CHAPTER -I INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER -I INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION The term poultry is although very often used as synonymous to chicken, it includes a number of domesticated avian species such as chicken, duck, turkey, goose, guinea fowl, pigeon, etc. Most of these species have been known to thrive well in a variety of agro climatic conditions and can be raised successfully almost anywhere in the world, provided certain minimum management and nutritional requirements are met. Some of them are efficient converters of feed to animal protein, compared to other livestock species. Both chicken and ducks are used for commercial production of eggs and meat. Turkeys, guinea fowl and geese are utilized to produce meat. 1.1 ORIGIN, DOMESTICATION AND EARLY HISTORY OF FOWL In ancient times domestic fowls were used as sacrificial birds. They were also kept on account of the loud crowing of the cocks and fighting qualities, which provided a good source of entertainment. Much later their egg laying potential was recognized. In comparison with other avian species, chicken hens are noted for their efficient utilization of biological materials not suitable for human consumption for body growth and egg production. The word chicken originated from old English word cicen and Germanic language kivkenam and cock (keuk) the red jungle fowl (RJF) Gallus gallus, most closely resembles domestic fowl. According to Charles Darwin, the original chicken from which all modern domestic breeds of chicken have descended is referred to as red jungle fowl (RJF). The sequence of domestication of different domestic avian species has been made sequentially (Table 1.1).

Tablel.l Sequence of domestication of domestic poultry Species Period Country (ies) Chicken 5400 BC 2500 to 2100 BC China- Cishan culture but, the contribution of these bird to modem birds doubtful From Harappan culture of Indus valley may be main source of diffusion through the world Geese and Mallard ducks 2500 BC 1500 BC China Egypt- separately domesticated in the West, Mallard duck was not domesticated till Middle Ages Ring-necked 1300 BC Greece pheasants Turkeys 200 BC to 700 Mexico AD Muscovy 16th Century Columbia, Peru ducks Japanese 11th Century Japan, China, Korea quail Guinea Fowl 1500 AD West African birds introduced to Europe by Portuguese explorers 2

Domestication of chicken occurred about 7500 years ago. Coleman (1958) has presented a persuasive argument on linguistic grounds about the spread of domestic fowl. He traces the gradual change of Sanskrit word Kukuta from India across Asia and through central and northern Europe until the word becomes Chicken and Cock in England. There are four known species of the wild jungle fowl. They are Gallus gallus domesticus (Red jungle fowl), Gallus gallus sonnertti (Grey jungle fowl), Gallus lafayettii (Ceylon jungle fowl) and Gallus varius (Javan jungle fowl) and they belong to same genus called Gallus meaning cock. The first avian species produced intensively was chicken, followed by turkey and guinea fowl. The art of domestication was first practiced on a large scale in tropical and sub tropical regions of Asia. Black plumage fowl was known in India but not in Europe, Coleman points out that origin of domestic fowl in both East and West Africa have Indian routes. The Greece bred their birds primarily for fighting and the Romans bred them for food. Darwin (1890) made inventing types of chicken known in Great Britain late in the 19 Century. Selective breeding of chicken began in the mid 19th century. Coleman has provided an illustrated description of the breeds and varieties grouped according to the area of origin. American, Asiatic, British and several new breeds were developed in Great Britain notably Sussex and Orpington similarly. In the United States Plymoth rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red and New Hampshire were developed. Americans have been world leaders in poultry genetics and selection. Two completely independent events namely rediscovery of Mendelin Principles of Heredity and the development of a reliable and 3

workable trap nest between 1930 and 1950 have revolutionized the development of modem poultry and transforms poultry progress from an art to science. The concept of heritability, genetic correlation, selection differential and predictive equation were developed during this period and came in to the general use. Since 1950, the poultry industry narrowed its choice to the three distinct kinds of the stock such as layers, broilers and dual purpose. In all the three, the final commercial product is the multiple cross. White Leghorn (WLH) emerged as the exclusive breed in use for production of white-shelled eggs; the Rhode Island Red (RIR), New Hampshire, Barred Plymoth rock and Austrolorp are popularly known as brown eggers and as dual purpose birds. The crosses of White Cornish and White Plymouth Rock became the choice for broiler meat production at the beginning of the 20th Century. WHICH CAME FIRST - CHICKEN OR EGG? Apparently about 150 million years ago, the fowl had its beginning in the first known bird, called the Archaeopteryx (ancient winged creature). Other bird like creature may have preceded the Archaeopteryx, but it is first one of which there is any definite record. The fossil remains of two specimens embedded in the deposits of the Jurassic age have been recovered. The Archaeopteryx was about the size of a crow but had certain features not possessed by any birds now extinct. Instead of the broad, fan-shaped tail of modern bird, the Archaeopteryx's tail was lizard like in appearance and was fringed with feathers. Each half-made wing had three entirely free digits, each armed with a claw, and its skin-covered jaws were furnished with teeth, which no modern bird has. There were several bits of evidence clearly indicating the reptilian origin of modem 4

INTRODUCTIiQN Dirds. The teeth of the earliest known birds have disappeared and, although many other changes have taken place, it is beyond question that the warm-blooded, feathered birds of today have evolved from the cold-blooded, scaly creatures of bygone days (Thomson, 1922). It is believed that human beings evolved form apes. However, a male and female ape did not reproduce to give birth to a human child. As per Darwin s theory struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest; nature always chooses the fittest form of a species, allows it to exit and reproduce further. Due to this competition, a continuous gene mutation and development occur in every living being until and unless a stable form is achieved. This happened among birds too, whose output is genetically different and these laid eggs. Finally, an egg was laid after many addition and subtractive combinations form which came the chicken. Therefore we can be concluded that the chicken came first (Jull and Quinn, 1924, 1925, Banik, 2007). PHEASANT FAMILY The whole group of bird called Aves (from the Latin avis, meaning a bird), comprises many orders and families, and according to the various characters, birds are classified. Chicken, pheasants, peafowl, guinea fowl and turkey belong to the order Galliformes. Chickens, pheasants and peafowl belong to the Phasianidae (pheasanr-wke) family and to the sub-family Phasianinae, since the moulting of the tail feather is centripetal, the order of moult of feathers being from the out side to the center of the tail. The chicken is the only member of the pheasant family with a fleshy comb, and so it is placed in the genus called Gallus (cock like with vertically folded tail). 5

1.2 ORIGIN AND DOMESTICATION OF OTHER AVIAN SPECIES DUCK The word duck originated from old English word and German language. ducan which means to dive. Southeast Asia is the home track of ducks. All of the duck breeds have originated from mallard or wild duck. Ducks are domesticated in China 3000 years ago. Duck are important both for egg and meat. Asia particularly China is the leading country both in respect of duck egg and meat production. 75 per cent of all the ducks slaughtered and about 66 per cent of all duck meat produced in the world is at China. Chinese prefer light weight duck for roasting. Commercially duck meat industry is based on Pekin duck. Duck eggs are preferred in Asian countries such as China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand and other South East Asian countries. Muscovy ducks are preferred in Western countries particularly in France. Further processed Muscovy duck meat has a good market in USA, UK, Hungary and Germany. GEESE Geese were domesticated about 2500 BC. The word geese originated from the word gam and English word gas (ges)n. China is the major producer of geese meat in the world. Geese like duck are raised for meat purpose. Goose feathers are source of extra income as it is used for bedding and clothing industry. Geese were raised entirely by small farmers who kept 10 or at the most 100 birds as a sideline to earn little extra income. In addition to meat, geese supply profitable high value product like geese down which are sold for as much as US $ 75000 per ton. Because of lightness and warmth it is used for 6

manufacture of winter parkas, pillows, bed spreads and comfortable and many other high value textiles. Foie gras (fattening of liver) is largely a western delicacy with fatty liver produce and consumed in France. But the taste for foie gras is spreading among Asian countries also. Geese meat is 25 per cent cheaper to produce than beef and is a possible alternative for meat consumers. The ability of the geese to graze on pasture may reduce concentrated feed consumption by up to 30 per cent. Species, annual egg production, average egg weight, incubation period and productive life of different avian species and description of sex, young, group, birth of various poultry species are presented in (Tables 1.2 and 1.3). JL LJ JtvJVJdj JL Turkeys are the natives of North America. They were domesticated 2,200 years ago and discovered in 1498, U.S. is the leading producer of turkeys in the world. Turkeys are produced mainly for meat purpose. Turkey meat is the leanest meat. 7.2 per cent of global poultry meat production is turkey meat. U.S., France and Germany produce half of the turkey meat. There has been significant increase in production in Brazil, Poland and Fiungary in recent years. Outside USA and UK, consumers prefer to dark meat. The importers of turkey meat are Mexico, European Union and Russia. JAPANESE QUAIL (Coturnix coturnix japonica) The quail word originated form old French word caille (Coturnix coturnix). The Japanese quail belongs to the family Phasianidae. They were domisticated in 1910 and commercially used during 1930. The other variety of quail Bob quail (Colinus virginiana). is very common in western countries. Quails are reared for meat and eggs. Quail meat is an ideal food as authenticated in the holy Bible and Holy Quran. 7

Table 1.2 Annual egg production and other productivity parameters of different species of poultry Species Annual egg production in No. Average egg weight (in g) Incubation period Productive life Back-yard chicken 40-60 30-35 21 days full year Pure breed chicken 150-300 38-45 21 days 1 Year Hybrid chicken egg type 240-320 40-60 21 days >1 Year Rural chicken 120-180 32-50 21 day >1 Year Guinea fowl (extensive) 60-80 35 gms 28 days >2-3 years (Intensive) 120-200 Geese 30-40 120-200 gms 28 days 1 year Quail 300-320 11-15 gms 18 days 1 year Turkey 80-90 70-120 gms 28 days 1 year Duck (egg type) 200-260 60-65 gms 28 days 1 year Desi duck 120-150 65-70 gms 28 days 1 year Ostrich 80-100 1.500 gms 42-44 40 years days Emu 50-60 800-900gms 52 days 35 years Pigeon 15-20 08-10 gms 14 days 5 years Source: Poultry International October, 2001, Vol. 40, No 11, USA. Table I. 3 Description of sex, young, group and birth of various poultry species Poultry species Chicken Male Female Young - Group Giving ones birth Rooster/ Pullet/hen Chick Flock Hatching cock Duck Drake Duck Duckling Flock Hatching Goose Gander Goose Gosling Gaggle Hatching Turkey Tom Turkey Poult Flock Hatching Hen Guinea Fowl Jack Jennie Keet Flock Hatching 8

INTRODUCTION Quail farming for egg and meat is quite popular in Japan, Hong Kong, Korea, France, Italy, Germany and Britain. Recently Brazil has shown keen interest in quail production. Japan is the leading producer of quail egg. Spain and France produce the highest amount of quail meat. The Japanese quail is becoming an increasingly popular worldwide. Quail farming is also growing in Britain Quail was introduced in India in 1974 at CAR! Izatnagar. ^ PIGEON The word pigeon is originated from English word pijon, Latin pipion. Pigeons were domesticated 5000 years ago and are mainly used for Squab production (meat). Pigeon raising is a popular hobby in China and the birds are also a popular restaurant dishes. RATITES (Ostrich and Emu) OSTRICH The term ostritch has originated from English and French word ostrice. Ostriches are native to Africa. Grahamstown district of South Africa is known for domestication of Ostriches intensively on a large scale. Ostriches have been farmed in South Africa since 1857. Egyptian and Roman ladies of noble birth rode ostrich on ceremonial occasion. Greeks kept ostrich in captivity and fattened for table purpose. Increasing attention is being paid to produce low fat red meat. Western Australia is keeping ostrich for leather production since 1987. It is the largest living bird. Ostrich farming is spreading slowly but steadily throughout the world. Europeans tried Ostrich rearing for meat purpose during 1860. Export of ostrich feather to Europe from South Africa commenced in 1838. Ostrich became popular for its feather in first half of 19th century. 9

Ostrich farming has been successful in South Africa though strich farming has been tried all over the world. There are four sub-species namely i. Strutho camelus camelus (North Africa,) ii. iii. iv. Strutho molybdophanes (Africa/North of Africa,) Strutho massaicus (East Africa - Kenya and Tanzania) and Strutho australis (South Africa). South Africa is the leading producer of ostrich meat, feather and hides. Ostrich farm is also popular in US, Europe, Australia and Israel. China, with 20,000 ostrich has become Asia s top ostrich raiser and fifth largest in the world. They breed for feather, meat, egg, hair and bone. Ostrich raising will play a leading role in boosting the feather processing industry, protecting ecological environment, enriching the consumer market and increasing the local farmers income. EMU Emus are native of Australia and belong to the family Ratitae. Its origin is pre-historic about 80 million years ago. The word Emu originated from Portugugese. Emu farming is gaining popularity throughout the world, Emu meat is dark, extremely delicious and having low calorific value since it contains very less fact, Emu meat is similar to beef. Beef loving people prefer to emu meat. Commercial emu farming is rapidly increasing. Two swiss families first started emu farm in the Western Australia in 1970, In 1976 Australian Government started modem emu farm in Wiluna in Western Australia, since then emu farming is catching up through the world. 10

Emu breeding is currently fastest growing live stock industry in world. There are 10 thousand emu farms in USA, France and other Europeain countries. Emu farming in India is still in primitive stage. There are 55 thousand emus in Andhra Pradesh alone. The first emu farm in India stared in 1988 at Andhra Pradesh, and it is spreading fast in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Peducherry and Tamil Nadu. Emu farming is considered as one of the latest emerging species in Indian poultry diversification. 1.3 WORLD POULTRY PRODUCTION SCENARIO Commercial egg industry of the world is less than 100 years old. During this period it has witnessed significant progress in size of the poultry population and productivity of the birds. Commercial layers of today lay about 320 eggs compared to 140 eggs 80 years back (Elson, 2002). Improvement in genetic potentiality of chicken flocks, utilizing genetic principles coupled with improvement in management practices, housing systems, feed formulation and health control measures have contributed to this development. World egg production increased from 14.4 million tonnes in 1961 to 68.3 million tonnes in 2005 (Table 4). This includes hatching eggs also. China is the largest producer of eggs in the world at present followed by U.S.A, India, Japan and Russian federation in that order (Table 5). The trend in egg production in developing and developed countries of the world is shown in Figs.I.l, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 (Gillin, 2001). The large linear increase in egg production was due to rapid expansion of egg production in developing countries, which by passed older system of production and adopted new technology developed in the West. 11

K INTRODUCTION Table 1.4 Per capita egg consumption of various countries Country No. of eggs per capita Israel 350 Japan 348 Taiwan 348 Mexico 295 China 270 USA 260 Thiland 144 Arab Countries 70 Pakistan 36 Bangaladesh 27 Srilanka 45 Nepal 18 India 37-42 Source: Poultry World, Volume 21, No.4, 2005. 12

Developed Countries Developing Countries Fig.I.l Trend in annual egg production, 1961-2000 ( 000 t). Developed Countries m Developing Countries Fig.1.2 World egg production structure, 1990-2000 (mt). 13

Africa 2% Asia 14% Fig.1.3 Egg production in developed countries in 2000. Fig.1.4 Egg production in developing countries in 2000. 14

4000 '000 tons 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 ^ N# ^ Fig. 1.5 Growth in world egg production between 1991 and 2000 ( 000 mt). 15

In China egg out put increased from 1.6 million tones in 1961 to 19.43 million tonnes in 2000 and to 24.35 million tones in 2005. Indian egg out put increased from 0.17 million tonnes, in 1961 to 2.01 million tonnes in 2000 and 2.49 million tones in 2005. Increase was minimal for developed countries. Per capita consumption of egg was 5.5 kg in the world in 1980 (Table 1.4). It increased to 8.5kg in 1993, 10.3kg in 1998 and 11.9kg in 2003 (Anonymous, 2006). Only few years back, all available eggs were sold as shell eggs. As a result egg users like backery, confectionary, pasta manufacturer and others, removed sale of eggs themselves for use. Egg breaking is a big industry today and demand for broken-out eggs is increasing from year to year. It is estimated that by 2015, fifty per cent of the eggs in world market will be sold as out-of shell. Commercially broiler industry evolved 20 years after the egg industry. The broilers of today are marketed at five to six weeks of age compared to 12 weeks 50 years back. Six week body weight of broiler in 1957 was about 800 gm with feed efficiency of 3.1. Most of the modem broilers achieve a body weight of 1800gm to 2kg at about 5 weeks of age and more than 2200gm at six week of age with feed efficiency 1.8 and less than 5per cent mortality. Body weight, which was achieved at 12 weeks 50 years back is achieved now at 5 weeks of age, suggesting genetic improvement of one day decline per generation in marketing age. Data for world poultry meat production and chicken meat production are summarized in (Tables 1.5 and 1.6). World poultry meat production increased nine folds, during last 45 years from 9.0 million metric tonnes 16

Table I. 5 World egg, poultry and chicken meat production Year Egg production (Million Tonnes) Poultry Meat (Million Tonnes) Chicken Meat (Million Tonnes) 1961 14.7 9.0 7.7 1971 20.5 15.7 13.8 1981 47.4 27.9 24.6 1991 35.2 41.1 35.7 2000 50.4 69.2 56.9 2001 53.3 71.9 61.6 2002 55.2 75.1 64.4 2003 56,8 76.6 66.0 2004 58.1 79.2 68.5 2005 59.3 81.0 70.0 Source: Executive Guide to World poultry Trends - 2006. Table I. 6 World egg production and chicken meat ranking - 2005 Ranking number in egg production Country Egg (000 tonnes) Ranking number in chicken meat production Country (000 tonnes) 1 China 24348.3 1 16026 USA 2 USA 5329.6 2 China 10149 3 India 2492.0 3 Brazil 8668 4 Japan 2465.0 4 Mexico 2225 5 Russian Federation 2054.0 5 India 1900 Source: Executive Guide-The World Poultry Trends, 2006 (Watt poultry). 17

in 1961 to 81.0 million tonnes in 2005. Demand for poultry meat is increasing both in developing as well as developed countries. According to FAO, poultry meat production market is expected to exceed fifty per cent of total meat by 2015. Poultry meat includes broiler meat, meat of spent hens, turkey, duck and goose meat. Chicken meat accounts major portion of poultry meat followed by turkey, duck, and geese in that order (Table 1.7). USA is the largest producer of poultry meat in the world followed by China, Brazil, Mexico and India. Turkey meat is of special importance in North America and Europe. China is the largest producer of duck and geese meat in the world. Per capita availability of poultry meat increased from 5.8kg to 1980 to 12.00kg in 2005 (Table 1.8). U.S.A is the largest consumer of poultry meat (45kg) in the world, followed by U.K. (27.0kg), France (25kg), and Netherland (22kg). Israel is the largest consumer of eggs in the world 350 egg per year per person followed by Japan (348), Tiwan (348), Mexico (295), China (270) and U.S.A (260) (Table 1.8). 1.4 POULTRY PRODUCTION IN INDIA HISTORY OF POULTRY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA India is the homeland of jungle fowls from which all modem domestic fowl breeds have been evolved. Poultry keeping in India is also centuries old. It, however, remained entirely a backyard venture until 1960 and patronized by economically weaker and vulnerable sections of the society including all tribal households. Local breeds of poultry popularly known as Desi which are hardy and well adapted to the local climatic conditions were the main stay and backbone of this 18

Table 1.7 World duck/turkey/geese meat production, (million tones) Year Duck Turkey Geese 2000 3.00 5.12 2.00 2001 3.02 5.30 1.97 2002 3.18 5.49 2.04 2003 3.32 5.17 2.13 2004 3.36 5.13 2.19 2005 3.45 5.19 2.33 Table 1.8 Per capita consumption of poultry meat of various countries Country Per captia availability of poultry meat World 12.0 USA 45 UK 27 France 25 Netherlands 22 Italy 19 Australia 19 Germany 15 African countries 0.3-6.3 India 1.76 Pakistan 3.90 Bangladesh 2.20 Sri Lanka 4.40 Nepal 1.0 Source: Poultry World, volume, 21, No.4, 2005 19

farming system. Lack of interest in poultry improvement was due to low productivity of indigenous fowl, low prices for poultry egg and meat, inadequate knowledge of stakeholders in feeding, management and control of poultry diseases and strong prejudices against rising of poultry and consumption of their egg and meat by higher echelons of the society (Panda and Mohapatra 1989). Establishment of poultry research division at Imperial Veterinary Research Institute (now Indian Veterinary Research Institute) during the year 1939 was the first major step for promotion of poultry research and development in Indian sub-continent. Development of an effective vaccine against Ranikhet disease by this division in 1942 was a land mark. It not only helped to make poultry farming a viable enterprise but also paved the way for further research and development on poultry to achieve its present status. The division of poultry research also imparted training of various durations to military and civil veterinary officers to prepare a cadre of poultry scientists for undertaking poultry development in country and also served as a catalytic agent for establishment of several military and civil poultry farms for multiplication and supply of exotic pure line stocks. Genetic improvement of desi fowls received emphasis in early stages of poultry development. Although significant improvement was recorded in the production performance of desi fowls from conventional methods of selection and upgrading, it was still very low compared to the modem fowl breeds available in America and western countries. Consequently Government of India imported a good number of exotic germ plasm of utility breeds of poultry like WLH, RIR etc in late fifties under USAID and other programmes to accelerate the speed of poultry 20

development and established four central regional poultry breeding farms at Bangalore, Bhubaneswar, Bombay and Chandigarh for multiplication and supply of these stocks to potential poultry farmers and state poultry farms. Intensive system of commercial poultry farming in the country began in early sixties when government poultry farms particularly in Orissa demonstrated the efficacy of modern methods of poultry farming. This was widely received by poultry scientists and extension specialists of the agricultural universities. American peace crops volunteers helped to transfer this technology to villages to promote poultry production in rural areas. It also created enough interest among private entrepreneurs leading to establishment of franchise hatcheries in private sector in collaboration with reputed foreign poultry breeders for production and supply of commercial hybrid chicks. Government of India established random sample units at Bombay, Bangalore, Bhubaneswar and Gurgaon for testing of layer and broiler stocks utilized in intensive system of production. In order to support the growth of poultry industry, Indian Council of Agricultural Research sanctioned co-ordinated research projects on poultry breeding during 4th plan period for development of improved genetic layer and broiler stocks. Similar projects were undertaken at central poultry breeding farms of Govt, of India and in some agricultural universities. These events coupled with recommendations of the Narayanan Committee on the import of poultry stocks which recommended gradual phasing out of import of grand parent stocks and liberalized import of pure lines helped the establishment of pure line breeding programmes in the private sector. 21

I INTRODUCTION j One of the major impacts of intensive system of poultry production has been increase in production of eggs and meat through establishment of a network of hatcheries and large number of commercial poultry farms throughout the length and breadth of the country. Poultry today is one of the most dynamic and fastest growing sectors of Indian agriculture and is growing at the rate of 8-10 per cent per annum. Between the two sectors of poultry, growth has been faster for broiler production compared to egg production. India today is the third major producer of eggs and fifth major producer of poultry meat in the world. Compared to other live stock sector of the country, poultry sector is more scientific, better organized and continuously progressing through updating and innovation of new production technologies and transferring the same to the industry for their use. Pure line stocks of layers and broilers with comparable performance to the best commercial stocks available in the world have been developed. The hatchery infrastructure is constantly on increase to meet the demand of day old chicks of the growing poultry industry. More than 90 per cent requirement of day old hybrid layers and broilers of the commercial poultry in India is derived from hatcheries established in private sector utilizing the grand parent and parent stocks developed by the pure line companies established in country or imported from abroad through franchise arrangement. Improvement in management practices through automation of feeding and watering systems, environment controlled poultry houses, gas brooding of chicks, mechanical removal of manure in cage houses and evolution of integrated farms and contract growing of birds have helped to promote production and to reduce the cost of production and making them available at a fairly reasonable price to the consumers. 22

All the basic equipment machineries including incubators and hatchers are manufactured in the country at present. The country is also self reliant in the production of pharmaceuticals and biologicals required for poultry production. Capital investment in poultry in 1999-2000 was estimated to be 130 billion rupees and it contributed 102.34 billion to India s gross domestic product (GDP). The contribution of poultry to GDP varied from 0.7 to 0.87per cent during the period 1992-2002. Poultry industry in India although has mainly grown with enterprise of the private sector, the Government played a significant role in number of ways to accelerate the growth and development of poultry. These include development of human resources through establishment of central institutes like Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar; Project Directorate on Poultry, Hyderabad; Central Institute of Poultry Production and Management, Bangalore and a network of agricultural and animal science universities throughout the length and breadth of the country and direct funding of several research programmes on poultry breeding, health, management and indirect support through the agricultural and processed export development authority and national egg coordination committee and setting up of a number of poultry estates in collaboration with various agencies like National Cooperative Development Corporation, National Bank for Agriculture and Development, state government and non-government organization and tax concession etc. While the series of programmes undertaken by the govt, have been instrumental in creating awareness and confidence among the people, the private sector and the financial institutions have helped to make available the necessary inputs that made commercial poultry farming a feasible proposition. 23

Both mass production and production by masses is unique feature of Indian poultry. Government programmes give emphasis for providing employment to more number of people through poultry farming. The efforts of the private sector on the other hand have been directed towards and favoured, large poultry establishments for mass production of poultry egg and meat. INPUT AND OUTPUT ASSESSMENT Poultry is the least cost alternative only next to fish. In terms of conversion of feed to animal protein of high biological value, for a given mount of 10kg of feed a chicken broiler produces 4.5kg meat/450g protein and an egg type chicken produces 63 eggs /378g protein compared to 2kg meat /225g protein by sheep, 2.5kg meat / 160g protein by pig, 1.5kg meat/96g protein by beef cattle and 6kg milk / 240g protein by milch cows. The white meat of poultry is the health conscious alternative for the urban consumers. Poultry meat is a fresh option both for rural and urban areas because of its short generation interval, low capital investment, flexible unit size of broiler farming and wide acceptability of poultry meat by consumers irrespective of caste, creed and religion. Amongst the edible meat, broiler is the lowest in fat content and best in protein content and can be cooked in its own fat without addition of fat from outside. Poultry egg is probably the only protein source beyond the scope of adulteration and can combat protein malnutrition effectively (Mohapatra et al., 1967). Once we adopt the Nutritional Advisory Committee (N.A.C.) recommendation i.e., 180 eggs and 9kg chicken per person per year, egg industry is to grow atleast by five fold and broiler industry by six fold over the present size. This will also help to create 5 million additional jobs. 24

So far, India s agriculture has been dominated by the belief that its base is crop production. Its importance is beyond dispute, since foodgrains fulfil the first basic need by providing calories for sustenance of the population. Having achieved a measure of self-sufficiency in cereal production, attention now needs to be given to nutritional security and economic access to food. Also, the focus should be shifted from quantity to quality in the daily diet by enhancing the intake of animal proteins, the major sources of which are milk, eggs and meat. In recent years, one unfortunate trend has been the decreasing per capita availability of pulses, the only major source of protein for the large majority of the population. The protein gap in the nutritional demand has to be bridged rapidly and the egg provides an affordable alternative source. Its per capita availability has gone up from 5 to 42 per year between 1961 and 2005. Increasing the egg production would also strengthen the economic base of rural farmers. The introduction of hybrid birds has made poultry farming viable and a rapidly growing segment of dynamic agri-business. The annual production of eggs has risen rapidly in the past two decades, making it the fastest growing segment of agriculture. The performance of commercial chickens in India is comparable to that obtained anywhere in the world. The genetically bred hen lays on an average 315-370 eggs per year. A notable aspect about poultry is that it is an efficient converter of low-fibre feedstuffs, unfit for human consumption, into highly nutritive animal protein food. A dozen of eggs can be produced on about less than 2kg of feed. Egg is the single most complete food known to man. It is versatile and nutritious, a marvel of nature. It rates with milk as one of the best balanced protein foods, also rich in iron and vitamins. Its use in 25

['INTRODUCTION diet can effectively correct nutritional imbalances among the vulnerable groups, particularly nursing mothers and children. Poultry sector not only produces valuable and nutritive egg and meat but also produces other products of high economic value like slaughter and hatchery wastes and fertilizer. Poultry manure from deep litter system produces biological fertilizer of high value (optimum combination of 3 per cent nitrogen, 2 per cent phosphorous and 2per cent potash). It is estimated that the fertilizers value of manure from only 3 birds on deep litter is superior to manure value from one cow. 100 birds per annum produce enough fertilizer for two and half acre of paddy field and 1.25 acre of intensively grown vegetable farm. Poultry manure as fish feed can reduce the production cost of fish as low as Rs 5/- per kg. Similarly, integrating with duck rearing could yield 8-9 tonnes of fish/hectare/annum. Poultry manure can replace the chemical fertilizer need and thereby reduce the cost of agricultural production. Moreover, the organic grown food product fetches higher economic return in international market. One has to remember neglect of organics would be to loose the production base and waste of plant s maximum production expression. Organic manures build up soil fertility and provide a congenial condition for artificial fertiliser to act. Reduce dependence on non-renewable energy resources and purchased inputs result in economic maximization of yield. Therefore, poultry manure can play an important role as replacement to inorganic fertilizer/fish feed. Similarly, feather of poultry and duck is another commodity which needs attention to transform as valuable downy quits and pillow of higher economic return. Dressing plant and hatchery wastes can be 26

utilized as processed pet and poultry food and can be source of economic return. (Anonymous, 1997). PRESENT SCENARIO Poultry production systems in India like other developing countries of Asia and Africa is characterized by simultaneous existence of traditional extensive system of backyard production and modem intensive system of production. Chickens and ducks are the most popular followed by ducks in both the production systems for production of egg and meat. Other domesticated avian species like guinea fowls, geese, quails, pea fowls etc. are used only for meat production and account for less than 01 per cent of the total poultry. POULTRY POPULATION The poultry population of the country as reported by the live stock censuses of India are presented in Table 1.9. During a period of 53 years the poultry population of the country increased six and half fold (650%) from 73.5 millions in 1951 to 489.01 millions in 2003. Data suggested an increase of 15-30 per cent in poultry population in every 5 years except between 1961-66. State -wise poultry population of desi and improved fowls as well as for desi and improved ducks and other avian species for the year 1997 and 2003 are presented in (Table 1.10). Also presented in the same table the total number of for each state. In 1997 domestic fowls accounted for 90% of total poultry and ducks a little more than 8%. In the 2003 the duck population was reduced to 6per cent and percentage of domestic fowl was increased to 94per cent. 27

Table 1.9 Growth of the poultry population in India Census Total year (Million nos.) 1951 73.5 1956 94.8 1961 114.2 1966 115.4 1972 138.5 1977 159.2 1982 207.94 1987 275.32 1992 307.07 1997 347.61 2003* 489.01 Source: All India Live Stock Census. *- State/Union Animal Husbandry Departments. 28

Table 1.10 State wise distribution of households and poultry in India in the years 1990-91 and 2002-03. State No.of households (000 nos) 1990-91 2002-03 %of household owning poultry Concentration of poultry population No.of households (000 nos) Avg.no of poultry For 100 households Concentration of poultry population AP 112954 23.63 7.16 142409 76.8 5.82 Assam 34247 67.44 11.81 41204 720.4 15.80 Bihar 118192 17.29 9.99 153695 79.1 6.47 Gujurat 48640 10.21 1.90 62452 52.2 1.73 Harayana 24478 4.60 0.31 31471 361.4 6.06 Himachal 9519 7.51 0.19 11962 19.4 0.12 J&K 5036 31.56 0.73 10421 552.3 3.06 Karnataka 56527 19.97 4.05 69908 69.8 2.60 Kerala 39608 47.32 8.10 49945 148.8 3.96 MP 94108 20.34 6.40 130358 107.6 7.47 Maharastra 95551 18.30 9.45 118176 84.4 5.31 Orissa 57881 27.34 6.50 66237 151.2 5.33 Punjab 20888 3.99 0.38 29845 137.6 2.19 Rajsthan 57851 3.63 0.99 70175 23.9 0.89 Tamilnadu 90174 16.69 4.96 110182 107.5 6.30 UP 188358 4.52 2.72 233408 15.6 1.94 West Bengal 94790 49.54 17.92 122001 226.7 14.72 Arunachal 1520 1434.8 1.16 Manipur 1886 42.50 0.61 2684 960.8 1.37 Meghalaya 2337 82.26 1.60 3402 895.3 1.62 Mizoram 941 1177.0 0.59 Nagaland 759 91.56 0.49 973 1102.5 0.57 Sikim 585 72.55 0.22 811 380.6 0.16 Tripura 4244 43.68 1.07 5994 441.3 1.41 India 1164174 21.10 100.00 1514375 124.0 100.00 29

Both desi and improved fowl populations were higher for Andhra Pradesh (AP) in 1997 as well as in 2003. Other states with large population of desi poultry were Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. Improved fowls were more numerous in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka after AP. Population of desi fowl increased at the rate of 8.3 per cent per annum from 188.36 million in 1997 to 238.21 million in 2003. During the same period population of improved fowls increased at the rate of 15.19 per cent per annum from 127.06 million in 1997 to 219 million in 2003. Population of desi ducks increased from 17.95 million to 27.45 whereas population of improved ducks declined from 12.97 million to 2.50 million (almost 89 per cent) during this period. SMALLHOLDER BACKYARD POULTRY PRODUCTION Smallholder backyard poultry production as has been practiced in this country since centuries makes minimum use of land, labour and capital. The birds scavenge most of their feed requirement available freely in nature or nor longer directly useful to humans. Because of minimal needs, the system is self-sustaining and can be afforded by even the poorest of the poor (Sonaiya, 1996). The small holder backyard poultry units, although are not useful for mass production of poultry egg and meat, serve as an important source of employment and income and bridge the nutritional gap through supply of egg and meat to a number of people (Reddy and Qudratullah, 1996). Until 1960 all the eggs and poultry meat produced in our country was realized form this system of poultry production (Anonymous 1994; Anonymous, 1997; Panda and Mohapatra, 1999) It has been reported (Reddy and Qudratullah, 1996) that 75per cent of egg and poultry meat produced in Africa and 50per cent in South Asian countries is derived from traditional backyard system of 30

poultry keeping. Local poultry breeds whose production potential is barely 120 eggs constitute 80 per cent of China s poultry population although China is the largest producer of eggs (24348.3 thousand tonnes in 2005) and second largest producer of meat (1014) thousand tonnes in 2005) in the world. The traditional system of poultry production, which was completely neglected in our country under the impact of industrial poultry production, has recently attracted the attention of planners and researchers to carry the benefit of poultry revolution to rural areas. Awareness of the rural people about the benefit of poultry production has also helped in improving the productivity of desi layers from 40 to 50 eggs few years back to 90 eggs or more in recent times (Anonymous, 1993). A few genetic stocks developed recently for promoting rural poultry production and marketed under the trade name Vanaraja, Gramapriya and Giriraja have given encouraging results under traditional backyard and semi-intensive system of poultry production. Vanaraja and Giriraja are used both for production of egg and meat. Gramapriya layers lay about 150 eggs annually whereas Vanaraja birds lay about 120 eggs. Significant improvement has also been achieved in the production potential of native breeds like Aseel and Kadaknath (Anonymous, 2006), which have been raised traditionally by rural poultry farmers. Studies conducted in Danida supported Indian Livestock Development Project (ILDP) in Orissa has shown that adoption of simple health care measures brings about dramatic improvement in viability, production and profitability of rural poultry stocks. Although there are miles to go to reap the benefits from rural poultry production, it does provide the promise to emerge as one of the dynamic sectors in promoting productivity and production of organic poultry egg and meat in the country in future years. 31

Keeping of a few ruminants and poultry as a part mixed or integrated farming system involving crops, livestock and poultry, considered as a primitive system of producing poultry eggs and meat since output is very much less compared to modern intensive system of production. It is, however, surprising to note that family poultry production continues even today after four and half decades of industrial poultry production since production goals of intensive/ industrial system of production is not compatible with the livelihood and socio-cultural practices of the rural poor and tribals. Further, intensive system of poultry production requires high inputs and sophisticated management, nutrition and health care practices, which poor people cannot afford. Inputs required for intensive system of production is also not available in local markets. Further, knowledge base of rural and tribal people centers around local poultry breeds have been developed by the community or tribe over the years. This system of poultry production is used by weaker sections of the society as an insurance against crop failure, walking bank and to ensure basic economic returns besides empowerment to village women and children. Cloured plumage domestic fowls are preferred by rural and tribal people for socio-cultural purposes and ceremonial offer. In tribal belts, colour and sex of the poultry is important since fowls of different colour and sex are used for sacrifices, gifts, consumption etc. Birds raised in backyard system scavenge their feed requirements. Some families do provide surplus homegrown grains, byproducts and kitchen wastes. Birds drink water during scavenging if available out side. Water is also provided at home. Usually earthenware pots are used for providing feed and water. Broody hens are used for hatching of 32

chicks. Desi hens lay few number of eggs varying from 40 eggs to 110 eggs during the year. The hens which are not allowed to sit and brood lay more eggs. Poultry raised in backyard are lighter. It helps them to fly and to escape predation. The average age at first egg is about 7 months. They lay small, tinted or brown coloured eggs. Most of the eggs produced are used for hatching. Only few eggs are eaten at home or sold. Flock size varies from 2 to 10 hens. Not more than 2 cocks are maintained for breeding purpose. Ranikhet disease (New castle disease) is endemic in nature and causes heavy mortality. Parasitic infections are also common. The loss due to predation is very high especially in those villages located near the forest. If not vaccinated, mortality is very high and sometimes the entire family village poultry units are wiped out (Rakesh et al., 1998). Chickens are preferred for family poultry production. Duck raising is popular only in coastal states like West Bengal, Orissa, AP, Tamil Nadu and Kerala besides Assam, Tripura and Jammu and Kashmir, (Panda and Mohapatra 1989). Housing is provided only during night and adverse weather conditions. Separate housing facilities are rare when unit size is small and they share the same facility as those of stakeholders and keep in bamboo baskets or cardboard boxes to prevent predation during night. Separate housing facilities are provided when flock size is large. Locally available materials are used for construction of houses. Housing with cement concrete roof and concrete floor is very rare (Mohapatra, et al., 2006). The eggs and meat of desi birds are sold at a premium price compared to eggs and meat produced form improved birds raised in farms. 33

Backyard poultry production is the most popular in north eastern states which includes Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikim and Tripura compared other regions of the country. 91.56per cent of households in Nagaland rear poultry, followed by 82.26per cent in Meghalaya, 72.55per cent in Sikkim, 67.44per cent in Assam, 43.68per cent in Tripura and 42.5per cent in Manipur states in north eastern region in the year 1991. Size of the family poultry unit (9-10) was the highest for Meghalaya (13.24 birds) followed by Nagaland (12.60 birds). Among the major states number of households owning poultry was the highest in West Bengal (49.54per cent) followed by Kerala (47.32per cent) and Jammu and Kashmir (31.56per cent) in 1990-91 in that order (Table 1.10). Although percentage of households having poultry units did differ in 2002-03 the trend remained the same as in 1990-91 in all the regions of the country. Concentration of the poultry birds raised in the family poultry units according to the region is presented for the year 1990-91 and 2002-03 (Table 1.10). Concentration of family poultry increased in north and North Eastern regions in 2002-03 compared to 1990-91 and declined in south, east and western regions. INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF POULTRY PRODUCTION Intensive or industrial system of poultry production is although only four and half decades old, it has been very popular for production of poultry eggs and meat in the country. The production technologies followed, consequently the production and productivity coefficients, have been comparable to those of America and other industrialized world. Some variations, however, are observed among the regions due to climatic factors, economic status and level of entrepreneurship. Most 34

of the poultry farms practicing intensive system of poultry production are located in suburban and rural areas near to towns and cities. Poultry farming involves breeding and raising of chickens for various purposes. Depending on the purpose, it can broadly be divided into pure line breeding farms, parent and grandparent farms and commercial farms. Pure line breeding farms develop the pure line layer and broiler stocks of high genetic merit and cross them in all possible combination to identify the best cross or crosses for commercial production. Parent and grandparent farms receive parent or grand parent from pureline farm and mate them, as successful or pure line farm hybrid to produce commercial highbred layers are broilers. The buyers are farmers who are either layers farmers or broiler farmers. There is one more category of poultry farmers who also keep breeding stock along with hatcheries and commercial birds. These entrepreneurs can loosely be called integrators. Climatic conditions of southern region appear to be the most suitable for poultry production. Poultry houses in southern region are fairly large and built up of brick pillars with open sides, tile roof and concrete floors. Heat is required only for brooding of chicks. Ceiling fans are used for cooling of houses when needed. Use of sprinklers and foggers is increasing to combat summer heat. Feeding and watering is manual in floor system of rearing. Nipple drinkers are used when birds are housed in cages. The housing system remains same in the western region of the country. Evaporative automatic cooling systems are commonly used to reduce in house temperature almost in all the large farms. Automatic feeding and watering system is also common. In the eastern region, poultry houses are similar to those of southern regions. 35

Curtains are provided by most of the farms to protect the birds from cool winter. In the northern region extreme summer and winter temperature are encountered. The poultry houses are made of brick and cement with concrete floor and concrete roof. Sidewalls are either closed or provided with curtains. Some farmers do provide automatic systems of evaporative cooling and heating. Very often broiler sheds are double storied due to high land cost hence reduces the cost of construction. Corn-soya ration is the most popular for feeding of layers and broilers and mash type of feed is common. In order to reduce the cost of feeding and improving FCR, pellet feeding, installation of automatic feeding systems and purchase of feed ingredients at the time of harvest is gaining popularity. Wheat, millet and broken rice are used in place of maize when maize prices are high. Similarly a cocktail of cakes comprising sunflower, peanuts and mustards are used to reduce the proportion of soyabean in poultry feed. Feed costs more in southern region since com and soya are not grown in this region. Large farms prepare their own feed to reduce the cost and maintain quality (Singh et al., 2005). Specialized breeds are used for production of egg and meat. The breeding stocks mostly used for broiler production include Vencob, Ross, Hybro, Hubbard, Avian and Anak broilers. The common layer stocks are Babcock, Lohman, Hyline and Bovans. Major part of poultry egg and meat although are still produced through independent farms, vertical integration and contract growing has become very popular in southern and western regions of the country for production of broilers. It is helping to lower the average cost of production and reduce producer retail margin, thus, making it available to consumers at a cheaper price. Most of the big integrators sell bulk of 36