Kingdom). Duplicates corresponding to the same strain found in the same patient were deleted. The teaching hospital s clinical departments comprise the intensive care, emergency, after care, haematology, maternity, medicine, pediatric, psychiatry and surgery units. There also exists a cancer unit with outpatients. Only intensive care, haematology, surgery and cancer units collected screening samples for the detection of colonization of ESBL producers. Finally, to establish the incidence of ESBL-producing strains (number of new ESBL-producing strains in relation to 1000 hospitalization days (HD)), the number of hospitalization days for the 4-year period was provided by the administrative staff of the hospital. Relative risks were calculated with a 95% confidence interval. Antimicrobial resistance rates Susceptibility testing results were extracted from the software management of the laboratory and then analysed for the 4 years of the study. All the antibiotic susceptibilities were interpreted following the 2009 French recommendations [11]. The multidrug resistance character of the ESBL-producing strains was defined on the basis of resistance to three antibiotic families [14,15]. Various antibiotic susceptibility percentages were analysed for each year with the chi-square test to detect significant differences in the susceptibility of ESBL-producing strains. Results Prevalence of ESBL production Six hundred and ninety-nine new ESBL-producing strains were detected, with an increase from 1.04% of Enterobacteriaceae (n = 7183) in 2006 to 8.45% (n = 8282) in 2009. ESBLs have mainly been found in E. coli and Klebsiella sp., which respectively represented 79.2% and 11.2% of ESBL-producing isolates over the 4-year study period. The ESBL percentage of E. coli increased significantly, from 1.25% in 2006 to 9.35% in 2009 (p <0.001). For clinical samples this ESBL percentage within E. coli increased from 0.9% to 6.3%. Similarly, the percentage of ESBL-producing Klebsiella sp. increased from 2.7% in 2008 to 16% in 2009 (p <0.001). ESBLs have also been isolated in other Enterobacteriaceae such as Enterobacter (4.1% of ESBL-producing isolates), Proteus (2.6%), Citrobacter (1.4%), Salmonella (0.4%), Morganella (0.3%) and Providencia (0.1%), without any increase over the study period. Thus, the relative risk (RR) of strains acquiring an ESBL was greater in the case of E. coli (RR = 2.54 (2.14; 3.01)) and Klebsiella (RR = 2.02 (1.59; 2.58)). Most ESBLs were CTX-M enzymes (84.9%), with a significant increase between 2006 and 2009 (74.6% vs. 89.3%, p <0.05). Three predominant ESBLs were isolated: CTX-M-14 (31.7%), CTX-M-15 (28.5%) and CTX-M-1 (23.5%). The other ESBLs found were TEM enzymes (12.3%) (TEM-3, TEM-19 and TEM-24 mainly) and SHV enzymes (2.8%) (SHV-2 and SHV-12), without any significant change in the number of isolates during the study period. Epidemiological data and risk factor for acquiring ESBL There was no significant difference between men and women in the risk of acquiring an ESBL-producing strain (sex ratio = 1.18). The risk of patients being infected by an ESBL-producing isolate increased with age, to a level of significance for patients over 65 years old (RR = 1.25 (1.09; 1.46)). The large majority of positive samples for ESBL-producing strains were of urinary (38.3%) and digestive origin (37.6%; including screening

O22 Clinical Microbiology and Infection, Volume 20 Number 1, January 2014 CMI samples for ESBL-producing microorganisms). Urinary tract infections were the predominant suppliers of ESBL producers because ESBL producers isolated from urine samples accounted for 61.5% of clinical samples. ESBL producers were also isolated from blood (10.8%), skin (7.9%) and respiratory samples (5%), from biopsy and deep samples (4.5%) and from neonatal samples (2.6%). The percentage of ESBL-producing strains increased significantly (p <0.05) between 2006 and 2009 in all clinical departments, except for the psychiatry and cancer units. Relative risks (RRs) for each unit group showed a higher acquisition risk in intensive care units (RR = 1.78 (1.60; 2.02)) and haematological units (RR = 3.07 (2.79; 3.05)), in both clinical and screening samples. Because many ESBL producers have been identified from rectal swabbing samples, we focused on ESBL-producing strains that had been isolated in clinical samples (n = 439). We established the clinical incidence of ESBLs as the number of new ESBL-producing strains isolated from clinical samples per year relative to 1000 hospitalization days (HD). This incidence increased by over 400% (0.391 cases/1000 hospitalization days in 2009 vs. 0.092 in 2006) and exceeded 1 case/1000 hospitalization days in intensive care units and emergency departments (Figs 1 and 2, Table 1). The incidence in 2006, 2007 and 2008 was lower but in 2009 was greater than the mean overall incidence in 333 health institutions that collaborated in a national BMR-Raisin network [16]. These findings also correlate with increased ESBL incidence in Europe [7]. The distribution of different ESBL producers was unchanged in various unit groups. The three predominant enzymes (CTX-M-14, CTX-M-15 and CTX-M-1) were found in isolates from all clinical unit groups each year, except psychiatry where few ESBL producers were identified (Fig. 2b). In urine samples, CTX-M-14, CTX-M-15 and CTX-M-1 were observed, respectively, in 25.2%, 24.4% Clinical incidence/1000 HD 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.19 Clermont-Ferrand BMR-Raisin 0.26 0.31 0.20 0.39 0.37 0.09 0.11 0.0 2006 2007 2008 2009 FIG. 1. Incidence of extended-spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL) between 2006 and 2009 in Clermont-Ferrand s Hospital and comparison with national incidence (BMR-raisin, national network) (HD = hospitalization days). and 18.3% of the strains. Otherwise, three major ESBLs were identified from strains isolated in blood samples: E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae producing CTX-M-15 (37.8%), E. coli producing CTX-M-14 (13.3%) and E. coli producing CTX-M-1 (11.1%). Antimicrobial resistance rates in ESBL-producing isolates The antibiotic susceptibility of ESBL producers from screening or clinical samples is shown in Table 2. About 50% of ESBL producers remained susceptible to fluoroquinolons, 40% to trimetoprime-sulphamethoxazole, and over 70% to aminoglycosides. There is no significant difference in antibiotic susceptibility for screening samples between 2006 and 2009. Nevertheless, we noticed a higher susceptibility of ESBL-producing strains to gentamicin in 2009 than in 2006, and the inverse for amikacin, in a significant way for clinical samples. The combinations of penicillins with b-lactamase inhibitors such as piperacillin/tazobactam are frequently active against ESBL producers, with 79.8% susceptibility for E. coli and 83.3% for Proteus in 2009. However, we observed a significant decrease in the effectiveness of piperacillin/tazobactam between 2006 and 2009 for clinical samples (90.9% vs. 72.1% of susceptibility, p <0.05). During the study period, 76.7% of ESBL-producing strains isolated from screening or clinical samples remained susceptible to cefoxitin, and 52.6% to at least one oxyimino cephalosporin (which is currently recommended in France for uncomplicated infections with susceptible ESBL producers), mostly ceftazidime. In addition, 99.8% of ESBL producers were susceptible to carbapenems (100% in 2006 and 99.7% in 2009), which remain the reference treatment for infections caused by ESBL-producing bacteria. The carbapenems tested were imipenem, meropenem and ertapenem. We detected in 2009 three strains of ertapenem-resistant Enterobacter cloacae, which did not produce a carbapenemase: one from a screening sample and two from clinical samples. Other less frequently used antibiotics are still effective against ESBL-producing strains, such as colistin (97.7% of susceptible strains) for all Enterobacteriaceae (including Proteus and Morganella) and tigecyclin (99.5% of susceptible strains) for E. coli only. Tigecyclin was less effective against other strains (36.5% of susceptibility, excluding Proteus mirabilis). The percentage of multiresistant ESBL producers did not increase during the study period, but still remained high, accounting on average for 68.2% of strains. As ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae are mainly isolated from the urinary tract, we focused on antibiotics used in lower urinary tract infections and on ESBL producers isolated from clinical samples. In France and Europe, the two recommended

CMI Gibold et al. Epidemiology of ESBL-producing bacteria O23 (a) 1.2 1 Incidence/1000 HD 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Emergency Intensive care Medicine Surgery Paediatarics Haematology Maternity Psychiatry After care 2006 2007 2008 2009 (b) 60 Number of ESBL-producing strains 50 40 30 20 10 0 Emergency Intensive care Medicine Surgery Paediatarics Haematology Maternity Cancer unit External units Psychiatry CTX-M-14 CTX-M-15 CTX-M-1 other CTX-M TEM SHV A er care FIG. 2. Extended-spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae in different clinical units. (a) Clinical incidence per year. (b) Types of ESBL-producers per unit and per year. TABLE 1. Relative risk of acquisition of extended-spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL) producers and clinical incidence per clinical unit Incidence of ESBL Clinical units Relative risk Confidence interval 0.95 2006 2007 2008 2009 Emergency 0.46 0.36 0.59 0.577 1.011 0.644 1.132 Intensive care 1.78 1.60 2.02 0.451 0.315 0.614 1.093 Medicine 0.67 0.58 0.77 0.105 0.121 0.263 0.504 Surgery 0.97 0.85 1.11 0.067 0.068 0.199 0.398 Paediatrics 0.6 0.39 0.91 0.126 0.08 0.123 0.664 Haematology 3.07 2.79 3.65 0.207 0.456 0.553 0.748 Maternity 0.43 0.31 0.61 0.037 0.145 0.181 0.595 Psychiatry 1.35 0.64 2.91 0 0 0.034 0.035 After care 0.79 0.55 1.11 0.023 0.008 0.065 0.074 Total incidence 0.092 0.108 0.199 0.391 Bold values indicate significant difference. antibiotics are fosfomycin and nitrofurans [17]. In the USA, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole is also recommended [18]. In the present study, only 32.3% of ESBL producers were still susceptible to trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole (n = 412). However, fosfomycin and nitrofurans are, respectively, effective against 89.6% (n = 29) and 70.4% (n = 405) of ESBL-producing strains. Discussion Prevalence of ESBL production The number of ESBL-producing strains significantly increased between 2006 and 2009 at Clermont-Ferrand, as elsewhere in France and worldwide [5]. Two species of Enterobacteriaceae

O24 Clinical Microbiology and Infection, Volume 20 Number 1, January 2014 CMI TABLE 2. Antibiotic susceptibility of extended-spectrum b-lactamase (ESBL) producers from screening and clinical samples in 2006 and 2009 Screening samples Clinical samples Antibiotic 2006 2009 v² p 2006 2009 v² p Piperacillin/tazobactam 0.85 0.7 1.93 0.2 0.909 0.721 6.92 <0.01 Carbapenems 1 0.995 0.08 >0.5 1 0.995 0.21 >0.5 Amikacin 0.85 0.75 0.96 0.5 0.826 0.663 4.67 <0.05 Gentamicin 0.75 0.808 0.36 >0.5 0.644 0.787 4 <0.05 Ciprofloxacin 0.421 0.592 1.93 0.2 0.533 0.462 0.76 0.5 Trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole 0.35 0.367 0.02 >0.5 0.364 0.293 0.85 0.5 Bold values indicate significant difference. are especially affected, E. coli and K. pneumoniae. In our study, 79.2% of ESBL-producing isolates, by far the majority, were found in E. coli, a finding that indicates the significant evolution in species distribution within ESBL-producing strains. In comparison, E. coli accounted for only 8% of ESBL-producing strains in 2000, according to a French network of resistance monitoring [14]. The CTX-M encoding genes transferred from environmental Kluyvera strains to pathogenic microorganisms including E. coli via insertion sequences [4,19]. These genes then spread worldwide, due, in part, to the existence of many reservoirs. The gut microbiota of healthy humans and animals can contain ESBL producers [20 22] and they have also been detected in the environment, in wastewater from hospitals, and in river and sea water [23,24]. ESBL producers may also be present in protozoa in the rumen of animals and in natural environments [25]. The dissemination of ESBL producers in the community explains the current, significant increase in ESBL-producing E. coli, which reached almost 10% of isolated E. coli in our teaching hospital in 2009. Unlike for E. coli, the increase in ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae is mainly due to the dissemination of a clonal strain of CTX-M-15-producing K. pneumoniae associated with gastrointestinal endoscopy [26]. Other invasive acts had also been responsible for the spread of ESBL producers [27]. The main enzymes characterized during this study were CTX-M enzymes, including CTX-M-14, CTX-M-15 and CTX-M-1. The CTX-M-15 enzyme is also found everywhere in Europe, unlike CTX-M-14 and CTX-M-1, which have been isolated in Spain, Italy and Belgium [6]. In contrast, the number of TEM and SHV enzymes remained stable during our study period, as a result of the effective control of the dissemination of TEM and SHV enzymes in hospitals and the community since the 1990s. Epidemiological data and risk factor for having ESBL We found no significant difference in ESBL-producing isolate acquisition between genders, unlike other studies, which observed a higher risk of ESBL producers in males [28]; this can be explained by the greater number of ESBL-producing isolates from urinary tract infections, which are more frequent in women. We found a higher relative risk in patients over 65 years old, as shown previously. This increased risk may be explained by an age-related increase in susceptibility to infection, which probably led to ESBL-selecting antibiotic use [29]. The clinical incidence of ESBL producers also significantly increased during our study. We observed a raised incidence in many clinical departments, including the haematological and intensive care units, where the most fragile patients are to be found. However, we also found a sharply increased incidence of ESBL producers in emergency departments, due to the diffusion of ESBL producers in the community. In addition, we observed a large variety of enzymes, including in intensive care units, suggesting the dissemination of different strains. However, CTX-M-14, CTX-M-15 and CTX-M-1 were the most frequent enzymes found in all hospital units. There could have been an epidemic spread of their genetic support or of several clones, which is surprising because these three enzymes were equally distributed in our hospital, unlike in the rest of France and more generally in Europe, where CTX-M-15 is largely dominant [6]. Antimicrobial resistance rates in ESBL-producing isolates The antimicrobial susceptibility testing study has shown a decrease since 2006 in susceptibility to b-lactam antibiotics, especially piperacillin/tazobactam, which are normally effective against ESBL-producing strains. In addition, we observed a slight decrease in carbapenem susceptibility. The reduced efficacy of carbapenems, due to porin changes or carbapenemase production, is a new challenge for the management of Enterobacteriaceae infections, because the alternatives available are very limited. Furthermore, carbapenemases have a strong scattering power and are already endemic in some countries [30]. The detection of these new enzymes is very important, especially for patients who have resided in endemic areas, in order to implement hygiene measures to limit their dissemination [31].

CMI Gibold et al. Epidemiology of ESBL-producing bacteria O25 For the other families of antimicrobial agents, we found a different phenotype of aminoglycoside resistance, with a higher susceptibility to amikacin in 2006 and gentamicin in 2009. With regard to antibiotics used in urinary tract infections, the poor effectiveness of trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole justifies the European recommendations not to use it as a first-line treatment. We also observed a good susceptibility of ESBL strains to furans and fosfomycin, two first-line antibiotics used in Europe in low urinary tract infections. Conclusion Extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae are constantly increasing in number in our hospital, regardless of patient age or clinical department, including units previously spared such as the emergency department. Most characterized enzymes are CTX-M, but unlike in other hospitals where CTX-M-15 is largely predominant, we observed three predominant CTX-M enzymes: CTX-M-15, CTX-M-14 and CTX-M-1. Most ESBL-producing strains remain fairly susceptible to many antibiotics but we observed a worrying reduced efficacy of piperacillin-tazobactam. Consequently, alternative antimicrobial agents to b-lactams will be required to treat Enterobacteriaceae infections. Acknowledgements We thank Laurent Guillouard, Marlene Jan and Rolande Perroux for technical assistance. This work was presented in part at the 31st Reunion Interdisciplinaire de Chimiotherapie Anti-Infectieuse [RICAI], Paris, France, December 2011. Transparency Declaration The authors declare no conflicts of interest. References 1. Bradford PA. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in the 21st century: characterization, epidemiology, and detection of this important resistance threat. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14: 933 951, table of contents. 2. Livermore DM, Yuan M. Antibiotic resistance and production of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases amongst Klebsiella spp. from intensive care units in Europe. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 38: 409 424. 3. Canton R, Oliver A, Coque TM, Varela Mdel C, Perez-Dıaz JC, Baquero F. Epidemiology of extended-spectrum b-lactamase-producing Enterobacter isolates in a Spanish hospital during a 12-Year Period. J Clin Microbiol 2002; 40: 1237 1243. 4. Bonnet R. Growing group of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: the CTX-M enzymes. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 1 14. 5. Hawkey PM, Jones AM. The changing epidemiology of resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 64(suppl 1): i3 i10. 6. Livermore DM, Canton R, Gniadkowski M et al. CTX-M: changing the face of ESBLs in Europe. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007; 59: 165 174. 7. Coque TM, Baquero F, Canton R. Increasing prevalence of ESBL-producing Enterobacteriaceae in Europe. Euro Surveill 2008; 13: 1 11. 8. Rodriguez-Bano J, Navarro MD, Romero L et al. Bacteremia due to extended-spectrum beta -lactamase-producing Escherichia coli in the CTX-M era: a new clinical challenge. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 1407 1414. 9. Cai JC, Zhou HW, Zhang R, Chen GX. Emergence of Serratia marcescens, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Escherichia coli Isolates possessing the plasmid-mediated carbapenem-hydrolyzing beta-lactamase KPC-2 in intensive care units of a Chinese hospital. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008; 52: 2014 2018. 10. Oteo J, Delgado-Iribarren A, Vega D et al. Emergence of imipenem resistance in clinical Escherichia coli during therapy. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008; 32: 534 537. 11. Recommandations du comite de l antibiogramme de la societe francßaise de microbiologie. 2009. Available from: http://www.sfmmicrobiologie.org. 12. Bonnet R, Sampaio JL, Chanal C et al. A novel class A extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (BES-1) in Serratia marcescens isolated in Brazil. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44: 3061 3068. 13. De Champs C, Chanal C, Sirot D et al. Frequency and diversity of Class A extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in hospitals of the Auvergne, France: a 2 year prospective study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 54: 634 639. 14. Observatoire national de l epidemiologie de la resistance bacterienne aux antibiotiques (ONERBA). Rapport d activite 2008/Annual Report 2008. Vivactis Plus Ed 2010 Available from: http://www.onerba.org 15. D Agata EM. Rapidly rising prevalence of nosocomial multidrug-resistant, Gram-negative bacilli: a 9-year surveillance study. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004; 25: 842 846. 16. Jarlier V, Arnaud I, Carbonne A. Surveillance des bacteries multiresistantes dans les etablissements de sante en France. Reseau BMR-Raisin. Resultats 2009. Saint-Maurice: Institut de veille sanitaire; 2011. Available from: http://www.invs.sante.fr 17. Grabe M, Bishop MC, Bjerklund-Johansen TE et al. Guidelines on urological infections. EAU Guidelines edition presented at the 25th EAU Annual Congress C1 - Barcelona 2010. 18. Gupta K, Hooton TM, Naber KG et al. International clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of acute uncomplicated cystitis and pyelonephritis in women: A 2010 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the European Society for Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52: e103 e120. 19. Canton R, Coque TM. The CTX-M beta-lactamase pandemic. Curr Opin Microbiol 2006; 9: 466 475. 20. Moreno A, Bello H, Guggiana D, Dominguez M, Gonzalez G. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases belonging to CTX-M group produced by Escherichia coli strains isolated from companion animals treated with enrofloxacin. Vet Microbiol 2008; 129: 203 208. 21. Rodriguez-Bano J, Lopez-Cerero L, Navarro MD, Diaz de Alba P, Pascual A. Faecal carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamaseproducing Escherichia coli: prevalence, risk factors and molecular epidemiology. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 62: 1142 1149. 22. Valverde A, Coque TM, Sanchez-Moreno MP, Rollan A, Baquero F, Canton R. Dramatic increase in prevalence of fecal carriage of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae during nonoutbreak situations in Spain. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42: 4769 4775.

O26 Clinical Microbiology and Infection, Volume 20 Number 1, January 2014 CMI 23. Hunter PA, Dawson S, French GL et al. Antimicrobial-resistant pathogens in animals and man: prescribing, practices and policies. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65(suppl 1): i3 i17. 24. Machado E, Coque TM, Canton R et al. Leakage into Portuguese aquatic environments of extended-spectrum-beta-lactamaseproducing Enterobacteriaceae. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 63: 616 618. 25. Oguri S, Matsuo J, Hayashi Y et al. Ciliates promote the transfer of the gene encoding the extended-spectrum beta-lactamase CTX-M-27 between Escherichia coli strains. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66: 527 530. 26. Aumeran C, Poincloux L, Souweine B et al. Multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae outbreak after endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Endoscopy 2010; 42: 895 899. 27. Randrianirina F, Vedy S, Rakotovao D et al. Role of contaminated aspiration tubes in nosocomial outbreak of Klebsiella pneumoniae producing SHV-2 and CTX-M-15 extended-spectrum beta-lactamases. J Hosp Infect 2009; 72: 23 29. 28. Ben-Ami R, Rodrıguez-Ba~no J, Arslan H et al. A multinational survey of risk factors for infection with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in nonhospitalized patients. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49: 682 690. 29. Paterson DL, Bonomo RA. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: a clinical update. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18: 657 686. 30. Nordmann P, Naas T, Poirel L. Global spread of Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17: 1791 1798. 31. Nordmann P. Gram-negative bacteriae with resistance to carbapenems. Med Sci (Paris) 2010; 26: 950 959.