RESULTS. Chapter SNAKE FAUNA IN TELANGANA

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Chapter 3 RESULTS 3.1 SNAKE FAUNA IN TELANGANA The snake fauna of Telangana consists of 29 species belonging to eight families (Typhlopidae, Pythonidae, Boidae, Colubridae, Natricidae, Homalapsidae, Elapidae and Viperidae) (Table 3.1.1). Families Pythonidae and Homalapsidae are represented by a single species each belonging to genera Python and Enhydris, respectively (Fig. 3.1.1). Family Typhlophidae and Boidae are represented by two species each, one species each belonging to the genera Grypotyphlops and Ramphotyphlops under the former and, Eryx and Gongylophis under the later, respectively. Family Elapidae and Viperidae are represented by three species each; with species belonging to the genera Bungarus (two species) and Naja (one species) under the former and, Daboia (one species), Echis (one species) and Trimerusurus (one species) under the later. Family Natricidae is represented by four species belonging to genera Amphiesma (one species), Atretium (one species), Macropisthodon (one species) and Xenochrophis (one species). The species belonging to family Natricidae were earlier included under family Colubridae. Family Colubridae is represented by 13 species in the genera Coelognathus (one species), Ptyas (one species), Argyrogena (one species), Coluber (one species), Oligodon (two species), Dendrelaphis (one species), Lycodon (three species), Boiga (two species), and Ahaetulla (one species). The Telangana region encompasses ten districts, namely Adilabad, Hyderabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal. Snake species like Ahaetulla nasuta, Ptyas mucosa, Bungarus caeruleus and Ramphotyphlops braminus were found in all the ten districts, whereas Atretium schistosum (Nalgonda), Boiga forsteni (Mahbubnagar), Bungarus fasciatus (Warangal), Enhydris enhydris (Nalgonda) and Lycodon flavicollis (Hyderabad) were found only from one district. Three species, namely Coluber bholanathi (Hyderabad and Nalognda districts), Oligodon taeniolatus (Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy districts) and Trimeresurus gramineus (Adilabad and Mahbubnagar districts) are reported from two districts each (Table 3.1.2). 51

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Among ten districts, Nalgonda district shows highest species diversity with 25 species, followed by Mahbubnagar with 21 species, and Nizamabad recorded only 7 species. 3.1.1 Diversity indices Species richness and diversity were studied using various indices, such as, Simpson's index, Dominance index, Shannon's index and Equitability index and Effective number of species (Table 3.1.3). According to Simpson's index, the snake diversity was the highest (0.058) in Hyderabad district followed by Nalgonda district (0.106), Mahbubnagar district (0,117), Warangal district (0.118), Ranga Reddy district (0.125), Medak district (0.168), Khammam district (0.170), Nizamabad district (0.256), Karimnagar district (0.316) and Adilabad district (0.333). The Simpson's index value of 0.123 (which very close to 0) of all the districts of Telangana put together indicates the rich diversity of snakes species of the region. The Dominance index values of snakes showed least diversity in Karimnagar district (0.683), followed by Nizamabad district (0.743), Khammam district (0.829), Medak district (0.831), Adilabad district (0.866), Ranga Reddy district (0.874), Warangal district (0.881), Mabubnagar (0.883), Nalgonda district (0.893) and highest diversity in Hyderabad district (0.941). Overall Dominanace Index among all the districts (0.876) put together showed good diversity. Shannon's index shows more species richness and evenness of the snakes in Nalgonda district (2.936), followed by Mahbubnagar district (2.768), Adilabad district (2.70), Hyderabad district (2.625), Ranga Reddy district (2.587), Warangal district (2.576), Khammam (2.365), Medak district (2.207), Nizamabad district (1.946), and the least species richness and evenness in Karimnagar district (1.808). The overall species richness and evenness of snakes in all the districts put together (2.954) showed good diversity of snakes in Talangana. Effective number of species was high in Nalgonda district (18.84), Mahbubnagar (15.92), Adilabad district (14.87), Hyderabad district (13.80), Ranga Reddy district (13.28), Warangal (13.14), Khammam district (10.64), Medak district (9.08), Nizamabad district (6.95) and the least in Karimnagar district (6.09). Overall all the districts of Telangana put together shows good effective number of species (19.18). The equitability 56

index value of all the districts was above 0.86 which shows good equitability of the species in all the ten districts of Telangana (Table 3.1.3). Fig. 3.1.1. Diversity of snakes (represented as percent frequency of species belonging to each family) in Telangana (Represented by 8 families, 24 genera and 29 species) 57

58

Dr. Patrick Russell [6 February 1726, Edinburgh 2 July 1805, London] A Scottish surgeon and naturalist who worked in India. He is considered the 'Father of Indian Ophiology' 59

SNAKE CHARMERS 60

3.2 KEY TO FAMILIES OF SNAKES IN TELANGANA Identification of species is a very important aspect of systematic studies that needs to be carried out carefully. For proper identification of the species belonging to different taxonomic groups, identification keys are an important tool. During the course of the present study, keys to identify snakes both at family and below family level have been developed basing on previous keys provided by various workers (Smith, 1943; Sharma, 2003). Key to families of snakes in Telangana 1a. Palato maxillary arch incomplete; only upper jaw toothed; eyes vestigial, covered with scales; median row of ventral scales not enlarged Typhlopidae 1b. Palato maxillary arch complete; both jaws toothed; eyes exposed; median row of ventral scales more or less distinctly enlarged, usually forming transverse shields 2 2a. Coronoid present; prefrontal bone in contact with the nasal; vestiges of hindlimbs present; supratemporal present, attached, scale-like to the cranium, entirely suspending the quadrate; facial bones movable 3 2b. Coronoid absent; vestiges of hind-limbs absent 4 3a. Top of head covered with small scales; no labial pits Boidae 3b. Top of head partly covered with symmetrical shields; labial pits present Pythonidae 61

4a. No poison fangs in the front of the jaw 5 4b. Poison fangs in the front of the jaw 6 5a. Nostrils not valvular, usually lateral scales imbricate 7 5b. Nostrils valvular, on the upper surface of the snout; last 2nd or 3rd maxillary tooth enlarged and grooved; ventrals rather narrow Homalapsidae 6a. Maxillary bone horizontal, with tooth behind the poison fangs; pupil round Elapidae 6b. Maxillary bone very short, vertically erectile, no teeth on it except the poison fangs; pupil vertical Viperidae 7a. Hypapophyses developed throughout the vertebral column, represented on the posterior dorsal vertebrae by a more or less developed crest or tubercle projecting below the centrum; sulcus spermaticus single and highly centripetal, forming a nude region on the medial surfaces of the hemipenal lobes; hemipenal calyces absent (evolutionary loss) Natricidae 7b. Hypapophyses present or absent on the posterior dorsal vertebrae; sulcus spermaticus simple, derived from the right branch of a primitively divided sulcus Colubridae 62

3.3 SPECIES ACCOUNTS ON SNAKES IN TELANGANA The detailed species accounts of the 29 species of snakes belonging to eight families reported from Telangana as observed during the present study is provided under. This constitutes the systematics component of the present study. 3.3.1 Family Typhlopidae Merrem, 1820 Type genus Typlophs Oppel, 1811 Blind Snakes The blind snakes are specialized diminutive burrowing snakes. These are small with a small head and a short, blunt tail. Ventral scales are not enlarged as in most snakes. Their rudimentary eyes and rather rigid, cylindrical bodies distinguish the blind snakes from other snakes. These lead secretive, fossorial subterranean life due to which they are the most infrequently encountered snakes in nature. Most archaic surviving snakes, Typhlopids have toothed, movable maxilla, while the premaxilla is toothless and firmly articulated with the snout. The maxillae, more or less transverse, possess several teeth and are attached to the skull via mobile articulations. Palatomaxillary arch is incomplete. Pelvis reduced to single bone or absent. Left lung is absent. Most of the species are known by a single specimen or fewer specimens, while a series of specimens from a particular habitat is rare in museum collections throughout the world. The biology of the blind snakes is little understood yet. They are known to feed on soft bodied subterranean insects and their larvae, are mostly oviparous, some are partially viviparous and even parthenogenetic (Smith, 1943; Dowling and Duellman, 1978; FitzSimons, 1962; Fitch, 1970; Deuve, 1970; McDowell, 1974). They differ from the thread snakes (Family Leptotyphlopidae) by having 20 or more mid-body scales. Typhlopids are reported from all continents and are most widely distributed due to their small size and easy transport by human agency (McDowell, 1974; Nussbaum, 1980; Hahn, 1980; Shine and Webb, 1990; Ota et al., 1991). This family is represented by ten genera (Acutotyphlops, Afrotyphlops, Austrotyphlops, Cyclotyphlops, Grypotyphlops, Letheobia, Megatyphlops, Ramphotyphlops, Rhinotyphlops, and Typhlops) with a worldwide distribution. 63

In India, this family is represented by 18 species (Appendix I). In Telangana, this family is represented by two species belonging to two genera (Table 3.1). Key to the species of snakes of the family Typhlopidae in Telangana 1a. Rostral obtusely pointed hook like in front Grypotyphlops acutus 1b. Rostral obtusely rounded in front (pointed hook-like rostrum) Ramphotyphlops braminus (blunt, rounded rostrum) 3.3.1.1 Genus Grypotyphlops Peters, 1881 Type species Onychocephalus acutus Duméril and Bibron, 1844 The genus Grypotyphlops includes species of blind snakes that uniquely possess lateral tongue papillae; hooked beak ; concavity on ventral rostral; subocular larger than preocular; nasal barely wider than ocular, preocular and subocular; frontal less than 1/3 width of rostral; 24-34 midbody scale rows; posterior scale row reduction of 4-3.6 rows; unipartite testes; triradiate Y-shaped pelvic remnant composed entirely of cartilage; broad rostral, relative rostral width 0.80 0.82; highly segmented liver, mean number of total segments 41.0; and adrenals elongate in shape, 3 times as long as broad. Peters (1881) established the genus Grypotyphlops with Onychocephalus acutus Duméril & Bibron as the type species. The species currently known as Rhinotyphlops 64

acutus (Duméril and Bibron) is now referred to as Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril and Bibron). This genus is represented by one species worldwide and India. Species of Grypotyphlops Peters, 1881 found in Telangana Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril & Bibron, 1844) Beaked Worm Snake Type locality : Unknown (fide Duméril & Bibron, 1844). Vernacular name : Guddi paamu, Gurram chevi paamu, Eddhu mukku paamu. Etymology : Named after Latin acuere meaning sharp, or acutus meaning sharpened, pointed, or acumen meaning tip, or acus meaning needle, alluring to the pointed beak like structure. Synonyms : Onychocephalus acutus Duméril & Bibron, 1844; Typhlops russellii Gray, 1845; Onychocephalus westermanni Lütken, 1863; Typhlops excipiens Jan, 1864; Onychocephalus malabaricus Beddome in Günther, 1875; Grypotyphlops acutus Peters, 1881; Typhlops acutus Boulenger, 1890; Typhlops psittacus Werner, 1903; Typhlops acuta Constable, 1949; Rhinotyphlops acutus Wallach, 1994 Distribution World : Endemic to India. India : Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Telangana : Commonly known species. Vouchers observed and studied from the districts Adilabad, Hyderabad, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal (Fig. 3.3.1.1a). Specimens : Kuntala,, SVL=11cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=11.1cm; studied or Kawal,, SVL=42cm, TL=0.5cm, TBL=42.5cm; 65

examined Kawal,, SVL=33.3cm, TL=0.5cm, TBL=33.8cm; Musthapur,, SVL=39cm, TL=0.4cm, TBL=39.4cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=48cm, TL=0.6cm, TBL=48.6cm; Medchal,, SVL=45.6cm, TL=0.5cm, TBL=46.1cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=48.6cm, TL=0.6cm, TBL=49.2cm; Alisagar,, SVL=31.5cm, TL=0.7cm, TBL=32.2cm; Amrabad,, SVL=42.8cm, TL=0.9cm, TBL=43.7cm; Toopran,, SVL=38.7cm, TL=0.3cm, TBL=39cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=47.4cm, TL=0.7cm, TBL=48.1cm Fig. 3.3.1.1a. Distribution map of Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril & Bibron, 1844) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Description : The largest Indian worm snake that was recorded measured up to a maximum length 600mm. The body is slender cylindrical with glossy brown colour. Ventrum is pale. Indistinct head with strong, projecting beak like rostrum (Image 3.3.1.1a & Fig. 3.3.1.1b) which cover most of the head. Nostrils are covered by the beak. Small distinct eyes present as black dots enclosed by a scale. Only upper jaw has teeth. Very short tail ends in a short spine (Smith, 1943; Wallach, 1994; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). 66

Ecology : A poorly-known, largest blind snake; fossorial in nature, has been found in leaf litter, under dead trees, under stones or boulders in wet and dry habitats, both primary and modified. Eats worms, soft-bodied insects and their larvae (Daniel, 2002). Scalation : The body is covered by 28 to 34 smooth scales; 450-500 ventrals, not larger than the adjacent scales. Frontal and pre-frontal in contact with the rostral; subocular in contact with the 3rd and 4th labials; a long narrow preocular is present (Fig. 3.3.1.1a) (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.1.1b. Head scalation pattern in Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril & Bibron, 1844) showing the characteristic beak like rostral scale and positioning of the frontal, prefrontals and other scales; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspectand C. ventral aspect. IUCN Status : Least Concern (Srinivasulu et al., 2013). 3.3.1.2 Genus Ramphotyphlops Fitzinger, 1843 Type species Typhlops multilineatus Schlegel, 1839 The body is cylindrical terminating in a short tail with a stiff spike. Head is not distinct from neck, covered with large rostral, nasal, ocular and preocular scales. Eyes distinct, in the ocular shields, with vertical pupils. Body scales highly glossy and in 20 rows at the midbody. Ventrals are narrow and all subcaudal scales are single. Twenty seven species are known worldwide. In India, this genus is represented by one species. 67

Species of Ramphotyphlops Fitzinger, 1843 found in Telangana Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) Brahminy Blind Snake Type locality : Vizagapatnam, India. Vernacular name : Guddi paamu, Gurram chevi paamu, Eddhu mukku paamu. Etymology : Named after the Latinized form of the word Brahmin meaning a caste among Hindus; exact connotation unknown, description based on Russell s drawing in 1796 of a specimen from Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. Synonyms : Eryx braminus Daudin, 1803; Tortrix russelii Merrem, 1820; Typhlops russeli Schlegel, 1839; Argyrophis truncatus Gray, 1845; Onychocephalus capensis Smith, 1846; Argyrophis bramicus Kelaart, 1854; Ophthalmidium tenue Hallowell, 1861; Typhlops inconspicuus Jan, 1863; Typhlops accedens Jan, 1864; Typhlops braminus Jan, 1864; Typhlops euproctus Boettger, 1882; Typhlops limbrickii Annandale, 1906; Glauconia braueri Sternfeld, 1910; Typhlopidae braminus Roux, 1911; Typhlops pseudosaurus Dryden and Taylor, 1969; Typhlina braminus Mcdowell, 1974 Distribution World : Cosmopolitan; native to Asia, introduced to many continents and countries. Egypt, Libya, Zanzibar, Tanzania, Mozambique, Republic of South Africa, Somalia, Cameroon, Benin, Ivory Coast, Senegal, Mauritania, Gabon, Central African Republic, Madagascar, Comoros (Mayotte, Mohéli, Anjouan), Nosy Bé, Mascarenes, Seychelles, Mauritius, Reunion, Rodrigues and Madeira in Africa; Saudi Arabia (introduced), Oman (introduced), United Arab Emirates (UAE), Kuwait, and Iran in Middle East; Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar (= Burma), Cambodia, Malaysia (Pulau Tioman, Johor: Pulau Sibu), Indonesia 68

(Sulawesi, Komodo), Solomon Islands, S China (Hainan, Guangdong: Nan Ao Island, Hong Kong, Sichuan/Chongqing), Taiwan (incl. Lanyu), Japan (Ryukyu islands, incl. Senkaku), India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Philippines (Palawan: Calamian Islands, Panay, Luzon etc.), New Guinea and Nauru in Asia; Cook Islands, CKI, North Territory, New Caledonia, Toga Island, Vanuatu, Fiji in Australia and Oceania; Madeira Island of Portugal in Europe; Mexico (introduced), Guatemala (introduced), Belize, West Indies, Grand Caymen Islands, St. Martin and St. Barthélmy in South America and Florida (introduced) and Hawaii (introduced) in USA, India : Throughout, including Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Telangana : Found almost throughout the state (Fig. 3.3.1.2a); vouchers observed and studied from the districts of Adilabad, Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal. Fig. 3.3.1.2a. Distribution map of Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Specimens : Asifabad,, SVL=8.5cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=8.7cm; Studied or Chennur,, SVL=8.2cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=8.4cm; 69

examined Jannaram,, SVL=12cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=12.2cm; Kawal,, SVL=8.2cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=8.3cm; Kerimeri,, SVL=12cm, TL=0.3cm, TBL=12.3cm; Nirmal,, SVL=9.1cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=9.2cm; Utnoor,, SVL=7cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=7.1cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=8.2cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=8.3cm; Musthapur,, SVL=7.5cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=7.7cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=7.8cm, TL=0.3cm, TBL=8.1cm; Wyra,, SVL=9.7cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=9.9cm; Achampet,, SVL=11.4cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=11.6cm; Beechpally,, SVL=6cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=6.1cm; Gadwal,, SVL=7.7cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=7.8cm; Mahbubnagar,, SVL=11cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=11.2cm; Mannanur,, SVL=12.2cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=12.4cm; Rushulacheruvu,, SVL=6.9cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=7cm; Kapraipally,, SVL=9.9cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=10.1cm; Ramayampet,, SVL=7cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=7.1cm; Sangareddy,, SVL=7.6cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=7.7cm; Gandhavarigudem,, SVL=13.7cm, TL=0.3cm, TBL=14cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=8.2cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=8.3cm; Nandikonda,, SVL=7.2cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=7.3cm; Sarvail,, SVL=13.8cm, TL=0.3cm, TBL=14.1cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=7cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=7.1cm; Kamareddy,, SVL=11cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=11.2cm; Meerpet,, SVL=12.5cm, TL=0.2cm, TBL=12.7cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=8.2cm, TL=0.1cm, TBL=8.3cm Description : Tiny snake with uniformly cylindrical body about 125-230mm long with pink brown or black back and light-coloured ventrum. Head is indistinct bluntly round with strongly projecting white snout. Rostral touches prefrontal, not extends to the level of eye (Image 3.3.1.2a & Fig. 3.3.1.2b). Nasal shield completely divided and is in contact with the anterior nasal and lower suture to the preocular. Nostrils arranged laterally. Both ocular and 70

preocular sub equal in breadth and are shorter than the posterior nasal. Distinct eye enclosed in the ocular shield as black dot. White coloured short tail ends in a caudal spine. Anal region visible as white patch (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : A small, tender blind snake; nocturnal and fossorial in nature, has been found under stones, soil, debris, termite mounds, flower pots and even inside the houses in wet and dry habitats, both primary and modified. Feeds on larvae, pupae, imagos of insects and small insects. Lays 2-7 elongate eggs the size of cooked rice grains. The snake is believed to be parthenogentic. When handled, tries to escape by anchoring itself with tail spine, wriggles restlessly and defecates (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.1.2b. Head scalation pattern in Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) showing the characteristic obtusely rounded rostral scale and positioning of the frontal, prefrontal and other scales; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspectand C. ventral aspect. Scalation : The body is covered by 20 smooth scales; 290-331 ventrals, equal IUCN Status : Least Concern. in size to the adjacent body scales. Prefrontal in contact with the rostral; subocular in contact with the 3rd and 4th labials; wedge- shaped ocular shield protrudes in between 3rd and 4 th labials (Fig. 3.3.1.2b) (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). 71

3.3.2 Family Pythonidae Fitzinger, 1826 Type genus Python Daudin, 1803 A supraorbital bone; anterior end of Meckelian cartilage free of dentary; palatine not independently erectile, its lateral process underlapped by an antero-posteriorly long medial process of maxilla; palatine enters infraorbital fenestra between maxilla and pterygoid; palatine tooth row (which is absent in Calabaria) continuous with that of pterygoid; rectus capitis dorsalis inserted on a transverse nuchal crest of supraoccipital; oviparous (McDowell, 1987). Pythonids are reported from tropical Africa, Asia and Australia (O Shea, 2007). This family is represented by nine genera (Antaresia, Apodora, Aspidites, Bothrochilus, Broghammerus, Leiopython, Liasis, Morelia, and Python). In India, this family is represented by two species (Appendix I). In Telangana, this family is represented by one species (Table 3.1). 3.3.2.1 Genus Python Daudin, 1803 Type species Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) Large-bodied snakes with cylindrical body. Head distinct from neck, with large symmetrical shields; rostral, anterior supralabials and anterior and posterior infralabials pitted. Eye with vertical pupil. Anterior maxillary and mandibular teeth very long. Body scales smooth, 60-75 rows, ventrals rather narrow, subcaudals generally paired. Hypapophyses absent in the posterior part of the vertebral column. Oviparous. Ten species are known worldwide. Two species are known in India. Species of Python Daudin, 1803 found in Telangana Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) Indian Python Type locality : Indiis = India 72

Vernacular name : Konda chiluva, Pedda poda. Etymology : From ancient Greek puthon, the name of the mythological enormous serpent at Delphi slain by Apollo and molurus meaning some kind of snake (fide Wall, 1921). Synonyms : [Coluber] Molurus Linnaeus, 1758; Boa Albicans Schneider, 1801 Boa Castanea Schneider, 1801; Boa Cinerae Schneider, 1801 Boa Orbiculata Schneider, 1801; Boa Ordinata Schneider, 1801 Coluber Boaeformis Shaw, 1802; Python bora Daudin, 1803 Python ordinatus Daudin, 1803; Python tigris Daudin, 1803 Python Javanicus Kuhl, 1820; Python Jamesonii Gray, 1842 Python (Asterophis) tigris Fitzinger, 1843 Distribution World : Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Lao People's Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam. India : Practically throughout India, south of Shivalik ranges and absent from the Thar desert. Telangana : Slightly patchily distributed (Fig. 3.3.2.1a); individuals observed and studied from Adilabad, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad and Warangal districts. Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=200.2cm, TL=23cm, TBL=223.2cm; studied or Kawal,, SVL=315.9cm, TL=32.3cm, TBL=348.2cm; examined Nirmal,, SVL=296cm, TL=37.1cm, TBL=333.1cm; Gadwal,, SVL=270.6cm, TL=23.2cm, TBL=293.8cm; Lingala,, SVL=317cm, TL=32cm, TBL=349cm; Pocharam,, SVL=278cm, TL=37.3cm, TBL=315.3cm; Ramayampet,, SVL=257.9cm, TL=33.8cm, TBL=291.7cm; Toopran,, SVL=304.9cm, TL=33.7cm, TBL=338.6cm; Poddatur,, SVL=242.5cm, TL=28.7cm, TBL=271.2cm; Devarakonda,, SVL=272.7cm, TL=26.1cm, TBL=298.8cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=222cm, TL=25.7cm, TBL=247.7cm; Musthapur,, SVL=311.8cm, TL=37.7cm, TBL=349.5cm; 73

Eturnagaram,, SVL=250.2cm, TL=35.5cm, TBL=285.7cm; Description : One of the largest species of snakes with heavy body, grows up to 2500-7620mm. The body colour varies from yellowish to pale gray with asymmetrical brown, black edged blotches. Flanks are paler and ventrum is yellowish or white. Head is quite distinct from neck with a lance-shaped mark on the top extending to the nape often paler in adults. Parts of head and tongue pale pink. A dark-subocular streak and another dark streak from behind eye to the angle of the mouth is present. Snout is upwardly situated with large nostrils. Heat sensitive sensory pits on rostral and first two upper labials makes this species easily separable from other species of snakes like boas and vipers (Image 3.3.2.1a & Fig. 3.3.2.1b). Eyes have vertical pupil with gold colour iris. Vestiges of pelvis and hind limbs terminate in a claw like spur present on either side of anus. Tail is short and prehensile. Anal plate is undivided, subcaudals divided (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004; O Shea, 2007). Ecology : A large non-venomous snake; inhabits open to dense jungles, rocky outcrops, estuarine mangrove forests and grass lands. This snake prefers large undisturbed areas to hunt and hide in. An excellent swimmer sometimes lies submerged for hours. This snake hibernates. A good climber. Feeds on mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians. The food includes flying bats to large mammals. Up to 107 eggs laid in a clutch in March to June and incubating takes place for 60 80 days. Maternal care is seen. A slow moving snake shows a specific locomotive movement known as rectilinear progression (the body moves in a straight line like millipede). The ribs moves in a wavy motion (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : The body is covered by 65 to 70 smooth scales; 245-270 ventrals, ventrals narrower than the width of the ventrum; subcaudals, 58-73, divided. Anal plate undivided. Two preoculars, 3-4 74

Fig. 3.3.2.1a. Distribution map of Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.2.1b. Head scalation pattern in Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) showing the characteristic supralabial pits and irregular scales at loreal and temporal regions; A. dorsal aspect B. lateral aspectand C. ventral aspect. postoculars; two pairs of prefrontal present; frontals, longitudinally divided and larger than the supraoculars. Eleven-13 75

supralabials, 6th and 7th touching eye, anterior supralabial pits strongly evident; 16-18 infralabials, anterior infralabials feeblypitted. Loreal and temporal region covered with irregular scales; mental groove present (Fig. 3.3.2.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004; O Shea, 2007). IUCN Status : Lower Risk/near threatened (WCMC, 1996). 3.3.3 Family Boidae Gray, 1825 Type genus Boa Gray, 1825 Earlier included the pythons. The boids feature thick bodies that help them in suffocating their prey. Head is covered by small scales and the ventrals are narrow. The dorsal scales are small and smooth. Eyes are very small with elliptical pupils. No separate supraorbital bone, premaxillary teeth absent, lacrimal foramen not enclosed by prefrontal, palatine foramen not enclosed within palatine; levator anguli oris muscle absent. Ovoviviparous. Boids are reported from tropical America, Africa, Asia and Australia (O Shea, 2007). This family is represented by eight genera (Boa, Candoia, Corallus, Epicrates, Eunectes, Charina, Eryx, and Gongylophis). In India, only the genera Eryx and Gongylophis belonging to subfamily Erycinae are found. In India, this family is represented by three species (Appendix I). In Telangana, this family is represented by two species (Table 3.1). 3.3.3.1 Genus Gongylophis Wagler, 1830 Type species Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) The body is cylindrical, of moderate length; tail very short, tapering. Head is flat, oblong, not distinct from neck and is covered by small scales, only the foremost part of the snout and the lips are shielded with rather long and obtusely rounded in front snout, lacking canthus rostralis. Chin entirely covered with small scales, without median groove. Anterior teeth in the jaws and the palate longest. Eyes rather small with vertical pupils; nostrils lateral, directed upwards. Scales small and keeled. Ventrals and subcaudals 76

narrow. Three species are known from Africa (from Mauritania and Senegal east to Egypt and south to Tanzania) to South Asia (including from the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula to eastern Pakistan, throughout most of India, Bangladesh and northwestern Sri Lanka) (McDiarmid et al., 1999). Key to the species of snakes of the family Boidae in Telangana 1a. Tail pointed, no mental groove Gongylophis conicus (mental groove absent) 1b. Tail blunt, mental groove present Eryx johnii (mental groove present) Species of Gongylophis Wagler, 1830 found in Telangana Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) Common Sand Boa Type locality : India orientali, Tranquebar (Bauer, 1998). Vernacular name : Poodu paamu, Matti paamu. Etymology : After Greek gongylo meaning round, ophis meaning snake, and Latin conica meaning cone-shaped. 77

Synonyms : Boa conica Schneider, 1801; Erix bengalensis Cuvier, 1837; Eryx conicus Peters, 1869 Distribution World : Pakistan, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka. India : Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh. Telangana : Widely distributed; individuals observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.3.1a). Specimens : Asifabad,, SVL=50cm, TL=3cm, TBL=53cm; studied or Kawal,, SVL=61cm, TL=4.1cm, TBL=65.1cm; examined Kawal,, SVL=66.6cm, TL=4.7cm, TBL=71.3cm; Kawal,, SVL=50.2cm, TL=3cm, TBL=53.2cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=60.6cm, TL=4.1cm, TBL=64.7cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=35cm, TL=2cm, TBL=37cm; Achampet,, SVL=62.7cm, TL=4.3cm, TBL=67cm; Alampur,, SVL=62.6cm, TL=4.3cm, TBL=66.9cm; Amrabad,, SVL=56.7cm, TL=3.7cm, TBL=60.4cm; Kolhapur,, SVL=53.7cm, TL=3.4cm, TBL=57.1cm; Lingala,, SVL=53.2cm, TL=3.3cm, TBL=56.5cm; Mannanur,, SVL=67.3cm, TL=4.7cm, TBL=72cm; Lingareddypalli,, SVL=64.7cm, TL=4.5cm, TBL=69.2cm; Toopran,, SVL=50.6cm, TL=3.1cm, TBL=53.7cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=56.7cm, TL=3.7cm, TBL=60.4cm; Nandikonda,, SVL=62cm, TL=4.2cm, TBL=66.2cm; Sarvail,, SVL=60.9cm, TL=4.1cm, TBL=65cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=51cm, TL=3.1cm, TBL=54.1cm; Medchal,, SVL=56.3cm, TL=3.6cm, TBL=59.9cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=56.4cm, TL=3.6cm, TBL=60cm; Tadwai,, SVL=50.7cm, TL=3.1cm, TBL=53.8cm 78

Fig. 3.3.3.1a. Distribution map of Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.3.1b. Head scalation pattern in Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) showing the characteristic irregular scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect and B. lateral aspectand C. ventral aspect. Description : A short, muscular, thick-bodied snake, that grows up to 500 1000mm (females are larger than males) having reddish-brown, yellowish-white, dark brown or black colouration on back with large irregular dark brown black edged blotches that are 79

connected irregularly. The ventrum is yellowish-white or buff. The head is slightly broader than neck, with small scales on top. Rostral scale is without angular horizontal edge, twice as broad as high, visible from above (Image 3.3.3.1a & Fig. 3.3.3.1b). Ventral scales narrower than the ventrum. Slit-like nostrils present. Small eyes with gold coloured iris and vertical pupil. A dark streak present behind the eye. Mental groove absent. Small brown spots or scattered grey flecks present on outer scale-rows. Hind limbs are present as rudimentary organs. Tail is short, conical with 16-24 undivided subcaudals. Anal plate is undivided but bordered by small plate on each side (tripartite) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004; O Shea, 2007). Ecology : A slow moving nocturnal snake burrows itself in the ground during day time. Though it is a slow moving creature, it burrows itself in the ground very speedily with the help of its shovelshaped snout. Often observed to hunt by day. Live in plain dry places and sandy soil. Often lives in rodent burrows. Feeds on small mammals, frogs, insects, lizards, snakes and birds. Kills its prey with constriction. An ovoviviparous snake, bears 6-8 live young ones, breeds in and around December to July. A gentle non-venomous snake, generally does not bite, but sometimes bites with least provocation (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : The body is covered by 40 to 55 keeled scales, in some specimens strong tubercles on scales on head and tail also present; 161 196 whitish ventral scales spotted with dark brown or almost brown. There are 8 10 scales between the eyes and each eye encircled by 10 15 scales (Fig. 3.3.3.1b). Twelve to 14 supralabials and 18 infralabials. Subcaudals, 16-24, undivided. Anal plate, undivided, bordered by small plate on each side (tripartite). Hemipenis not forked, sulcus bifurcates near the tip. Distally hemipenial fold unite to form large cup-shaped structures (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 80

IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004; O Shea, 2007). 3.3.3.2 Genus Eryx Daudin, 1803 Type species Eryx jaculus (Linnaeus, 1758) The body is cylindrical terminating in a short conical tail. Head is not distinct from neck, and is covered by small scales. Eyes are very small with vertical pupils. Ventrals are narrow and all subcaudal scales are single. Twelve species (including subspecies) are known so in south-eastern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East and south-western Asia (McDiarmid et al., 1999). Species of Eryx Daudin, 1803 found in Telangana Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801) Red Sand Boa Type locality : Tranquebar (now Tharangambadi, Tamil Nadu). Vernacular name : Rendu thalkaayala paamu, Rendu moothula paamu. Etymology : The genus name derives from the Latin Eryx (genitive Erycis), the name of a mountain in the NW corner of Sicily, with a famous temple to Venus at its top; also an eponymous hero, son of Venus, defeated by Heracles in a boxing match. Named after the Rev. Mr. John of Tranquebar (Smith, 1943). Synonyms : Boa anguiformis Schneider, 1801; Boa johnii Russell, 1801; Clothonia johnii Gray, 1842; Eryx johni Smith, 1943; Eryx maculatus Hallowell, 1848 Distribution World : Afghanistan, India, Iran and Pakistan. India : Practically throughout India, south of Shivalik ranges and 81

exceptionally absent from the Thar desert. Telangana : Comparatively not very commonly distributed; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy districts (Fig. 3.3.2.2a). Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=30.1cm, TL=3cm, TBL=33.1cm; studied or OU Tarnaka,, SVL=57.4cm, TL=4cm, TBL=61.4cm; examined Nelakondapally,, SVL=71.4cm, TL=7.6cm, TBL=79cm; Gadwal,, SVL=30.6cm, TL=5.4cm, TBL=36cm; Kalwakurthy,, SVL=56.5cm, TL=3.8cm, TBL=60.3cm; Kolhapur,, SVL=72cm, TL=3.4cm, TBL=75.4cm; Lingala,, SVL=61.8cm, TL=7.1cm, TBL=68.9cm; Mannanur,, SVL=61.4cm, TL=5.2cm, TBL=66.6cm; Mannanur,, SVL=46.7cm, TL=4.7cm, TBL=51.4cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=39.2cm, TL=7cm, TBL=46.2cm; Sarvail,, SVL=38cm, TL=3.8cm, TBL=41.8cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=73.1cm, TL=7.3cm, TBL=80.4cm; Raviryal,, SVL=66.9cm, TL=3.4cm, TBL=70.3cm Description : A muscular, thick-bodied snake, that grows up to 750-1080mm with sandy, greyish, yellowish, chocolate or bronzy colour. Majority of the juveniles possess more or less distinct dark coloured transverse bands, more clearly visible on tail. The head is not broader than the neck, with small scales on top. Snout broader with wedge-shaped rostral scale (Image 3.3.3.2a & Fig. 3.3.2.2b). Small distinct eyes with ruddy gold spotted iris and vertical pupil. Mental groove present. Sometimes, in older specimens hind limbs are present as claw-like rudimentary spurs. Tail is short, blunt with 20-40 undivided subcaudals. Anal plate is undivided but bordered by small plate on each side (tripartite). Due to the heavily built blunt tail, people often believe that this snake has two heads (Image 3.3.3.1a) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004; O Shea, 2007). 82

Fig. 3.3.3.2a. Distribution map of Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.3.2b. Head scalation pattern in Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801) showing the characteristic irregular scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect and B. lateral aspectand C. ventral aspect. Ecology : A slow moving nocturnal snake burrows itself with the help of its shovel-shaped snout in the ground during day time. Lives in plain dry places and sandy soil. Often seen occupying rodent burrows. Feeds on insects, lizards, snakes, birds, frogs and small mammals. Kills its prey with constriction. An ovoviviparous snake breeds in 83

and around May to July. A gentle non-venomous snake never attempts to bite. When provoked it hides its head in the coils of its body and exhibits prey avoidance behaviour by flagging its tail toward the predator thereby able to escape from it (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : The body is covered by 51 to 67 smooth scales that are smooth or feebly-keeled anteriorly and strongly keeled posteriorly; 190-215 whitish ventral scales spotted with dark brown or almost brown. There are 6 9 scales between the eyes and each eye is encircled by 10-11 scales (Fig. 3.3.3.2b). Ten to 12 supralabials and 15 infralabials; subcaudals, 20-40, undivided. Anal plate, undivided, bordered by small plate on each side (tripartite) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004; O Shea, 2007). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 3.3.4 Family Colubridae Oppel, 1811 Type genus Coluber Linnaeus, 1758 The family Colubridae is the largest family of snakes with more than 1900 species described and is distinguished from other snakes primarily by the dentition, which usually comprises solid teeth on the maxilla, palatine, pterygoid and dentary, but never on the premaxilla. A few species have enlarged and/or grooved posterior maxillary teeth, which channel venom from the supralabial (Duvernoy s) gland. These are also referred to as rear-fanged snakes. Envenomation is effected by chewing rather than by injection, and serves to subdue struggling prey and to initiate digestion (Goin et al., 1978; McDowell 1987). Facial bones movable, supratemporal attached loosely to the skull, mandible without coronoid bone. Only left common carotid artery present. Hemipenis asymmetrical. Simple sulcus spermaticus passing over to left side of hemipenis; simplex retina, vidian canal generally short, alevator oris muscle generally absent. Colubrids are reported from every continent except Antarctica (McDiarmid et al., 1999). This family is 84

represented by 166 (excluding subfamily Homalopsinae Günther, 1864 (10 genera), Natricinae Bonaparte, 1838 (39 genera), and Xenodontinae Cope, 1895 (89 genera)) genera worldwide, while in India, it is represented by 41 genera. In India, this family is represented by 175 species (Appendix I), while, in Telangana, this family is represented by thirteen species (Table 3.1). Key to the genera of snakes of the family Colubridae in Telangana 1a. All the teeth not solid, last 2 or 3 maxillary teeth grooved (Opisthoglyphous condition) 2 1b. All the teeth solid, not grooved (Aglyphous condition) 3 2a. Pupil vertical Boiga 2b. Pupil horizontal Ahaetulla 3a. Anterior maxillary teeth enlarged Lycodon 3b. Anterior maxillary teeth not enlarged 4 4a. Posterior maxillary teeth longest 5 85

4b. Posterior maxillary teeth subequal to anterior maxillary teeth 6 5a. Last 2 or 3 maxillary teeth separated from others by a distinct (diastema) 7 5b. Diastema not present 8 6a. Body scales in 19 27 rows, with paired apical pits Coelognathus 6b. Body scales in 13 or 15 rows, outer row of dorsal is narrow in comparison to other scales, with single apical pit Dendrelaphis 7a. Midbody dorsal scales in 21 or 23 rows, subcaudals 77 92, 4th and 5th supralabials touching eye Argyrogena 7b. Midbody dorsal scales in 19 rows, subcaudals 109 121, 5th and 6th supralabials touching eye Coluber 8a. 6 16 maxillary teeth, posterior ones strongly enlarged and compressed; midbody dorsal scales in 13 21 rows Oligodon 8b. 20 28 maxillary teeth, which gradually enlarges to form a continuous series; midbody dorsal scales in 15 18 rows Ptyas 86

3.3.4.1 Genus Coelognathus Fitzinger, 1843 Type species Coelognathus radiatus (Boie, 1827) Three supralabials in contact with the eye (except in species helena), lack an anterior subocular (sometimes present in subradiatus) and paravertebral reductions of dorsal scale row, the anal plate is usually single, the hemipenis bears basal spines, the tracheal lung is absent or rudimentary and barely vascularized, and the left lung absent or small except in C. flavolineatus and C. radiatus. Currently, five species are found in this genus all over the world. In India, this genus is represented by three species. Species of Coelognathus Fitzinger, 1843 found in Telangana Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803) Common Trinket Snake Type locality : Vishakhapatnam, India. Vernacular name : Mega rekula poda. Etymology : Named after the Greek coelos meaning hollow and gnathos meaning jaw, and specific epithet derived from the legendary Greek queen Helen meaning torch. Synonyms : Coluber helena Daudin, 1803; Herpetodryas helena Schlegel, 1837; Cynophis bistrigatus Gray, 1849; Plagiodon Helena Duméril & Bibron, 1854; Herpetodryas malabaricus Jerdon, 1854 (fide Boulenger, 1894); Cynophis Helena Günther, 1858; Cynophis helena Günther, 1859; Coluber Helena Boulenger, 1894; Elaphe helena Smith, 1943 Distribution World : Bangladesh, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka; doubtfully in Pakistan. India : Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal and West Bengal. 87

Telangana : Found in six out of the ten districts of Telangana; individuals observed and studied from Adilabad, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.4.1a). Specimens : Amrabad,, SVL=80cm, TL=18cm, TBL=98cm; studied or Asifabad,, SVL=97.5cm, TL=22.4cm, TBL=119.9cm; examined Jannaram,, SVL=87.5cm, TL=19.9cm, TBL=107.4cm; Kawal,, SVL=94.9cm, TL=21.7cm, TBL=116.6cm; Kawal,, SVL=96.9cm, TL=22.2cm, TBL=119.1cm; Kawal,, SVL=99.2cm, TL=22.8cm, TBL=122cm; Nirmal,, SVL=94.6cm, TL=21.7cm, TBL=116.3cm; Utnoor,, SVL=90.8cm, TL=20.7cm, TBL=111.5cm; Kalwakurthy,, SVL=96.8cm, TL=22.2cm, TBL=119cm; Devarakonda,, SVL=99.9cm, TL=23cm, TBL=122.9cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=83.1cm, TL=18.8cm, TBL=101.9cm; Raviryal,, SVL=97.3cm, TL=22.3cm, TBL=119.6cm; Shankerpally,, SVL=88.3cm, TL=20.1cm, TBL=108.4cm; Vikarabad,, SVL=90.7cm, TL=20.7cm, TBL=111.4cm; Ghanpur,, SVL=80.3cm, TL=18.1cm, TBL=98.4cm Description : This trinket snake never exceeds 1700 mm in length (males are comparatively shorter). Body elongated and compressed slightly on the lateral aspects; snout long, head is quite distinct from the neck; tail is long; snout two times longer than the eye. Dorsal colouration is from light to dark brown, with brown or black crossbars having the white ocelli. This colour pattern is present only on the anterior portion, which is brown above and with two broad dark stripes on the lateral aspects; a black vertical streak is present below the eye and an oblique one behind it; ventrum is yellowish uniformly or with distinct margins in certain individuals on the belly (Image 3.3.4.1a & Fig. 3.3.4.1b). The distal half of the hemipenis is with spines, which are relatively small and arranged in longitudinal series; the adjoining area (distally) is with 88

large spines; a series of 6 8 hemipenal spines are present laterally and the largest ones are present on the either side of the sulcus. Anterior maxillary teeth largest (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.4.1a. Distribution map of Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.1b. Head scalation pattern in Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 89

Ecology : It is extremely agile and pugnacious nocturnal snake, inhabiting the crevices in rocks, termite hills, hollows in trees, dense bushes, old vacant buildings and remote places. Its food comprises the small mammals, birds, lizards, snakes and amphibians. It is oviparous and lays eggs in the month of June (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are keeled on the posterior portion of body and tail, in 23 or 25 : 25 or 27 (25 : 29 in many individuals): 21 or 19 rows; ventral shields are 217-265, laterally angulated; caudal scales 73-100; anal not divided; hemipenis extends up to the 27th caudal plate. Prefrontals twice, or nearly twice, as long as the internasals; loreal a little longer than high; supralabials, 9 or 10 (sometimes 8 or 11), 5th and 6th (or 5th to 7th), touching the eye, the 6th or 7th in contact with the temporals (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 3.3.4.2 Genus Ptyas Fitzinger, 1843 Type species Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) The body is elongate, cylindrical, of moderate length; tail long, tapering. Head is elongate, distinct from neck. Two or three loreal shields present. Maxillary teeth 20 to 28, forming a continuous row, increasing in size posteriorly. Eyes large with round pupil. Scales on body in 17(18) or 15(16) rows at midbody, feebly-keeled with apical pits. Subcaudals paired, anals divided. Eight species are known worldwide. 90

Species of Ptyas Fitzinger, 1843 found in Telangana Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Indian Rat Snake Type locality : India. Vernacular name : Jerri goddu, Jerri pothula paamu. Etymology : Ptyas is Ancient Greek for a kind of serpent said to spit venom into the eyes of men; mucosus/mucosa is Latin for "slimy". Synonyms : Coluber mucosus Linnaeus, 1758; Natrix mucosa Laurenti, 1768; Coluber blumenbachii Merrem, 1820; Coluber dhumna Cantor, 1839; Ptyas blumenbachii Fitzinger, 1843; Coryphodon blumenbachii Duméril & Bibron, 1854; Leptophis trifrenatus Hallowell, 1861; Ptyas mucosus Cope, 1861; Ptyas mucosus Günther, 1864; Zamenis mucosus Boulenger, 1890; Ptyas mucosus Stejneger, 1907; Zaocys mucosus Wall, 1921; Ptyas mucosus Smith, 1943; Coluber mucosus Lazell, 1998 Distribution World : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Iran, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Viet Nam. India : Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Daman, Diu, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Orissa, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Telangana : Distributed throughout the state of Telangana; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.4.2a). 91

Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=130.1cm, TL=30cm, TBL=160.1cm; studied or OU Habsiguda,, SVL=178.2cm, TL=56.3cm, TBL=234.5cm; examined OU Tarnaka,, SVL=150.6cm, TL=41.2cm, TBL=191.8cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=171cm, TL=52.4cm, TBL=223.4cm; Chintakani,, SVL=176.4cm, TL=55.3cm, TBL=231.7cm; Mahadevpur,, SVL=182.8cm, TL=58.8cm, TBL=241.6cm; Manthani,, SVL=170.2cm, TL=51.9cm, TBL=222.1cm; Musthapur,, SVL=159.6cm, TL=46.2cm, TBL=205.8cm; Peddapalli,, SVL=176.1cm, TL=55.2cm, TBL=231.3cm; Shivaram WLS,, SVL=184.8cm, TL=59.9cm, TBL=244.7cm; Tadicherla,, SVL=138.6cm, TL=34.7cm, TBL=173.3cm; Vemulawada,, SVL=177.5cm, TL=55.9cm, TBL=233.4cm; Yellareddy,, SVL=152.7cm, TL=42.4cm, TBL=195.1cm; Kunavaram,, SVL=159.3cm, TL=46cm, TBL=205.3cm; Nelakondapally,, SVL=130.7cm, TL=30.4cm, TBL=161.1cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=137.2cm, TL=33.9cm, TBL=171.1cm; Wyra,, SVL=150.1cm, TL=41cm, TBL=191.1cm; Gadwal,, SVL=163.7cm, TL=48.4cm, TBL=212.1cm; Kolhapur,, SVL=150.4cm, TL=41.1cm, TBL=191.5cm; Lingala,, SVL=132.1cm, TL=31.1cm, TBL=163.2cm; Mannanur,, SVL=151cm, TL=41.5cm, TBL=192.5cm; Narsapur,, SVL=148.5cm, TL=40.1cm, TBL=188.6cm; Ramayampet,, SVL=182.4cm, TL=58.6cm, TBL=241cm; Gandhavarigudem,,SVL=177.4cm, TL=55.8cm, TBL=233.2cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=173.5cm, TL=53.7cm, TBL=227.2cm; Gundrampalli,, SVL=170cm, TL=51.8cm, TBL=221.8cm; Nandikonda,, SVL=137.3cm, TL=34cm, TBL=171.3cm; Sarvail,, SVL=162cm, TL=47.5cm, TBL=209.5cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=175.2cm, TL=54.6cm, TBL=229.8cm; Alisagar,, SVL=135.3cm, TL=32.9cm, TBL=168.2cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=159.3cm, TL=46cm, TBL=205.3cm; Mahabubabad,, SVL=143.4cm, TL=37.3cm, TBL=180.7cm; Neerukulla,, SVL=138.3cm, TL=34.5cm, TBL=172.8cm; Zaffergadh,, SVL=157cm, TL=44.7cm, TBL=201.7cm 92

Fig. 3.3.4.2a. Distribution map of Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.2b. Head scalation pattern in Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. Description : This trinket snake never exceeds 1700 mm in length (males are comparatively shorter). Body elongated and compressed slightly on the lateral aspects; snout long, head is quite distinct from the 93

neck; tail is long; snout two times longer than the eye. Dorsal colouration is from light to dark brown, with brown or black crossbars having the white ocelli. This colour pattern is present only on the anterior portion, which is brown above and with two broad dark stripes on the lateral aspects; a black vertical streak is present below the eye and an oblique one behind it; ventrum is yellowish uniformly or with distinct margins in certain individuals on the belly (Image 3.3.4.2a & Fig. 3.3.4.2b). The distal half of the hemipenis is with spines, which are relatively small and arranged in longitudinal series; the next area (distally) to it is with large spines; a series of 6 8 hemipenal spines are present laterally and the largest ones are present on the either side of the sulcus. Anterior maxillary teeth largest (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : It is extremely agile and pugnacious nocturnal snake, inhabiting the crevices in rocks, termite hills, hollows in trees, dense bushes, old vacant buildings and remote places. Its food comprises the small mammals, birds, lizards, snakes and amphibians. It lays eggs in June (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are keeled on the posterior portion of body and tail, in 23 or 25 : 25 or 27 (25 : 29 in many individuals): 21 or 19 rows; ventral shields are 217 265, laterally angulated; caudal scales 73 100; anal not divided; hemipenis extends up to the 27th caudal plate. Prefrontals twice, or nearly twice, as long as the internasals; loreal a little longer than high; supralabials, 9 or 10 (sometimes 8 or 11), 5th and 6th (or 5th to 7th), touching the eye, the 6th or 7th in contact with the temporals (Fig. 3.3.4.2b). (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 94

3.3.4.3 Genus Argyrogena Werner, 1924 Type species Coluber fasciolatus Shaw, 1802 The body is elongate, cylindrical, of moderate length; tail moderate to long, tapering. Head is distinct from neck, snout long, usually projecting beyond the lower jaw. Maxillary teeth 13 to 15, diastema distinct. Eyes large with round pupil. Scales on body in 19, 21 or 23 rows at midbody, smooth. Ventrals enlarged and rounded or with a lateral. Subcaudals paired. Monotypic genus. Species of Argyrogena Werner, 1924 found in Telangana Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) Banded Racer Type locality : India. Vernacular name : Shwetha nagu. Etymology : Named after the Greek argyris meaning silvery and fasciolata meaning banded. Synonyms : Coluber fasciolatus Shaw, 1802; Coluber hebe Daudin, 1803; Coluber curvirostris Cantor, 1839; Zamenis fasciolatus Günther, 1864; Tyria fasciolata (fide Wall, 1921); Argyrogena rostrata Werner, 1924; Argyrogena fasciolatus Das, 1996 Distribution World : Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka. India : Practically throughout India, excepting northern West Bengal and Kashmir. Telangana : Distributed in four out of ten districts of Telangana; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar and Nalgonda districts (Fig. 3.3.4.3a). Specimens : Jannaram,, SVL=28.1cm, TL=6.5cm, TBL=34.6cm; studied or Kerimeri,, SVL=73.5cm, TL=13.9cm, TBL=87.4cm; 95

examined Khanapur,, SVL=47.4cm, TL=9.7cm, TBL=57.1cm; Old Bowenpally,, SVL=66.8cm, TL=12.8cm, TBL=79.6cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=71.9cm, TL=13.7cm, TBL=85.6cm; Kinnerasani,, SVL=77.9cm, TL=14.7cm, TBL=92.6cm; Farahabad,, SVL=66cm, TL=12.7cm, TBL=78.7cm; Ippalapally,, SVL=56cm, TL=11.1cm, TBL=67.1cm; Rushulacheruvu,, SVL=71.6cm, TL=13.6cm, TBL=85.2cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=79.8cm, TL=15cm, TBL=94.8cm Description : The banded racer is a diurnal snake, reaching to a length of 1350 mm (males are comparatively shorter than the females). The body is elongate, cylindrical, head is short but distinct from the neck, snout projects out a little bit; eyes are large and with round pupil; tail is quite long. Dorsal colouration of adult snakes is brown, cinnamon to grayish brown, base of scales are darker. Juveniles are light or dark olive-brown above, with narrow cross-bars on the anterior half of the body; posterior part of the body with faint cross bars or spots, which gradually disappear towards the tail; tail is of uniform brown, head is beautifully coloured with light and dark olive and two white spots are present on parietal shields on either side of the interparietal suture; ventrum is whitish or yellowish. Maxillary teeth 12 to 14, diastema distinct. Hemipenis is devoid of spines, distal one third of the penis is compact and with fine denticulations; penis is three folded and distinctly demarcated by a well-developed sulcus, a strong distal area and between the two folds are present irregularly shaped and closely set papillae, the papillæ have minute spicules projecting from their tips (Smith, 1943; Wilson, 1967; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). (Image 3.3.4.3a & Fig. 3.3.4.3b). Ecology : It is quite a secretive pugnacious burrowing snake inhabiting arid or semiarid areas, with loose soil and slight grass and other vegetation; it is also available in agriculture fields. It bites savagely on mishandling and erects itself and flattens the body 96

behind the neck like a cobra. Its food mainly comprises the small rodents and lizards and the victim is constricted (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.4.3a. Distribution map of Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.3b. Head scalation pattern in Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 97

Scalation : Body scales are smooth, at the middle of body there are 21 or 23 scales, near the neck 21 or 23, near the vent 19 or 17 or 15; all the scales are with apical pits; ventral shields are from 185 234, obtusely angulated laterally, subcaudals 75 95; anal shield divided; suture between the internasals about as long as that between the prefrontals; presubocular sometimes absent; temporals 2+3 or 3+3 ; 8 supralabials, 4th and 5th touching the eye, 5th highest and touching the lower anterior temporal (Fig. 3.3.4.3b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 3.3.4.4 Genus Coluber Linnaeus, 1758 Type species Coluber constrictor Linnaeus, 1758 The body is elongate, cylindrical, of moderate length; tail long, up to half of the body, tapering. Head is distinct from neck, oblong, covered above with smooth polygonal plates. Two pairs of elongate chin shields. Maxillary teeth gradually become larger within the mouth, diastema distinct. Duvernoy s glands present. Eyes large with round pupil. Scales on body, rhomboidal, in 15 to 17 rows at midbody, smooth. Ventrals enlarged. Subcaudals paired. More than ten species are known from North America, Mediterranean region, Arabian peninsula and Western India (McDiarmid et al. 1999); some authorities restrict the genus to North America and assign the species from elsewhere to other genera. Twenty one species are known worldwide, only one species occurs in Telangana. Species of Coluber Linnaeus, 1758 found in Telangana Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976 Sharma s Racer Type locality : Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, India. Vernacular name : None. 98

Etymology : From Greek coluber meaning snake and the specific name is after the collector. Synonyms : Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976; Eremiophis bholanathi Coluber bholanathi Das, 1996; Argyrogena bholanathi Sharma, 2004 Distribution World : Endemic to India. India : So far known from three localities, two in Andhra Pradesh and one in Telangana. Telangana : Vouchers observed and studied from the district of Hyderabad (Fig. 3.3.4.4a). Specimens : Rethi Galli, Golconda,, SVL=52.2cm, TL=18.8cm, TBL=71cm studied or examined Fig. 3.3.4.4a. Distribution map of Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976 in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Description : The Sharma s racer is a diurnal snake, reaching to a length of 1190 mm. The body is long, slender, head is long, distinct from 99

the neck, snout; eyes are large and with round pupil; tail is quite long. Dorsal colouration of adult snakes is predominantly brown with narrow white black-edged bands on the back that widen on the sides to connect with each other. These bands become progressively faded on the hind body. The tail is distinctively unmarked. A faint black line in the middle of the white bands is characteristic. The top of the head is uniquely patterned with three narrow white black-edged bars, the anterior two bands flanking the eyes are connected by a median transverse band in the middle of the interorbital region. A prominent white spot is present on the supraocular shield on either side. An oblique black stripe from the base of the orbit to the mouth across sixth and seventh supralabials is present. All the labials, chin shields, and lateral scales of the head bear black spots. Iris is dark golden coloured. The lower parts of the body are pinkish buff, while outer margins of the ventral scales are spotted with black. Hemipenis strong and unforked with distinct sulcus spermaticus, extending up to the third subcaudal (Image 3.3.4.4a & Fig. 3.3.4.4b) (Sharma, 2003; Seetharamaraju & Srinivasulu, 2013). Ecology : The localities where the species have been reported in Hyderabad are highly disturbed, principally urban settlements within the outer ramparts of the Golconda fort that is witnessing unprecedented infrastructure development. The first specimen was found in the main fort area along the wall moving slowly among the crevices of rocks in search of food. The general habitat within the outer ramparts of the Golconda Fort can be described as a mosaic consisting of human settlements with scattered scrub vegetation, agriculture, grassland and rocky outcrops. At Nagarjunasagar, the habitat is rocky, with stones and boulders scattered all over the area. The species is diurnal and is observed to be extremely active during the early hours of the day. Its habitat is covered with a mixture of evergreen and deciduous xerophytic plants. The climate around the collection localities is hot and dry 100

from March to October, and annual temperature normally varies between 18-46 o C. The rain fall, due to the south west and north east monsoons, is heavy, certain areas are getting as much as 250 cm rains per year. The habitat under study is now submerged in water after the completion of Nagarjunasagar dam on Krishna River. Scalation : Body scales are smooth, at the middle of body are 19, at neck 19, near the vent 12 or 15; ventral shields are from 202 212, obtusely angulated laterally, subcaudals 109 121; anal shield divided; rostral width to height ratio 2:1; rostral does not separate the internasals; internasals are slightly smaller than the prefrontals; 9 supralabials, 5th and 6th touching the eye, 6th highest and in contact with the anterior lower temporal; 11 infralabials, first 5 touching anterior chin shield, 6th largest; two preoculars, one touching the supralabials smaller than the one touching the supraocular; two postoculars; one loreal; 2 temporal scales in the first row, 2 in the second (Sharma, 2003; Seetharamaraju & Srinivasulu, 2013). Fig. 3.3.4.4b. Head scalation pattern in Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976 showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 101

IUCN Status : Data Deficient ver 3.1 (Srinivasulu, et al., 2013). 3.3.4.5 Genus Oligodon Fitzinger, 1826 Type species Oligodon bitorquatus Boie, 1826 The body small to moderate, cylindrical with smooth scales. Head is short, not distinct from neck; shields reduced in numbers. Rostral large. Maxillary teeth 6 to 16, the posterior ones very strongly enlarged and compressed (hence the common name kukri); palatine teeth, well developed or vestigial. Eyes moderate with round pupil. Scales on body in 19, 21 or 23 rows at midbody, smooth. Ventrals rounded. Subcaudals paired. Seventy four species are found all over the world (Green et al., 2010). Key to the species of snakes of the genus Oligodon Fitzinger, 1826 in Telangana 1a. Midbody dorsal scales in 17 rows; body reddish brown or purple, with distinct cross bars or transversely arranged spots Oligodon arnensis 1b. Midbody dorsal scales in 15 rows; body light brown, blackish brown or buff, with narrow cross bars or transverse spots which are rounded or longitudinally elongated Oligodon taeniolatus 102

Species of Oligodon Fitzinger, 1826 found in Telangana Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) Banded Kukri Snake Type locality : Arni (near Arcot), 100 km west of Madras. Vernacular name : Chinna Katla paamu. Etymology : From the Greek olig- (few), and odon (tooth); meaning with few teeth, and specific epithet derived from its type locality Arni (near Arcot), 100 km west of Madras. Synonyms : Coluber arnensis Shaw, 1802; Coluber russelius Daudin, 1803; Coronella russelii Schlegel, 1837; Simotes albiventer Günther, 1864; Simotes arnensis Boulenger, 1890; Simotes russelii Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854 Distribution World : Pakistan, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka. India : Practically throughout India, excepting northern West Bengal and Kashmir. Telangana : Patchily; vouchers observed and studied from the districts Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Ranga Reddy and Warangal (Fig. 3.3.4.5a). Specimens : Wyra,, SVL=32cm, TL=5.6cm, TBL=37.6cm; studied or Mannanur,, SVL=38.8cm, TL=7.6cm, TBL=46.4cm; examined Ramayampet,, SVL=33.7cm, TL=6.1cm, TBL=39.8cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=37.5cm, TL=7.2cm, TBL=44.7cm; Parveda,, SVL=38.4cm, TL=6.5cm, TBL=44.9cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=39.6cm, TL=7.9cm, TBL=47.5cm; Ghanpur,, SVL=37.3cm, TL=7.2cm, TBL=44.5cm Description : Small-sized snake, the length never exceeds 650 mm; tail short, about 10 mm. Dorsal colouration is reddish-brown or purple, with 103

distinct cross-bars or transversely arranged spots; these become narrow on the sides and may break up; they may be edged with white; ventrum is whitish, uniform or with faint lateral spots. Head with three chevron-shaped marks. Hemipenis extends to the 8th caudal plate, not forked, it is covered with spines all over but the spines are comparatively smaller at the tip and these are more compact in this area; size of the spines increase gradually towards the base of the hemipenis (Image 3.3.4.5a & Fig. 3.3.4.5b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : It is most agile, diurnal snake, inhabiting the masonry work of old buildings and rocky areas around them; it is quite common in plains also. It is very shy and in the habit of concealing, when alarmed. Its feeds on insects, grubs, spiders, small reptiles and their eggs, amphibians, birds and their eggs, small rodents (mice). Oviparous (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are smooth, in 17 rows at the middle of body; ventral shields are from 164 202, angulated laterally; subcaudals 40 59; anal shield divided. Seven supralabials, 3rd and 4th touching the eye; loreal frequently united with the prefrontal; one anterior and temporal (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) Russell s Kukri Snake Type locality : Non given. Vernacular name : Chinna katla paamu. 104

Fig. 3.3.4.5a. Distribution map of Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.5b. Head scalation pattern in Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. Etymology : From the Greek olig- (few), and odon (tooth); meaning with few teeth, and specific epithet derived from Greek taenia meaning band, ribbon and Latin latus meaning side. 105

Synonyms : Coluber taeniolatus Daudin, 1803; Contia transcaspica Nikolsky, 1903; Coronella taeniolata Jerdon, 1853; Xenodon dubium Jerdon, 1853; Oligodon elliotti Günther, 1864; Oligodon elliottii Wall, 1909; Oligodon fasciatus Günther, 1864; Oligodon spilonotus Günther, 1864; Oligodon subgriseum Duméril & Bibron, 1854; Oligodon subgriseus Bethancourtferreira, 1897; Oligodon subgriseus Günther, 1864; Oligodon taeniolatus Wall, 1921 Distribution World : Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Iran (east), Sri Lanka and Turkmenistan (south). India : Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Telangana : Patchily distributed; individuals observed and studied from Khammam, Medak, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.4.5c). Specimens : Kandukuru,, SVL=21.3cm, TL=4cm, TBL=25.3cm studied or examined Description : Small-sized snake, the length never exceeds 650 mm including a short tail (about 10 mm). Males comparatively smaller than females. Head is slightly distinct from the neck; snout is blunt. Dorsal colouration is quite variable and light brown; blackish brown or buff; with narrow cross bars or transverse spots which are rounded or longitudinally elongated; ventrum is yellowish or grayish, may or may not be spotted; a dark band across the head at the level of eyes is present in most of the individuals; nape with W-shaped dark collar. Hemipenis extends to the 11th caudal plate, forked and spinose, the spines are comparatively larger and 106

increase in size gradually towards the base of the organ, distal to the forked portion the organ is smooth with 4 longitudinal folds (Image 3.3.4.5c & Fig. 3.3.4.5d) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.4.5c. Distribution map of Oligodon taeniloatus (Jerdon, 1853) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.5d. Head scalation pattern in Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1857) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 107

Ecology : It is a nocturnal snake, found in varying habitats like clay, sandy desert; rocky areas of foot hills; gardens; in small bushes; under stones and wooden logs and hollow of trees. Its feeds on small reptiles and their eggs, amphibians, birds and their eggs. Oviparous, eggs are laid in late June (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are smooth, in 15 rows at the middle of body, occasionally increasing to 17 rows in the anterior portion and decrease to 13 or 14 rows in posterior part; ventral shields are from 158 218, feebly angulated laterally; subcaudals 29 56; anal shield divided. Seven supralabials, 3rd and 4th touching the eye; one anterior temporal (Fig. 3.3.4.5d) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Least Concern ver 3.1 (Papenfuss et al., 2010). 3.3.4.6 Genus Dendrelaphis Boulenger, 1890 Type species Ahaetulla caudolineata Gray, 1834 Body moderate to long, cylindrical with smooth scales; tail long. Head is elongate, distinct from neck. Maxillary teeth 20 to 34, the posterior 3 or 4 slightly larger. Eyes moderate with round pupil. Loreal region more or less concave. Scales on body in 13 or 15 rows at midbody, smooth and with single apical pit; all except the outer row narrow. Ventrals enlarged with a suture like lateral keel and a notch on each side, corresponding to keel. Subcaudals paired. Approximately 41 species, are found in this genus all over the world (Smith, 1943; David et al., 2008a,b; David et al., 2011; David and Vogel, 2012; Neang et al., 2012). 108

Species of Dendrelaphis Boulenger, 1890 found in Telangana Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) Common Bronzeback Tree Snake Type locality : Hyderabad, Bombay, and Tranquebar (presently Tarangambadi), India. Vernacular name : Chettirika paamu, Chedugu. Etymology : After the Greek dendros meaning tree, elaphe meaning snake, and Latin tristis meaning sad. Synonyms : Coluber tristis Daudin, 1803; Leptophis mancas Bell, 1825; Dendrophis maniar Boie, 1827; Dendrophis scandens Boie, 1827; Chrysopelea boiei Smith, 1836; Chrysopelea boieii Smith, 1837; Dendrophis boii Cantor, 1839; Dendrophis helena Werner, 1893; Dendrolaphis tristis Luard, 1918 Distribution World : Bangladesh, Bhutan, Pakistan, Myanmar, Nepal, India and Sri Lanka. India : Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Telangana : Patchily; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.4.6a). Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=35.1cm, TL=15cm, TBL=50.1cm; studied or OU Habsiguda,, SVL=74.4cm, TL=31.6cm, TBL=106cm; examined OU Tarnaka,, SVL=51.8cm, TL=22.1cm, TBL=73.9cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=68.6cm, TL=29.2cm, TBL=97.8cm; Perantalapally,, SVL=73cm, TL=31cm, TBL=104cm; Gadwal,, SVL=78.2cm, TL=33.2cm, TBL=111.4cm; Kolhapur,, SVL=67.9cm, TL=28.9cm, TBL=96.8cm; 109

Lingala,, SVL=59.2cm, TL=25.2cm, TBL=84.4cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=72.7cm, TL=30.9cm, TBL=103.6cm; Kodad,, SVL=79.8cm, TL=33.9cm, TBL=113.7cm; Sarvail,, SVL=42cm, TL=18cm, TBL=60cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=73.9cm, TL=31.4cm, TBL=105.3cm; Neerukulla,, SVL=53.6cm, TL=22.8cm, TBL=76.4cm Description : Long and slender-bodied snake, the length reaches to a maximum length of 1700 mm; females are larger than the males. Head distinct from neck. Eyes large with round pupil, as long as its distance from the nostril. Maxillary teeth 17 to 22, posterior usually smallest. Snout broadly rounded. Dorsal colouration is bronzy, brownish, or purple- brown; ventrum is greenish, yellowish or grayish; each lateral aspect is with a buff or yellowish band, covering the two outer scale rows; head is with a feeble black temporal stripe, which extends on to the neck, where it is generally breaks up in to vertical bars; upper lip is yellow; in many individuals the eyes are with a yellowish border and vertebral scales of the neck and anterior dorsum are having yellowish tinge. Vertebral scales are feebly enlarged, slightly narrower than the outer scales; the vertebral row of scales commences from the hinder border of parietal shield and as the row extends posteriorly the scales become larger. Hemipenis undivided, extending to the 8th caudal plate; at about the middle of the organ and beside the sulcus there is a prominent tongue of tissue, from which two sinuous folds extend forwards; the area distal to the folds is calyculate, that proximal to it spinose, except the base of the organ, which is plicate (Image 3.3.4.6a & Fig. 3.3.4.6b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : It is most agile, strong climber, shy, timid, diurnal, arboreal species, living in bushes and on trees. It descends on the ground only to capture the food, which consists of frogs, toads, small 110

lizards, small birds and their eggs and insects. Oviparous, lays 3 5 elongated eggs (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.4.6a. Distribution map of Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.6b. Head scalation pattern in Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 111

Scalation : Body scales are smooth, in 15 : 15 : 11 or 9 rows; ventral shields are from 163 497; subcaudals 105 150; anal shield divided. Nine supralabials, 5th and 6th touching the eye; internasals usually a little shorter than the prefrontals; temporals 2+2 (Fig. 3.3.4.6b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 3.3.4.7 Genus Lycodon Boie, 1827 Type species Coluber aulicus Linnaeus, 1758 Head depressed dorso-ventrally, barely set off from body; a relatively small eye with a vertically elliptic pupil; large nostril; an upper maxillary bone both strongly arched and bent inwards anteriorly; anterior maxillary teeth curved, with a gap between the very large anterior teeth and the subsequent ones; dorsal scales smooth or feebly-keeled in 17, 19, or 21 rows at mid-body, and the ventrals rounded (Malkmus et al., 2002). Species of Lycodon Boie, 1827 found in Telangana Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758) Indian Wolf Snake Type locality : America (in error); India (fide Kramer, 1977) Vernacular name : Chinna katla paamu. Etymology : After the Greek lycos meaning wolf, odon meaning tooth, and Latin aulicus meaning a house-dweller. Synonyms : Coluber aulicus Linnaeus, 1758; Natrix aulica Laurenti, 1768; Lycodon atropurpureus Cantor, 1839; Lycodon subfuscus Cantor, 1839; Lycodon unicolour Boie, 1827; Boaedon unicolour Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854; Lycodon aulicum Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854; Ophites aulicus Wall, 1921 112

Key to the species of snakes of the genus Lycodon Boie, 1827 in Telangana 1a. Supralabials 8, Body dark brown or blackish, with white or yellow cross bars from head to tail Lycodon striatus 1b. Supralabials 9 2 2a. White spots forming bands, upper lips white or spotted; ventral scutes angulate laterally Lycodon aulicus 2b. Body brown or grayish without any markings; a prominent yellow collar on the neck region and a yellow band with black border connecting collar and snout tip; ventral scutes not angulate laterally Lycodon flavicollis 113

Distribution World : Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines and Sri Lanka. India : Andaman & Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Telangana : Patchily; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Mahbubnagar and Nalgonda districts (Fig. 3.3.4.7a). Specimens : Jannaram,, SVL=45cm, TL=5cm, TBL=50cm; studied or Kawal,, SVL=52cm, TL=5.3cm, TBL=57.3cm; examined Kawal,, SVL=48cm, TL=4.3cm, TBL=52.3cm; Farahabad,, SVL=76cm, TL=8cm, TBL=84cm; Gandhavarigudem,, SVL=61cm, TL=6.7cm, TBL=67.7cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=69cm, TL=7cm, TBL=76cm Description : Medium sized and slender-bodied snake, the length reaches to a maximum length of 950 mm; females are larger than the males. Head distinct from neck. Snout is spatulate and well beyond the lower jaw. Eyes large with round pupil. The maxillary teeth are arranged in two sets, with an anterior pair of long, fang like teeth, followed by a long diastema and a posterior set of four to twelve smaller teeth, of which the last pair are large. Dorsal colouration is brown or grayish with white or yellow cross bars; ventrum is whitish; upper lip is white or with brown spots. Hemipenis extending to the 10th caudal plate, forked near the tip; the distal 1/3 is calyculate, the calyces being transversely arranged; the remainder of the organ has longitudinal folds which are beset with more or less distinct spines; starting from the calyculate portion of the organ and extending about half way down, are two prominent folds composed of a number of short, fleshy papillae (Image 3.3.4.7a & Fig. 3.3.4.7b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). 114

Fig. 3.3.4.7a. Distribution map of Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Ecology : It is most agile, strong climber, nocturnal, living in and around human habitations. Food consists of frogs, toads, small lizards and mice. Oviparous, lays 3 11 eggs (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.4.7b. Head scalation pattern in Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 115

Scalation : Body scales are smooth, in 17 : 17 : 15 rows; ventral shields are from 172 224, strongly angulate laterally; subcaudals 56 80; anal shield divided (rarely single anal shield possessing individuals are also observed). Anterior and posterior nasals usually subequal; Nine supralabials, 3 to 5 touching the eye; loreal in good contact with the internasal, not touching the eye; 1 preocular; temporals variable, usually 2+3; anterior pair of genials a little larger than the posterior (Fig. 3.3.4.7b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) Barred Wolf Snake Type locality : Vishakhapatnam and Hyderabad, India. Vernacular name : Katla paamu. Etymology : After the Greek lycos meaning wolf, odon meaning tooth, and Latin striatus meaning lined. Synonyms : Coluber striatus Shaw, 1802; Coluber malignus Daudin, 1803; Lycodon galathea Daudin, 1803; Lycodon napei Duméril & Bibron, 1854; Ophites striatus Wall, 1921 Distribution World : Afghanistan, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan (west), Turkmenistan (south), USSR and Uzbekistan India : Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. Telangana : Patchily; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Mahbubnagar and Nalgonda districts (Fig. 3.3.4.7c). Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=23cm, TL=4cm, TBL=27cm; studied or Ippalapally,, SVL=19cm, TL=3.5cm, TBL=22.5cm; 116

examined Gandhavarigudem,, SVL=26cm, TL=5cm, TBL=31cm; Sarvail,, SVL=28cm, TL=5cm, TBL=33cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=32cm, TL=6cm, TBL=38cm Fig. 3.3.4.7c. Distribution map of Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.7d. Head scalation pattern in Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 117

Description : Medium-sized and slender-bodied snake, the length reaches to a maximum length of 430 mm; females are larger than the males. Head slightly distinct from the neck. Snout is blunt almost two times wider than its height, projects beyond the lower jaw. Eyes large with round pupil. Dorsal colouration is dark brown or blackish, with white or yellow cross-bars from head to tail, which expand laterally and enclose triangular spots in the anterior part of the body, a white bar on the nape is generally present (in many individuals it is not present); upper lips and ventral parts are white. Hemipenis extends up to the 10th caudal plate, forked near the tip; the most of the organ has longitudinal folds which having more or less distinct spines, papillae are fleshy (Image 3.3.4.7c & Fig. 3.3.4.7d) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : It is a secretive, shy, timid, nocturnal species, generally found near agriculture fields by the side of canals and other such moist places. It feeds on frogs, toads and small lizards. Oviparous, lays 2 4 elongated eggs in July and August (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are smooth with apical pits, in 17 : 17 : 15 rows; ventral shields are from 160 230, strongly angulate laterally; subcaudals 35 50; anal shield divided. Anterior nasals usually larger than the posterior. Eight supralabials, 3 to 5 or 4th and 5th touching the eye; loreal in contact with the internasal, not touching the eye; 1 preocular; Post oculars2; temporals 2+3 (rarely 1+2); anterior pair of genials a little larger than the posterior (Fig. 3.3.4.7d) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 118

Lycodon flavicollis Mukherjee & Bhupathy, 2007 Yellow collared Wolf Snake Type locality : Mangarai village located on the periphery of the Anaikatti Reserve Forest (600 m elevation 11 05 N 76 47 E), Western Ghats, Coimbatore District, Tamil Nadu State, south-western India. Vernacular name : Not known. Etymology : After the Greek lycos meaning wolf, odon meaning tooth, and Synonyms : None. Latin flatus meaning yellow and Collis meaning neck. Distribution World : Endemic to India. India : Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra. Telangana : Patchily distributed and rarely encountered; vouchers observed and studied from Hyderabad district (Fig. 3.3.4.7e). Fig. 3.3.4.7e. Distribution map of Lycodon flavicollis Mukherjee & Bhupathy, 2007 in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. 119

Specimens : Seetaphalmandi, unknown, SVL=35cm, TL=4cm, TBL=39cm studied or examined Description : Medium-sized and slender-bodied snake, the length reaches to a maximum length of 440 mm; females are larger than the males. Head slightly distinct from neck. Snout is blunt almost two times wider than its height, projects beyond the lower jaw. Eyes large with round pupil. Dorsal colouration is brown or grayish without any markings; ventrum is whitish. A prominent yellow collar on the neck region and a yellow band with black border connecting collar and snout tip characteristic. Hemipenis not forked at the tip and lacks spines, papillae are fleshy (Image 3.3.4.7e & Fig. 3.3.4.7f) (Mukherjee & Bhupathy, 2007). Ecology : It is most agile, strong climber, shy, timid, diurnal, arboreal species, living in bushes and on trees. It descends on the ground only to capture the food, which consists of small lizards, toads and frogs, small birds and their eggs and insects. Oviparous. Scalation : Body scales are smooth with single apical pit, in 17 : 17 : 15 rows; ventral shields are from 210 224, not angulate laterally; subcaudals 65 72; anal shield divided. Anterior nasals usually larger than the posterior. nine supralabials, 3 to 5 touching the eye; loreal in contact with the internasal, not touching the eye; 1 preocular; temporals 2+3; anterior pair of genials a little larger than the posterior (Fig. 3.3.4.7f ) (Mukherjee & Bhupathy, 2007). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 120

Fig. 3.3.4.7f. Head scalation pattern in Lycodon flavicollis Mukherjee & Bhupathy, 2007 showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 3.3.4.8 Genus Boiga Fitzinger, 1826 Type species Coluber irregularis Bechstein, 1802 The body moderate, more or less compressed; tail moderate to long. Head triangular and distinct from neck. Maxillary teeth 10 to 14, subequal in size, followed by 2 or 3 enlarged grooved fangs; palatine teeth often strongly enlarged. Eyes large with vertically pupil. Scales on body in 19 to 29 rows at midbody, smooth and with single apical pit. Ventrals rounded or obtusely angulate laterally. Subcaudals paired. Approximately 32 species are known all over the world (Uetz and Hošek, 2014). Species of Boiga Fitzinger, 1826 found in Telangana Boiga forsteni (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854) Forsten s Cat Snake Type locality : Unknown. Vernacular name : Chinna katla paamu. 121

Etymology : Boiga, possibly refers to a snake, no meaning known; the specific nomen is in honour of Mr. Forsten, the collector of the snake. Synonyms : Triglyphodon forsteni Duméril, 1854; Triglyphodon tessellatum Duméril, 1854; Dipsas forsteni Günther, 1864; Dipsas forsteni ceylonensis Anderson, 1871; Dipsadomorphus forsteni Boulenger, 1890 Distribution World : India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. India : Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. Telangana : Rare; the species was reported only from Mahbubnagar district (Fig. 3.3.4.8a). Specimens : None, only based on published information. studied or examined Description : Long snake, the length reaches to a maximum length of 2310 mm; females are larger than the males (up to 2150 mm long). Head distinct from neck. Snout is spatulate and well beyond the lower jaw. Eyes large with round pupil; diameter of the eye not twice its distance from the mouth. Maxillary teeth 10 to 12+2; anterior palatine teeth strongly enlarged. Dorsal colouration is uniformly brown or reddish-brown or with regular, angular black spots or cross bars, with white spots between them; this type of colour pattern is comparatively more distinct on the anterior part of the body and posteriorly may be replaced by a chequered pattern; a black stripe is present on head, which emerges from the frontal shield and reaches up to nape, and two more such stripes are present on the nape just parallel to it; a broad black stripe emerges from the eye and reaches to the angle of the mouth; in many individuals which possess the dark markings on the body, the 122

Key to the species of snakes of the genus Boiga Fitzinger, 1826 in Telangana 1a. Preocular 1, reaching the dorsal surface of the head; 2 3 postoculars Boiga forsteni 1b. Preocular 1, not reaching the dorsal surface of the head; 2 postoculars Boiga trigonata Fig. 3.3.4.8a. Distribution map of Boiga forsteni (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. 123

labials are marked with distinct black spots on sutures; ventrum (belly) is whitish in those snakes, which possess a uniform dorsal colouration, otherwise in most of the other individuals it is densely spotted with brown; the lateral keels are generally white. Hemipenis extends up to the 12th caudal shield, the distal half of the penis is calyculate; the cups are large, longer than broad, with scalloped but not spinose edges; the remainder of the hemipenis has crenate longitudinal folds, the two zones of the penis are clearly demarcated and distinct from one another (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : It is a nocturnal, arboreal terrestrial species dwelling in small to medium bushes, scrubby vegetation and also on tall trees with profuse branching. It feeds chiefly on the lizards, small mammals, birds and their eggs and large insects. It also shows preference to poultry and pigeons. The prey is killed by constriction. Oviparous; breeding season is from April to August, generally 7-9 eggs are laid in a single clutch (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are keeled, in 25 or 27 : 27 or 29 : 17 rows; vertebral scales are feebly or in some individuals enlarged (the degree of enlargement of vertebrals varies even in the same individual); ventral shields are from 254-273, with a distinctively prominent lateral keel; subcaudals 102-119; anal shield is not divided. Eight to 11 supralabials, 3rd, 4th and 5th or 4th, 5th and 6th touching the eye; 1 preocular, reaching the upper surface of the head; temporals small, 3+3 or 3+4; genials variable in size, the posterior pair generally separated from one another by small scales (Fig. 3.3.4.8b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Least Concern ver 3.1 (de Silva and Vyas, 2010). 124

Fig. 3.3.4.8b. Head scalation pattern in Boiga forsteni (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. Boiga trigonata (Schneider, 1802) Indian Cat Snake Type locality : Vishakhapatnam (fide Kramer, 1977) Vernacular name : Chinna katla paamu. Etymology : Boiga, possibly refers to a snake, no meaning known; and Greek trigona meaning triangle. Synonyms : Coluber trigonatus Schneider, 1802; Coluber sagittatus Shaw, 1802; Coluber catenularis Daudin, 1803; Dipsas trigonata Duméril, 1854; Dipsadomorphus trigonatus Boulenger, 1896; Dipsadomorphus trigonata melanocephalus Annandale, 1904; Boiga trigonatum Nikolsky, 1916; Boiga trigonatus Das, 1996 Distribution World : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Iran, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. 125

India : Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Punjab, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Telangana : Patchily distrbuted; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Khammam, Nalgonda and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.4.8c). Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=40cm, TL=8cm, TBL=48cm; studied or Kawal,, SVL=66.3cm, TL=12.4cm, TBL=78.7cm; examined Gokinepally,, SVL=51.2cm, TL=9.9cm, TBL=61.1cm; Nelakondapally,, SVL=62.4cm, TL=11.7cm, TBL=74.1cm; Nellipaka,, SVL=65.3cm, TL=12.2cm, TBL=77.5cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=68.8cm, TL=12.8cm, TBL=81.6cm; Madhavaram,, SVL=61.9cm, TL=11.7cm, TBL=73.6cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=56.2cm, TL=10.7cm, TBL=66.9cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=65.2cm, TL=12.2cm, TBL=77.4cm; Description : A long snake, the length reaches to a maximum length of 1200 mm; females are larger than the males (up to 1000 mm long). Head distinct from neck. Snout is spatulate and well beyond the lower jaw. Eyes large with round pupil; diameter of the eye not twice its distance from the mouth. Maxillary teeth 8 to 10+2; anterior palatine teeth not strongly enlarged. Dorsal colouration is grayish-brown, with two alternating series of large, rounded or oval, dark-brown, generally light-edged, spots, and two other series of much smaller spots on the sides of the body; in many individuals small vertebral spots are present; dorsal aspect of head is with two broad dark brown or black longitudinal stripes, which diverge posteriorly, nape is with a longitudinal mark; a stripe emerges from the eye and reach up to the angle of mouth; ventrum is whitish, marbled or spotted with brown, and most individuals are with a series of brown spots along each side of the belly. Hemipenis extends up to the 10th, 11th or 12th caudal shield, the distal half of the penis is calyculate; the cups bear thick, fleshy 126

walls; on the ventral aspect of the hemipenis coarse, fleshy spines are present in 16 lateral series; the proximal half of the hemipenis is devoid of spines, thus exposing the tip distinctly (Image 3.3.4.8c & Fig. 3.3.4.8d) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.4.8c. Distribution map of Boiga trigonata (Schneider, 1802) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.8d. Head scalation pattern in Boiga trigonata (Schneider, 1802) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect, and rostrum and C. ventral aspect. 127

Ecology : It is a nocturnal, arboreal terrestrial species dwelling in small to medium bushes, scrub vegetation and also on tall trees with profuse branching. It feeds chiefly on the garden lizards and other members of the genus Calotes; food occasionally supplemented by small mammals, birds and their eggs and large insects. The prey is killed by constriction. Oviparous; breeding season is from April to August, generally 6 12 eggs are laid in a single clutch. The snake is most aggressive and jumps on the intruder (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are keeled, in 21 : 21 : 15 rows; vertebral scales are slightly enlarged; ventral shields are 206-256, with a distinctively prominent lateral keel; subcaudals 75-96; anal shield is not divided. Eight to 11 supralabials, 3rd, 4th and 5th or 4th, 5th and 6th touching the eye; 1 preocular, not reaching the upper surface of the head; temporals 2+3; posterior genials as long as, or longer than, the anterior, separated from one another by small scales (Fig. 3.3.4.8d ) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Least Concern ver 3.1 (Papenfuss et al., 2010). 3.3.4.9 Genus Ahaetulla Link, 1807 Type species Coluber mycterizans Linnaeus, 1758 The body is very long and compressed; tail very long. Head elongate and distinct from neck, with strong canthus rostralis and concave lores. Maxillary teeth 12 to 15, the anterior 6 or 7 gradually enlarge, the last 2 are enlarged grooved fangs. Eyes large, transversely oval with horizontal pupil. Scales on body in 15 rows at midbody, smooth and disposed obliquely, vertebral row slightly enlarged. Ventrals rounded or with an obtuse lateral keel. Subcaudals paired. Approximately 8 species are found worldwide (Roskov et al., 2014). Six species belonging to this genus are found in India. 128

Species of Ahaetulla Link, 1807 found in Telangana Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) Common Vine Snake Type locality : Ceylon. Vernacular name : Pasarika paamu, Botla pasarika paamu and Pastiletti. Etymology : From the ehetula in Sinhala (Sri Lanka) meaning eye plucker, and Latin nasutus meaning large-nosed. Synonyms : Coluber nasutus Lacépède, 1789 (ambiguous); Dryophis nasuta Lacépède, 1789; Coluber mycterizans Russell, 1796; Ahaetulla mycterizans Link, 1807; Dryinus nasutus Merrem, 1820; Dryinus oxyrhynchus Bell, 1825; Dryinus russellianus Bell, 1825; Dryophis hammatorhynchus Fitzinger, 1826; Dryiophis nasuta Schlegel, 1837; Dryinus fuscus Duméril, 1854; Dryophis mycterizans Boulenger, 1890; Dryophis mycterizans cineroventer Wall, 1908; Dryophis mycterizans lepidorostralis Wall, 1908; Dryophis mycterizans rhodogaster Wall, 1908; Dryophis mycterizans tephrogaster Wall, 1908; Dryophis mycterizans isabellinus Wall, 1910; Dryophis mycterizans rhodonotus Wall, 1921; Passerita nasuta Cochran, 1930; Dryophis nasutus Smith, 1943; Ahaetulla nasutus Sharma, 2004 Distribution World : Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam. India : Practically throughout India, Andaman & Nicobar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal and West Bengal. Telangana : Distributed throughout the state; vouchers observed and studied 129

from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.4.9a). Specimens : Bhainsa,, SVL=55cm, TL=35cm, TBL=90cm; studied or Jannaram,, SVL=76.9cm, TL=56cm, TBL=132.9cm; examined Kawal,, SVL=64.4cm, TL=44cm, TBL=108.4cm; Kawal,, SVL=73.7cm, TL=52.9cm, TBL=126.6cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=76.1cm, TL=55.3cm, TBL=131.4cm; Kaleswaram,, SVL=79cm, TL=58cm, TBL=137cm; Mahadevpur,, SVL=73.3cm, TL=52.5cm, TBL=125.8cm; Tadicherla,, SVL=68.5cm, TL=47.9cm, TBL=116.4cm; Kinnerasani,, SVL=76cm, TL=55.1cm, TBL=131.1cm; Kunavaram,, SVL=79.9cm, TL=58.9cm, TBL=138.8cm; Nellipaka,, SVL=58.9cm, TL=38.7cm, TBL=97.6cm; Paloncha,, SVL=76.6cm, TL=55.7cm, TBL=132.3cm; Sriramagiri,, SVL=65.3cm, TL=44.9cm, TBL=110.2cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=68.3cm, TL=47.8cm, TBL=116.1cm; Appapur,, SVL=55.3cm, TL=35.3cm, TBL=90.6cm; Farahabad,, SVL=58.3cm, TL=38.2cm, TBL=96.5cm; Kalwakurthy,, SVL=64.1cm, TL=43.8cm, TBL=107.9cm; Kolhapur,, SVL=70.3cm, TL=49.7cm, TBL=120cm; Mannanur,, SVL=64.3cm, TL=43.9cm, TBL=108.2cm; Sadasivpet,, SVL=55.9cm, TL=35.9cm, TBL=91.8cm; Siddipet,, SVL=64.6cm, TL=44.2cm, TBL=108.8cm; Toopran,, SVL=63.4cm, TL=43.1cm, TBL=106.5cm; Devarakonda,, SVL=78.8cm, TL=57.8cm, TBL=136.6cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=76.5cm, TL=55.7cm, TBL=132.2cm; Gundrampalli,, SVL=74.8cm, TL=54cm, TBL=128.8cm; Kodad,, SVL=73.2cm, TL=52.5cm, TBL=125.7cm; Mothkur,, SVL=58.3cm, TL=38.2cm, TBL=96.5cm; Sarvail,, SVL=69.6cm, TL=49cm, TBL=118.6cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=75.5cm, TL=54.7cm, TBL=130.2cm; Balkonda,, SVL=57.4cm, TL=37.3cm, TBL=94.7cm; 130

Kamareddy,, SVL=68.3cm, TL=47.8cm, TBL=116.1cm; Lingampet,, SVL=61.1cm, TL=40.8cm, TBL=101.9cm; Pocharam,, SVL=58.8cm, TL=38.6cm, TBL=97.4cm; Rudrur,, SVL=67.3cm, TL=46.8cm, TBL=114.1cm; Yellareddy,, SVL=60.5cm, TL=40.3cm, TBL=100.8cm; Chengicherla,, SVL=66.2cm, TL=45.7cm, TBL=111.9cm; Ibrahimpatnam,, SVL=55.9cm, TL=35.8cm, TBL=91.7cm; Medchal,, SVL=66.8cm, TL=46.3cm, TBL=113.1cm; Nalla Cheruvu Uppal,, SVL=57cm, TL=36.9cm, TBL=93.9cm; Thukkuguda,, SVL=65.1cm, TL=44.7cm, TBL=109.8cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=74.4cm, TL=53.6cm, TBL=128cm; Mahabubabad,, SVL=74.8cm, TL=54cm, TBL=128.8cm Description : Thin-bodied, long, laterally compressed snake, the length reaches up to a maximum length of 2660 mm; females are larger than the males (up to 1855 mm long). Head is distinct from the neck; snout is long, acuminate and terminates in a dermal beak shaped appendage, which is quite variable, shorter than the eye; snout bears a median groove above and is formed by the rostral and possesses small scales at the base; length of the snout without the dermal appendage is 2.5 to 3 times that of the eye. Maxillary teeth 12 to 15 anterior 6 or 7 gradually enlarged and posterior last two enlarged grooved fangs. Dorsal colouration is verdant green, the interstitial skin is black and white, forming oblique lines which are most distinct with a white or yellow line is present along the outer margin of the ventrals; in certain individuals lips are yellowish; throat is white; with a faint blue tinge. Many individuals exhibit remarkable colour variations as they may be coloured in yellow, brown or buff dorsally. The belly may be grayish or rosy, some of the rare individuals are coloured profusely with pink, a yellow line along the outer margin of the ventrals, chin, throat and supralabials. Hemipenis is short, not forked, the distal end of the penis is calyculate; the cups are with scalloped edge, merges gradually with a spine bearing area, at the 131

end of which there are few enormous spines, proximal to the spines, there are longitudinal folds (Image 3.3.4.9a & Fig. 3.3.4.9b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : It is an agile, arboreal and diurnal species is dwelling in dense clusters and branching of the vegetation. It feeds chiefly on the lizards, small mammals, birds, small snakes and amphibians. Viviparous, gives birth to 3-22 young at a time; breeding is observed from March to December (Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are smooth, in 15 : 15 : 11 rows; vertebral scales are enlarged; ventral shields are from 166-207, with a distinct lateral notch; subcaudals 156-180 in males and 135-152 in females; anal shield is divided. Eight supralabials, 3rd, 4th (or divided in to form 1 or 2 presuboculars) and 5th touching the eye; no loreal; the internasals and prefrontals in contact with the labials; 1 preocular, in contact with frontal; 2 post oculars; temporals 1+2 or 2+2; anterior pairs of genials shorter than the posterior (Fig. 3.3.4.9b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 3.3.5 Family Natricidae Oppel, 1811 Type genus Natrix Laurenti, 1768 Earlier included under family Colubridae, currently considered different. These have broad head and keeled scales. Like the colubrids, these have enlarged and/or grooved posterior maxillary teeth, which channel venom from the supralabial (Duvernoy s) gland, and are also referred to as rear fanged snakes. Envenomation is effected by chewing rather than by injection (McDowell, 1987). Palatomaxillary arch 132

Fig. 3.3.4.9a. Distribution map of Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.4.9b. Head scalation pattern in Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. 133

complete, coronoid absent. Right carotid artery absent. Facial bones movable. No premaxillary teeth. Hemipenis symmetrical; spinous with enlarged basal hook or hooks. Simplex retina, vidian canal generally short, alevator oris muscle absent. Natricids are reported from most of Asia, North Africa and North America (McDiarmid et al., 1999). This family is represented by 222 species worldwide. In India, this family is represented by about 10 species. In Telangana, this family is represented by four species (Table 3.1). 3.3.5.1 Genus Amphiesma Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854 Type species Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) The body is slender and elongated. Head is quite distinct from neck. Maxillary teeth 19 to 25, continuous and gradually increasing in size. Eyes large with round pupils; nostrils lateral, internasals broad anteriorly. Body scales in 19 rows and are keeled. Hemipenis and sulci spermaticus are simple. Forty two species belonging to this genus are known from Southern and Eastern Asia (McDiarmid et al., 1999). Twelve species of this genus are recorded from India. Species of Amphiesma Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854 found in Telangana Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) Buff Striped Keelback Type locality : India (Kramer, 1977). Vernacular name : Vaana koila, Wana pam and Wanapa pam. Etymology : After the Greek Amphiesma meaning a garment and stolatus meaning dressed. Synonyms : Coluber stolatus Linnaeus, 1758; Elaps bilineatus Schneider, 1801; Natrix stolatus Merrem, 1820; Tropidonotus stolatus Boie, 1827; Tropidonotus stolbatus Kelaart, 1854; Tropidonotus 134

ruficeps Peters, 1869; Natrix stolata Stejneger, 1907; Amphiesma stolata Wall, 1921; Rhabdophis stolatus Wall, 1921; Natrix stolata chinensis Mell, 1930; Amphiesma stolata chinensis Chanard, 1999 Key to the species of snakes of the family Natricidae Oppel, 1811 in Telangana 1a. Maxillary teeth equal in size Xenochrophis piscator 1b. Posterior maxillary teeth are longest 2 2a. One internasal shield is present Atretium schistosum 2b. Two internasal shields are present 3 3a. 19 25 maxillary teeth are present in a continuous series gradually become larger posterior by or the last two teeth are abruptly enlarged Amphiesma stolatum 3b. 11 18 maxillary teeth are present which are followed by a pair of very long fangs separated from the other teeth by short diastema Macropisthodon plumbicolor 135

Distribution World : Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand and Viet Nam. India : Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh; and also doubtfully in Andaman islands. Telangana : Practically throughout; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.5.1a). Specimens : Bhainsa,, SVL=30cm, TL=5cm, TBL=35cm; studied or Jannaram,, SVL=43.1cm, TL=11.1cm, TBL=54.2cm; examined Kawal,, SVL=35.6cm, TL=7.6cm, TBL=43.2cm; Kawal,, SVL=41.2cm, TL=10.2cm, TBL=51.4cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=42.7cm, TL=10.9cm, TBL=53.6cm; Mahadevpur,, SVL=44.4cm, TL=11.7cm, TBL=56.1cm; Tadicherla,, SVL=41cm, TL=10.1cm, TBL=51.1cm; Kunavaram,, SVL=38.1cm, TL=8.8cm, TBL=46.9cm; Sriramagiri,, SVL=42.6cm, TL=10.9cm, TBL=53.5cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=44.9cm, TL=12cm, TBL=56.9cm; Gadwal,, SVL=32.3cm, TL=6.1cm, TBL=38.4cm; Kalwakurthy,, SVL=43cm, TL=11.1cm, TBL=54.1cm; Padra,, SVL=36.2cm, TL=7.9cm, TBL=44.1cm; Alisagar,, SVL=38cm, TL=8.7cm, TBL=46.7cm; Narsapur,, SVL=30.2cm, TL=5.1cm, TBL=35.3cm; Nizamsagar,, SVL=32cm, TL=5.9cm, TBL=37.9cm; Pocharam,, SVL=35.5cm, TL=7.6cm, TBL=43.1cm; Sriramsagar Project,, SVL=39.2cm, TL=9.3cm, TBL=48.5cm; Sarvail,, SVL=35.6cm, TL=7.6cm, TBL=43.2cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=30.6cm, TL=5.3cm, TBL=35.9cm; Nadargul,, SVL=35.7cm, TL=7.7cm, TBL=43.4cm; 136

Nalla Cheruvu, Uppal,, SVL=35cm, TL=7.3cm, TBL=42.3cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=44.3cm, TL=11.7cm, TBL=56cm; Mahabubabad,, SVL=42.9cm, TL=11cm, TBL=53.9cm; Mulugu,, SVL=41.9cm, TL=10.5cm, TBL=52.4cm; Neerukulla,, SVL=40.9cm, TL=10.1cm, TBL=51cm; Tadwai,, SVL=32cm, TL=5.9cm, TBL=37.9cm Fig. 3.3.5.1a. Distribution map of Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Description : The buff striped keelback reaches to a length of about 350 mm (males are comparatively shorter). Body elongated and cylindrical; tail is short. Body scales are keeled and the scale tips more or less distinctly bidentate. Dorsal colouration is olivaceous or olive-brown or somewhat greenish; with a pair of pale yellow stripes, which sometimes break up in to spots in the anterior region of the body; the space between these stripes is with darkbrown to black spots, which are extremely distinct in the anterior region( on the hinder part of the body the stripes are best marked and the black spots least evident); dorsal aspect of head is with a tinge of bluish gray colour on olive background, frontal and 137

parietal region is with a black border; there is a black V-shaped mark on the neck; black streaks are present, in front and underside of the eye and from postocular to angle of mouth; top of head olive, uniform or the shields edged with black; ventrum is whitish, somewhat creamy, in most scales small black spots are present at the tips of the ventral shields. Maxillary teeth 21 to 24, the last two strongly and abruptly enlarged. Nostrils directed slightly upwards. Hemipenis extends up to the 8th caudal plate, forked at anterior tip, spines are present on the complete organ except at the basal part; no basal spines Image 3.3.5.1a & Fig. 3.3.5.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : This diurnal terrestrial snake is found in moist grassy areas, under stones, under wooden logs, grassy plots, under the fallen leaves of trees and in gardens. It is a gentle snake and never makes an attempt to bite even on mishandling. Its food comprises frogs, toads, small mammals and lizards. It has been reported for laying eggs in May, generally it lays about 10 eggs in a single clutch, the incubation period is about 20 days (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are keeled, except the outermost row which is smooth, in 19 rows (some individuals possess 17 rows); ventral shields are 118 158; subcaudal shields 50 89; anal shield divided. Internasals much narrowed anteriorly, as long, or nearly as long, as the prefrontals; frontal constricted in the middle, twice as long as broad; 1 preocular; temporals 1 + 1 or 1 + 2; supralabials normally 8, 3rd, 4th and 5th touching the eye (Fig. 3.3.5.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). 138

Fig. 3.3.5.1b. Head scalation pattern in Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 3.3.5.2 Genus Atretium Cope, 1861 Type species Coluber schistosus Daudin, 1803 The body is cylindrical. Head is slightly distinct from neck. Maxillary teeth 19 to 24, posterior one is larger. Eyes moderate with round pupils; nostrils valvular, slit-like, directed rather upwards, in a completely or incompletely divided nasal. Internasal single. Body scales in 19 rows and are keeled without apical pits. Ventrals rounded and subcaudals paired. Anal divided. Two species belonging to this genus are known from Southern and Eastern Asia (McDiarmid et al., 1999). One species of this genus recorded from India. Species of Atretium Cope, 1861found in Telangana Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803) Olive Keelback Water Snake Type locality : None given. 139

Vernacular name : Vaana koila, Wana pam and Wanapa pam. Etymology : Origin of Atretium not known, probably a snake, specific name after Latin schistosa meaning divided. Synonyms : Coluber schistosus Daudin, 1803; Tropidonotus moestus Cantor, 1839; Tropidonotus surgens Cantor, 1839; Tropidonotus schistosus Duméril, 1854; Helicops schistosus Boulenger, 1890 Distribution World : Endemic to South Asia, India, Nepal and Sri Lanka. India : Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal. Telangana : Although found throughout, individuals reported only from Nalgonda district (Fig. 3.3.5.2a). Specimens : None; based on museum collection. studied or examined Description : The Olive keelback reaches to a length of about 845mm (males are comparatively shorter, growing up to 550mm). Body elongated and cylindrical; tail is moderate. Body scales are keeled and prominently so on the posterior part of the body tail. Dorsal colour is olive brown or slaty gray uniform or with two series of small black spots along the back; a more or less distinct dark lateral streak sometimes present; upper lip and outer row of scales yellow. A narrow reddish line down the body on scale rows 4 and 5, or 5 and 6 often present (Wall, 1921; Deraniyagala, 1955); ventrum is yellowish. Hemipenis is forked at the junction of the distal 1/3 and proximal 2/3, complete organ is spinose and calyculate; the calyces are thick walled and look like a honeycomb; the spines are small and present on the floor of the calyces (Image 3.3.5.2a & Fig. 3.3.5.2b) (Smith, 1943; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). 140

Fig. 3.3.5.2a. Distribution map of Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.5.2b. Head scalation pattern in Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. Ecology : Crepuscular in nature; rarely found in the water, seen on small bushes. It is a gentle snake and never makes an attempt to bite. Its food comprises frogs, tadpoles, fish, crabs also known to eat 141

mosquito larvae. Oviparous, breeding season being monsoon, lays clutches of 10 to 32 eggs in the months of January to April (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are keeled, in 19 : 19 : 17 rows; ventral shields are 128 161; subcaudal shields 53 85; anal shield divided. Internasals longer than the suture between the prefrontals; rostral broader than high, visible from above; frontal twice as long as broad, much longer than its distance from the end of the snout, not twice as broad as the supraocular; loreal, subquadrangular, about as long as high; anterior genials shorter than the posterior; 1 preocular; 2 postoculars; temporals 2+1, 2+2 or 2+3; supralabials 8 or 9, 3rd and 4th, or 4th and 5th touching the eye (Fig. 3.3.5.2b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Least Concern ver 3.1 (de Silva, 2010.). 3.3.5.3 Genus Macropisthodon Boulenger, 1893 Type species Amphiesma flaviceps Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854 The body is slightly stout. Head is distinct from neck. Maxillary teeth 11 to 18, followed by very large backwardly pointed fangs, serrated from others by a short interval. Eyes moderate with round pupils; Body scales in 19 27 rows and strongly keeled with apical pits. Ventrals rounded; subcaudals paired. Hypapophyses developed throughout the vertebral column. All the species of the genus have the habit of flattening the neck and anterior body part and of adopting an erect cobra-like attitude. Four species belonging to this genus are known from South Asia (McDiarmid et al., 1999). One species of this genus recorded from India. 142

Species of Macropisthodon Boulenger, 1893 found in Telangana Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) Green Keelback Type locality : Malwa [Saugor], Central India. Vernacular name : Vaana koila, Wana pam and Wanapa pam. Etymology : After the Greek makros meaning great or large, opisthe meaning back, odous meaning tooth and plumbum meaning lead and kolor meaning colour. Synonyms : Tropidonotus plumbicolor Cantor, 1839; Trigonocephalus ellioti Jerdon, 1853 (fide Smith, 1943); Xenodon viridis Duméril & Bibron, 1854 (fide Smith, 1943); Amphiesma brachyurum Jan, 1865 (fide Smith, 1943); Tropidonotus plumbicolor Boulenger, 1890 Distribution World : India, Myanmar, Pakistan (possibly) and Sri Lanka. India : Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. Telangana : Patchinly distributed; vouchers observed and studied from Hyderabad, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy districts (Fig. 3.3.5.3a). Specimens : Farahabad,, SVL=29cm, TL=9cm, TBL=38cm; studied or Mannanur,, SVL=24.7cm, TL=9.4cm, TBL=34.1cm; examined ANGROU,, SVL=17cm, TL=3.5cm, TBL=20.5cm; Kulkacharla,, SVL=14cm, TL=4cm, TBL=18cm Description : The green keelback snake reaches to a length of about 940 mm (males are comparatively shorter, growing up to 750 mm). Body is stout, elongated and cylindrical; tail is small. Head, rather broad, is distinct from the neck; eyes are moderately large with 143

round pupil. Nostril between two nasals. Body scales are strongly keeled and the outermost two rows are made up of large and smooth scales. Maxillary teeth 11 or 12 +2. Dorsal colouration is greenish with yellow tinge or olive green with faint irregular black cross lines; dorsal aspect of head with two black inverted V- shaped marks, the intervening space being bright yellow or orange; ventrum is whitish-gray or dark gray with black spots; juveniles are distinctly coloured but as the age increases the snake becomes grass-green in life or olive brown (plumbicolor) in alcohol, with the advancement of the age the black markings completely disappear. Hemipenis reaches up to the 15th caudal plate, forked opposite the 9th plate, it is strongly plicate and bears spines all over, spines towards the tip of the hemipenis are comparatively smaller, the vertebral gland extends to the whole length of the body (Image 3.3.5.3a & Fig. 3.3.5.3b) (Smith, 1943; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : Nocturnal or crepuscular; terrestrial snake lives under stones, under wooden logs, grassy plots, under the fallen leafs of trees, in gardens and occasionally it enters houses. It is a gentle and timid snake. Its food comprises frogs and toads. Breeding season starts in April and extends up to July or August. It generally lays 8-14 eggs in a single clutch (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are strongly keeled, in 21 or 22 or 23 or 25 : 21-27 : 17 or 18 or 19 rows (the scales in the neck region exhibit plenty of variations, scales may be enlarged, may be paired, there may be a vertebral series of very small scales); ventral shields are 144-162; subcaudal shields 34-48, divided; anal shield divided (in some individuals, it is undivided). Internasal as long, or nearly as long, as the prefrontals; loreal often united with the lower preocular; 2 preoculars; 3 or 4 postoculars; temporals 2+3; supralabials 7, 3rd and 4th touching the eye; anterior genials shorter than the posterior (Fig. 3.3.5.3b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker 144

& Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.5.3a. Distribution map of Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.5.3b. Head scalation pattern in Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 145

3.3.5.4 Genus Xenochrophis Günther, 1864 Type species Psammophis cerasogaster Cantor, 1839 The body is cylindrical; Head is quite distinct from neck. Eyes are moderately large with round pupils; nostrils dorsolateral, pierced into a single nasal, directed outwardly upward; Body scales in 19 or 17 rows and are strongly keeled, without apical pits. Ventrals somewhat rounded; tail moderately long, subcaudal shields are divided. Hemipenis and sulci spermaticus forked. Thirteen species belonging to this genus are known from Southern and Eastern Asia (McDiarmid et al., 1999). Seven species of this genus recorded from India. Species of Xenochrophis Günther, 1864 found in Telangana Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) Checkered Keelback Type locality : East Indies. Vernacular name : Neeru katte pam. Etymology : Named after the Greek xenos meaning strange, ochros meaning pale yellow, ophis meaning serpent and Latin piscator meaning fisherman. Synonyms : Hydrus Piscator Schneider, 1799; Natrix piscator Merrem, 1820; Tropidonotus quincunciatus Schlegel, 1837; Coluber quincunciatus Schlegel, 1837 (fide Duméril et al., 1854); Tropidonotus quincunciatus Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854; Tropidonotus quincunciatus Günther, 1859; Amphiesma flavipunctatum Hallowell, 1861; Tropidonotus piscator Boulenger, 1893; Natrix piscator Stejneger, 1907; Tropidonotus piscator Wall, 1908; Nerodia (Tropidonotus) piscator Wall, 1921; Natrix piscator Smith, 1943; Natrix piscator Tweedie, 1954 146

Distribution World : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia (West), Myanmar, Taiwan, Thailand, and Viet Nam. India : Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. Telangana : Found throughout the state; vouchers observed and studied from the districts of Adilabad, Hyderabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Ranga Reddy and Warangal (Fig. 3.3.5.4a). Fig. 3.3.5.4a. Distribution map of Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Specimens : Bhainsa,, SVL=30.1cm, TL=10cm, TBL=40.1cm; studied or Jannaram,, SVL=91.3cm, TL=27.5cm, TBL=118.8cm; examined Kawal,, SVL=56.2cm, TL=17.5cm, TBL=73.7cm; Kawal,, SVL=82.2cm, TL=24.9cm, TBL=107.1cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=89.1cm, TL=26.9cm, TBL=116cm; 147

Mahadevpur,, SVL=97.1cm, TL=29.2cm, TBL=126.3cm; Manthani,, SVL=81.1cm, TL=24.6cm, TBL=105.7cm; Musthapur,, SVL=67.7cm, TL=20.8cm, TBL=88.5cm; Shivaram WLS,, SVL=88.7cm, TL=26.8cm, TBL=115.5cm; Tadicherla,, SVL=99.7cm, TL=29.9cm, TBL=129.6cm; Vemulawada,, SVL=40.9cm, TL=13.1cm, TBL=54cm; Kunavaram,, SVL=90.5cm, TL=27.3cm, TBL=117.8cm; Nelakondapally,, SVL=58.9cm, TL=18.3cm, TBL=77.2cm; Sriramagiri,, SVL=67.3cm, TL=20.7cm, TBL=88cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=30.9cm, TL=10.3cm, TBL=41.2cm; Wyra,, SVL=39.2cm, TL=12.6cm, TBL=51.8cm; Gadwal,, SVL=55.6cm, TL=17.3cm, TBL=72.9cm; Lingala,, SVL=73cm, TL=22.3cm, TBL=95.3cm; Gandhavarigudem,, SVL=56cm, TL=17.4cm, TBL=73.4cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=32.6cm, TL=10.8cm, TBL=43.4cm; Madhavaram,, SVL=56.7cm, TL=17.6cm, TBL=74.3cm; Mothkur,, SVL=53.5cm, TL=16.7cm, TBL=70.2cm; Nandikonda,, SVL=96.6cm, TL=29cm, TBL=125.6cm; Sarvail,, SVL=90.3cm, TL=27.2cm, TBL=117.5cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=85.4cm, TL=25.8cm, TBL=111.2cm; Kandukuru,, SVL=80.9cm, TL=24.6cm, TBL=105.5cm; Santhoshnagar,, SVL=39.3cm, TL=12.7cm, TBL=52cm; Uppal,, SVL=15.8cm, TL=5.9cm, TBL=21.7cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=52cm, TL=16.3cm, TBL=68.3cm; Zaffergadh,, SVL=79.2cm, TL=24.3cm, TBL=103.5cm Description : The checkered keelback is a fairly robust snake growing up to 1000 mm (the maximum recorded length is 1480 mm) (males are comparatively shorter, growing up to 900 mm). Body is stout, elongated and cylindrical; tail is small. Head, narrow, distinct from the neck; eyes are moderately large with round pupil. Body scales are feebly-keeled in middle of the body and the smooth on lateral sides. Maxillary teeth 22 to 28, gradually enlarged posteriorly: nostrils directed slightly upwards. The head is oval 148

and distinct from neck, slightly flattered, with a bluntly pointed snout. The colour of the body is much variable, may be yellowish, olive, light green, gray, brown with a reddish tinge, with five rows of small light black spots, bars which are generally narrow than interspaces separating them, quincuncially arranged; head olive brown above, with two oblique black streaks, one below, the other behind the eye. The dorsal black markings are arranged in five transverse series (a ventral, 2 dorsolateral and 2 lateral) and form a chess board like pattern; belly is creamy white, usually with small black spots on the lateral margins of ventrals. Hemipenis extending to the 12th caudal, plate, forked for about one-third of its length; it is spinose throughout, the spines being relatively coarser at the distal end than at the proximal; extending for the greater part of its length are four prominent folds; there are no basal spines (Image 3.3.5.4a & Fig. 3.3.5.4b) (Smith, 1943; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.5.4b. Head scalation pattern in Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. Ecology : Both diurnal and nocturnal; semi-aquatic; comfortable in lentic, lotic systems and also seen in swampy areas and inundated paddies. Aggressive in nature. Breeding pbserved throughout the year and lays anywhere between 8-87 eggs. Feeds on frogs, toads 149

and fish (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are feebly-keeled in middle and smooth on sides, in 19 rows; ventral shields are 122 158; subcaudal shields 60 97, divided; anal shield divided. Internasal much narrowed anteriorly, as long, or nearly as long, as the prefrontals; frontal constricted in the middle, twice as long as broad; 1 preocular; temporals 2+2 or 2 + 3; supralabials 9, 4th and 5th touching the eye, the 6th excluded by the post ocular; anterior genials shorter than the posterior (Fig. 3.3.5.4b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 3.3.6 Family Homalapsidae Kuhl, 1824 Type genus Coluber buccatus Linnaeus, 1758 Aquatic. The braincase is conservative. Dentition well developed. The last two, sometimes three, maxillary teeth grooved and usually enlarged. Nostril crescentic on the upper surface of the snout and provided with valves by means of which they can be closed. Head shields often broken up. The eyes are small mostly with a vertically elliptic pupil; very often there is only a single internasal shield. Hypapophyses develop throughout the vertebral column. Hemipenis divided. No pits or tubercles on scales on trunk and belly. The Homalopsine snakes are confined to south-eastern Asia, including India, Japan, the Malay Archipelago, Philippines and southern China, New Guinea, and northern Australia. This family is represented by 16 genera with 52 species worldwide (Uetz and Hosek, 2014), while in India, it is represented by five genera. In India, this family is represented by 8 species. In Telangana, this family is represented by one species (Table 3.1). 150

3.3.6.1 Genus Enhydris Sonnini and Latreille, 1802 Type species Hydrus enhydris Schneider, 1799 The body is cylindrical, more or less elongated. Head is slightly distinct from neck. Eyes large with round pupils; semi-divided nasals the nasal cleft extending from the nostril to the 1st and 2nd supralabial. Loreals present. Parietals entire, not fragmented. Ventral rounded; anal usually divided; subcaudals paired. Nineteen species belonging to this genus are known from Southern and Eastern Asia (McDiarmid et al., 1999). Four species of this genus recorded from India. Species of Enhydrina Gray, 1849 found in Telangana Enhydris enhydris (Schneider, 1799) Smooth Water Snake Type locality : Indiae orientalis. Vernacular name : Neeru katte pamu, Neeti jerri goddu, Neella banam. Etymology : After Greek enhydris meaning water-snake. Synonyms : Hydrus enhydris Schneider, 1799; Enhydris cerulean Latreille, 1801; Hydrus atrocaeruleus Shaw, 1802; Coluber pythonissa Daudin, 1803; Homalopsis aer Boie, 1826 (nomen nudum); Homalopsis aer Boie, 1827; Hypsirhina aer Wagler, 1830; Hypsirhina bilineata Gray, 1842; Hypsirhina furcata Gray, 1842; Homalopsis enhydris Cantor, 1847; Hypsirhina enhydris Duméril & Bibron, 1854; Hypsirhina enhydris Jan, 1863; Hypsirhina enhydris var. bilineata Volz, 1904; Hypsirhina enhydris Bourret, 1934 Distribution World : Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, 151

Nepal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam. India : Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and West Bengal. Telangana : Rare; no vouchers observed, based on literature (Fig. 3.3.6.1a). Specimens : None. Based on museum specimen. studied or examined Description : The smooth water snake reaches to a length of about 810 mm (males are comparatively shorter at 645 mm). Body stout and cylindrical; tail is short. Body scales are smooth. Snout broadly rounded. Dorsal colouration is brown, gray, or olive above, with a mid-dorsal and a pair of dorsolateral stripes. Lower surface yellow or white, bordered by brown or gray, with a median series of spots, which may be confluent. Head brown or gray above, indistinctly variegated. In young specimens the mid-dorsal stripe is divided medially by a vertebral white line; and the dorsolateral stripes, pale yellow in colour, extend forwards to meet between the nasals (Image 3.3.6.1a & Fig. 3.3.6.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : This semiaquatic snake inhabits ponds, irrigated fields, various water bodies and slow running canals. It is a gentle snake and never attempts to bite even on rough handling. Its main food comprises fish but in lean period devours lizards and frogs also. It is viviparous and gives birth to 6 18 young at a time (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are smooth, in 21 rows (some individuals possess 23 rows); ventral shields are 141 174; subcaudal shields 46 70; anal shield divided. Internasal single, twice as broad as long, in contact with the loreal: frontal broader than the supraocular; loreal 152

Fig. 3.3.6.1a. Distribution map of Enhydris enhydris (Schneider, 1799) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.6.1b. Head scalation pattern in Enhydris enhydris (Schneider, 1799) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. subquadrangular in shape; supralabials normally 8, 4th touching the eye, last very small; anterior pair of genials smaller than the posterior pair, in contact with 4 labials (Fig. 3.3.6.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Least Concern ver 3.1 (Murphy et al., 2013). 153

3.3.7 Family Elapidae F. Boie, 1827 Type genus Elaps Wagler, 1824 The type genus of the family Elapidae was originally Elaps, but the group was moved to another family. Later, Elaps was renamed Homoroselaps and moved back to the Elapidae (Nagy et al., 2005). These have broad head and smooth scales. Like the colubrids, these have enlarged and/or hollow anterior maxillary teeth, which channel venom from the venom gland, and are also referred to as front fanged snakes. Envenomation is effected by injection (McDowell, 1987). The maxilla is flexibly connected to the ectopterygoid which extends posteriorly above the pterygoid, the pterygoid usually reaches the quadrate. The coronoid is absent from the mandible. The anterior maxillary tooth is a large erect poison fang with its groove from the poison gland more or less closed (proteroglyphos). Posterior hypapophyses present. Hemipenis sulcus spermaticus forked. Elapids are reported from tropical and subtropical regions of the world, but absent in Europe (McDiarmid et al., 1999; Wallach, et al., 2014). This family is represented by 354 species worldwide, while in India, it is represented by 4 genera. In India, this family is represented by 16 species in 4 genera (Appendix I). In Telangana, this family is represented by three species (Table 3.1). 3.3.7.1 Genus Bungarus Daudin, 1803 Type species Pseudoboa fasciata Schneider, 1801 The body is cylindrical, more or less elongated, tail moderate. Head is distinct from neck. Maxillary bone not exceeding forward beyond the palatine bone; poison fangs followed by 2 to 4 small teeth. Eyes moderate or small with round pupil. Head shields normal, loreal absent. Nocturnal. Body scales in 13 to 19 rows and smooth. Vertebral row strongly enlarged and hexagonal. Subcaudals single or some of them paired. Thirteen species belonging to this genus are known from Indo-China, South China, Malaya and 154

Celebes, Pakistan and India (McDiarmid et al., 1999, Wallach, et al., 2014). Seven species of this genus recorded from India. Key to the species of snakes of the family Elapidae F. Boie, 1827 in Telangana 1a. Maxillary bone not extending forward beyond 2 the palatine, scales not oblique, the vertebral series strongly enlarged 1b. Maxillary bone extending forward beyond the palatine the vertebral series of scales not enlarged Naja naja 2a. Tail blunt, ending obtusely finger like; a prominent ridge down the back and tail; back with alternate bands of black and yellow Bungarus fasciatus 2b. Tail ending in a point; no ridge down the back Bungarus caeruleus Species of Bungarus Daudin, 1803 found in Telangana Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) Banded Krait Type locality : Mansoor Cottah, Bengal (fide Russell, 1796), at present a seaport ca.24 km south of Ganjam, Orissa, SE India. Vernacular name : Thupaki katla paamu, Bangaru katla paamu. Etymology : The generic nomen, which is the latinized rendering of the local name Bangarum Pamah (meaning golden snake) by which the Banded Krait is known by the Telugu speaking natives of Orissa (Russell, 1796), was erected by Daudin in 1803 (Boulenger, 1890; Wall, 1912). The word fascia is derived from Italian language 155

which means bandage or wrapper. Synonyms : Pseudoboa fasciata Schneider, 1801; Boa fasciata Shaw, 1802; Bungarus annularis Daudin, 1803; Aspidoclonion annulare Wagler, 1830; Bungarus fasiatus Werler, 1963 Distribution World : Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet Nam. India : Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal Telangana : Vouchers observed and studied from Warangal district (Fig. 3.3.7.1c). Specimens : None measured, as all specimens encountered were badly crushed studied or specimens. examined Description : The long snake reaches to a length of about 2250 mm. Body stout and pyramid shaped; tail is Short bluntly rounded. Body scales are smooth. Snout rounded. Dorsal colouration is with equal sized, alternating yellow/pale brown and black bands completely encircles the body. Depressed head has a yellow V shape marking with its arms passing backwardly over the temples to the throat. Nape has a large elongate black patch, rounded behind. (Image 3.3.7.1c & Fig. 3.3.7.1d) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : This venomous nocturnal snake inhabits open plains, scrub jungles, open forests and in grass lands, lodges itself in termite mounds and rodent burrows close to water. It is a sluggish snake, mostly not willing to bite but comparatively active during night. Its main food comprises snakes and snake eggs. Also feeds on skinks, rats and rarely fish. It is oviparous and produces 4-14 eggs 156

at a time (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.7.1c. Distribution map of Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.7.1d. Head scalation pattern in Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. Scalation : Body scales are smooth, in 15 rows (vertebral scales enlarged and hexagonal in shape); ventral shields are 200 236; subcaudal 157

shields 23 39; anal shield undivided. internasal divided, frontal broader than the supraocular; loreal 1;preocular 1, post oculars 2; supralabials normally 7, 3rd and 4th touching the eye; infralabials 7, 1 4 touched by first supralabials (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Least Concern ver 3.1 (Stuart et al, 2013). Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) Common Indian Krait Type locality : Vizagapatam, Andhra Pradesh, India. Vernacular name : Katla paamu, Nalla nune katteda, Nune katla paamu, Nalla chedugu. Etymology : After the Telugu Bungarum meaning Gold and Latin caeruleus meaning blue. Synonyms : Pseudoboa caerulea Schneider, 1801; Boa lineata Shaw, 1802; Bungarus arcuatus Duméril, 1854; Bungarus candidus Wall, 1907; Bungarus candidus caeruleus Boulenger, 1896; Bungarus sindanus Boulenger, 1897 Distribution World : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka. India : Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Peninsular India, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Telangana : Although distributed thourhgout the state this species is encountered occassionally; vouchers observed and studied from all the districts of Telangana state (Fig. 3.3.7.1a). Specimens : Amrabad,, SVL=35.1cm, TL=5cm, TBL=40.1cm; studied or Jannaram,, SVL=85.8cm, TL=13.8cm, TBL=99.6cm; 158

examined Kawal,, SVL=56.7cm, TL=8.7cm, TBL=65.4cm; Kawal,, SVL=78.3cm, TL=12.5cm, TBL=90.8cm; Kerimeri,, SVL=84cm, TL=13.4cm, TBL=97.4cm; Lakshettipet,, SVL=90.6cm, TL=14.6cm, TBL=105.2cm; Mancherial,, SVL=77.4cm, TL=12.3cm, TBL=89.7cm; Nirmal,, SVL=66.2cm, TL=10.4cm, TBL=76.6cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=83.6cm, TL=13.4cm, TBL=97cm; Chintakani,, SVL=92.8cm, TL=15cm, TBL=107.8cm; Mahadevpur,, SVL=44.1cm, TL=6.6cm, TBL=50.7cm; Manthani,, SVL=85.1cm, TL=13.6cm, TBL=98.7cm; Musthapur,, SVL=59cm, TL=9.1cm, TBL=68.1cm; Karimnagar,, SVL=65.9cm, TL=10.3cm, TBL=76.2cm; Tadicherla,, SVL=35.8cm, TL=5.1cm, TBL=40.9cm; Gokinepally,, SVL=42.6cm, TL=6.3cm, TBL=48.9cm; Kunavaram,, SVL=56.2cm, TL=8.7cm, TBL=64.9cm; Nelakondapally,, SVL=70.6cm, TL=11.1cm, TBL=81.7cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=56.5cm, TL=8.7cm, TBL=65.2cm; Gadwal,, SVL=37.2cm, TL=5.4cm, TBL=42.6cm; Kalwakurthy,, SVL=57.2cm, TL=8.8cm, TBL=66cm; Kolhapur,, SVL=54.5cm, TL=8.4cm, TBL=62.9cm; Lingala,, SVL=90.2cm, TL=14.5cm, TBL=104.7cm; Mannanur,, SVL=84.9cm, TL=13.6cm, TBL=98.5cm; Wanaparthy,, SVL=80.9cm, TL=12.9cm, TBL=93.8cm; Narsapur,, SVL=77.2cm, TL=12.3cm, TBL=89.5cm; Sadasivpet,, SVL=42.7cm, TL=6.3cm, TBL=49cm; Siddipet,, SVL=68.8cm, TL=10.8cm, TBL=79.6cm; Bhongiri,, SVL=82.7cm, TL=13.2cm, TBL=95.9cm; Gandhavarigudem,, SVL=40.5cm, TL=6cm, TBL=46.5cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=65.9cm, TL=10.3cm, TBL=76.2cm; Gundrampalli,, SVL=49.1cm, TL=7.4cm, TBL=56.5cm; Madhavaram,, SVL=43.8cm, TL=6.5cm, TBL=50.3cm; Mothkur,, SVL=63.5cm, TL=9.9cm, TBL=73.4cm; Nandikonda,, SVL=47.8cm, TL=7.2cm, TBL=55cm; Nandikonda,, SVL=60.9cm, TL=9.5cm, TBL=70.4cm; 159

Fig. 3.3.7.1a. Distribution map of Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Sarvail,, SVL=37cm, TL=5.3cm, TBL=42.3cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=62.4cm, TL=9.7cm, TBL=72.1cm; Alisagar,, SVL=39.6cm, TL=5.8cm, TBL=45.4cm; Chengicherla,, SVL=58.4cm, TL=9cm, TBL=67.4cm; Nadargul,, SVL=79.9cm, TL=12.7cm, TBL=92.6cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=81cm, TL=12.9cm, TBL=93.9cm; Raviryal,, SVL=54.4cm, TL=8.3cm, TBL=62.7cm; Tandur,, SVL=60.8cm, TL=9.5cm, TBL=70.3cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=83.7cm, TL=13.4cm, TBL=97.1cm; Eturnagaram,, SVL=46.5cm, TL=7cm, TBL=53.5cm; Tadwai,, SVL=82.5cm, TL=13.2cm, TBL=95.7cm Description : This long cylindrical snake reaches to a length of about 1500 mm. Body stout and cylindrical; tail is short. Body scales are smooth. Snout is blunt. Dorsal colouration is glossy black, pale faded bluish grey or dark brownish-black above, often with blue iridescence white, narrow often paired white colouored cross-lines continue to the tip of tail and are usually absent on fore body or 160

replaced by white vertebral spots in adults. Lower surface glossy-white or yellowish. Head is slightly distinct from neck. (Image 3.3.7.1a & Fig. 3.3.7.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : This is a highly venomous nocturnal snake inhabits fields, low scrub jungles and human habitations. It is a gentle but most dangerous snake, bites only when provoked during the day but very active at night. Its main food comprises snakes including kraits, small mammals, lizards and also frogs. It is oviparous and lays 8-12 eggs at a time (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are smooth, glossy in 15 or 17 rows, vertebral row enlarged and hexagonal; ventral shields are 194 234; subcaudal shields 42 55; anal shield undivided. supralabials 7 or 8, 3 rd and 4th rarely 4th and 5th touching the eye; 1 pre and 2 post oculars; temporals 1 + 2 (Fig. 3.3.7.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.7.1b. Head scalation pattern in Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 161

3.3.7.2 Genus Naja Laurenti 1768 Type species Naja lutescens Laurenti 1768 The body is cylindrical, elongated; tail moderate. Head is less distinct from neck, which is dilatable, anterior ribs elongated. Maxillary bone extending forward beyond the palatine, poison fangs followed by from 1 3 small teeth. Eyes moderate with round pupils. Head shields normal, loreal absent, nostrils between anterior and posterior nasal shields. Body scales in 13 25 rows at the mid body, smooth and disposed obliquely. Ventrals broad; subcaudals usually paired. Twenty eight species belonging to this genus are known from Southern and South-eastern Asia. In India, this genus is represented by four species. Species of Naja Laurenti 1768 found in Telangana Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) Common Indian Spectacled Cobra Type locality : India orientali. Vernacular name : Naagu paamu, Minnagu, Kode naagu, Kode thrachu and Thrachu paamu. Etymology : After the Old Indian word naga meaning snake. Synonyms : Coluber naja Linnaeus, 1758; Naja brasiliensis Laurenti, 1768; Naja fasciata Laurenti, 1768; Naja lutescens Laurenti, 1768; Naja maculata Laurenti, 1768; Naja non naja Laurenti, 1768; Coluber caecus Gmelin, 1788; Coluber rufus Gmelin, 1788; Naja tripudians Merrem, 1820; Naja nigra Gray, 1830; Naja tripudians forma typica Boulenger, 1896; Naja tripudians var. caeca Boulenger, 1896 (part.); Naja naja Stejneger, 1907; Naja naja naja Smith, 1943; Naja naja gangetica Deraniyagala, 1945; Naja naja lutescens Deraniyagala, 1945; Naja naja madrasiensis 162

Deraniyagala, 1945; Naja naja indusi Deraniyagala, 1960; Naja naja bombaya Deraniyagala, 1961; Naja naja karachiensis Deraniyagala, 1961; Naja naja ceylonicus Chatman & Di Mari, 1974; Naja naja polyocellata Mehrtens, 1987; Naja ceylonicus Osorio E Castro & Vernon, 1989; Naja (Naja) naja Wallach et al., 2009 Distribution World : Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. India : Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh; and also doubtfully in Andaman Islands. Telangana : Practically throughout; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal district (Fig. 3.3.7.2a). Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=70.1cm, TL=15cm, TBL=85.1cm; studied or Kawal,, SVL=105cm, TL=23.8cm, TBL=128.8cm; examined Old Bowenpally,, SVL=85cm, TL=18.7cm, TBL=103.7cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=99.8cm, TL=22.5cm, TBL=122.3cm; Musthapur,, SVL=103.8cm, TL=23.4cm, TBL=127.2cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=108.4cm, TL=24.6cm, TBL=133cm; Gadwal,, SVL=99.2cm, TL=22.3cm, TBL=121.5cm; Lingala,, SVL=91.5cm, TL=20.4cm, TBL=111.9cm; Maddimadugu,, SVL=103.5cm, TL=23.4cm, TBL=126.9cm; Mannanur,, SVL=109.8cm, TL=25cm, TBL=134.8cm; Ramayampet,, SVL=76.2cm, TL=16.6cm, TBL=92.8cm; Gandhavarigudem,,SVL=104.6cm, TL=23.6cm, TBL=128.2cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=86.5cm, TL=19.1cm, TBL=105.6cm; Sarvail,, SVL=91.3cm, TL=20.3cm, TBL=111.6cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=70.5cm, TL=15.1cm, TBL=85.6cm; Alisagar,, SVL=75.3cm, TL=16.3cm, TBL=91.6cm; 163

Ghanpur,, SVL=84.6cm, TL=18.7cm, TBL=103.3cm; Jangaon,, SVL=94.5cm, TL=21.1cm, TBL=115.6cm; Mahabubabad,, SVL=84.8cm, TL=18.7cm, TBL=103.5cm; Raghunathapally,, SVL=71.5cm, TL=15.4cm, TBL=86.9cm; Zaffergadh,, SVL=85.3cm, TL=18.8cm, TBL=104.1cm Description : This slender venomous snake reaches to a length of about 1515mm. Body stout and cylindrical; Body scales are smooth and glossy. Snout short rounded. Hood formed by the elongated ribs of the 3rd and the following 27 vertebrae, the 9th on the left and 10th on the right are the longest, the preceding and succeeding ribs shorten progressively, giving an oval outline to the expanded hood. Hood is with spectacled mark. Dorsal colouration is brown, yellow, grey or black. Lower surface yellow or white (Image 3.3.7.2a & Fig. 3.3.7.2b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : This terrestrial snake inhabits forests, open fields, rock piles, agricultural fields, near streams and human habitations. It is a shy snake not excited and does not bite easily, but rarely becomes aggressive and when disturbed shows its characteristic hood by extending its ribs. It feeds mainly on rodents, toads, frogs, birds, lizards, snakes and invertebrates. Eggs of different vertebrates are also consumed, swallowed whole and digested in about 48 hours (Bannerman, 1906). It is oviparous and lays 12-13 eggs (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are smooth, glossy in 21 25 rows; ventral shields are 171 200; divided subcaudal shields 48 75; anal shield undivided; preocular 1, touching internasal; postoculars 2 or 3; temporal 2 + 3; frontal broader than longer; supralabials 7, 3 rd touching the eye; infralabials 9, 4 infralabials touched by first sublabial; cuneate scale present in between 4th and 5th infralabials (Fig. 3.3.7.2b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). 164

Fig. 3.3.7.2a. Distribution map of Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.7.2b. Head scalation pattern in Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect, C. ventral aspect, D. rostrum, and E. Fangs. IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 165

3.3.8 Family Viperidae Oppel, 1811 Type genus Vipera Laurenti, 1768 The head is deep and distinctly broader than the neck. Eyes with vertical pupils, retnina duplex, the tail of moderate length. The anterior skull elements are flexibly movable on the braincase. The premaxilla and maxilla are separate, as are the prefrontal and nasal. The coronoid bone is absent from mandible, very short maxil1a bears a single large erectile tubular fang to carry venom. Hemipenis sulcus spermaticus forked. Hypapophyses developed throughout the vertebral column. On the head, a sensitive pit between the eye and the nostril is present in Crotalinae subfamily. This family is represented by 316 species worldwide, while in India, it is represented by nine genera (McDiarmid et al., 1999). In India, this family is represented by twenty three species (Appendix I). In Telangana, this family is represented by three species (Table 3.1). Key to the species of snakes of the family Viperidae Oppel, 1811 in Telangana 1a. Without a deep depression, the loreal pit is between the eye and the nostril, maxillary bone not hollowed out 2 1b. With a loreal pit on each side of the snout, formed by the hollowing out of the maxillary bone Trimeresurus gramineus 2a. Subcaudals single: keels of lateral scales serrated Echis carinatus 2b. Subcaudals paired: keels of lateral scales without serration Daboia russelii 166

3.3.8.1 Genus Daboia Gray, 1842 Type species Daboia elegans Gray, 1842 Body stout, head triangular and distinct from neck covered with small scales or small frontals and the parietal shields still persisting. Eyes large with vertical pupil, nostril lateral, in a large nasal shield, a naso-rostral shield between the nasal and the rostral or partly united with the nasal. Body scales in 19 33 straight rows, strongly keeled, ventrals rounded. Tail short. Three species belonging to this genus are known from Southern Asia and North Africa (McDiarmid et al., 1999). One species of this genus recorded from India. Species of Daboia Daudin, 1803 found in Telangana Daboia russelii (Shaw, 1797) Russell's viper Type locality : Vizagapatam, Andhra Pradesh, south India. Vernacular name : Raktha pinjara, Poda paamu, Kaatuka rekula poda. Etymology : The genus name Daboia is after the Hindi name for it, which means that lies hid, or the lurker and the specific name russelli is in honor of Dr. Patrick Russell (1726 1805), who had earlier described this animal. Synonyms : Coluber Russelii [sic] Shaw & Nodder, 1797; Daboia Russellii Gray, 1849; Daboia elegans Shortt, 1863; Vipera russellii Strauch, 1869; Vipera russelli Smith, 1943; Vipera russelli nordicus Deraniyagala, 1945; Daboia russellii Manthey & Grossmann, 1997; Daboia russelii Mcdiarmid, Campbell & Toure, 1999; Vipera russelli Sharma, 2004; Daboia nordicus Thorpe et al., 2007 167

Distribution World : Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan (eastern) and Sri Lanka. India : Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Telangana : Found throughout the state; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts (Fig. 3.3.8.1a). Fig. 3.3.8.1a. Distribution map of Daboia russelii (Shaw, 1797) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Specimens : Amrabad,, SVL=60.1cm, TL=6cm, TBL=66.1cm; studied or examined Asifabad,, SVL=95cm, TL=15.6cm, TBL=110.6cm; Kawal,, SVL=75cm, TL=10.1cm, TBL=85.1cm; Kawal,, SVL=89.8cm, TL=14.2cm, TBL=104cm; Nirmal,, SVL=93.8cm, TL=15.3cm, TBL=109.1cm; OU Habsiguda,, SVL=98.4cm, TL=16.6cm, TBL=115cm; OU Tarnaka,, SVL=89.2cm, TL=14cm, TBL=103.2cm; Tekulaboru,, SVL=81.5cm, TL=11.9cm, TBL=93.4cm; 168

Gadwal,, SVL=93.5cm, TL=15.2cm, TBL=108.7cm; Lingala,, SVL=99.8cm, TL=17cm, TBL=116.8cm; Manjeera Dam,, SVL=66.2cm, TL=7.7cm, TBL=73.9cm; Tallapalli,, SVL=94.6cm, TL=15.5cm, TBL=110.1cm; Gandhavarigudem,, SVL=76.5cm, TL=10.5cm, TBL=87cm; Gummadavalli,, SVL=81.3cm, TL=11.9cm, TBL=93.2cm; Sarvail,, SVL=60.5cm, TL=6.1cm, TBL=66.6cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=65.3cm, TL=7.4cm, TBL=72.7cm; Kothapet,, SVL=74.6cm, TL=10cm, TBL=84.6cm; Ghanpur,, SVL=84.5cm, TL=12.7cm, TBL=97.2cm; Jangaon,, SVL=74.8cm, TL=10.1cm, TBL=84.9cm; Raghunathapally,, SVL=61.5cm, TL=6.4cm, TBL=67.9cm Description : The long stout snake reaches to a length of about 1800 mm. Body stout and cylindrical; tail is short, thin. Body scales are strongly keeled except the outer which are relatively smooth. Snout is short. Dorsal colouration is brown or yellowish brown with longitudinal series of prominent 23 29 large dark brown or black oval or round spots may meet to form a chain like pattern or may have narrow white or cream margins. The outer rows may be comparatively smaller than the middle and are not connected. Top of head has a white V-shaped mark with its apex on top of snout and a pair of triangular or oval dark brown markings. Two dark streaks are present, one passes through the eye to the angle of mouth, and the other is below the eye. Lips scales mottled with brown. Lower surface whitish with crescent marks. Head is triangular, flattened distinctly broader than neck (Image 3.3.4.1a & Fig. 3.3.4.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : This is strictly nocturnal, venomous snake inhabits almost all areas but prefers grass lands. Even though looks sluggish, when irritated this snake bites with great speed and malice, but alerts the victim with its loud hiss audible like a pressure cooker before 169

biting and does not prefer to bite. Its main food comprises small mammals (mainly rodents) including kittens, birds, lizards, and frogs. It is viviparous and produces 6 63 live young ones at a time (Daniel, 2002; Wall, 1906; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are strongly keeled, in 27 33 rows, outer row relatively smooth; ventral shields are 153 180; paired subcaudal shields 41 64; anal shield undivided. Nostrils are very large Canthus rostralis distinct. Supranasal shield is very narrow and crescentic in form; supralabials 10 to 12, 4th and 5th are largest; infralabials 16; eyes surrounded by 10 15 small scales; temporals small, the lower most row largest and smooth, the upper row strongly keeled (Fig. 3.3.8.1b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.8.1b. Head scalation pattern in Daboia russelii (Shaw, 1797) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 170

3.3.8.2 Genus Echis Merrem, 1820 Type species Pseudoboa carinata (Schneider, 1801) The body is stout, cylindrical; tail moderate. Head is large, very distinct from neck, covered with small imbricate scales. Eyes moderate with vertical pupils. Nostrils small, upwards. Body scales in 27 37 rows at the mid body, strongly keeled, the dorsal row is in a straight longitudinal series, the laterals smaller, oblique, pointing downwards with serrated keels, outer most two rows feebly-keeled or smooth; Ventrals rounded; tail short; subcaudals undivided. Eleven species belonging to this genus are known from Northern Africa, Middle East and South Asia (McDiarmid et al., 1999; Wallach, et al., 2014). One species of this genus recorded from India (Aengals et al., 2012). Species of Echis Merrem, 1820 found in Telangana Echis carinata (Schneider, 1801) Indian Saw-scaled Viper Type locality : Arni [= Yavatmal, Maharashtra, India] (fide Schmidt, 1939). Vernacular name : Chinapinjara, Thoti pinjara. Etymology : After the Greek Echis meaning be continuous and Latin carinatus meaning keeled. Synonyms : Pseudoboa carinata Schneider, 1801; Echis carinata Duméril & Bibron, 1854; Echis carinatus Smith, 1943; Echis carinatus Harding & Welch, 1980; Echis multisquamatus Cherlin, 1981; Echis carinatus Mcdiarmid, Campbell & Toure, 1999 Distribution World : Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Iran, Iraq (southeast), Oman (north), Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, United Arab Emirates and Uzbekistan. India : Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, 171

Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Telangana : Occasional; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad, Hyderabad and Nalgonda districts (Fig. 3.3.8.2a). Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=25cm, TL=3cm, TBL=28cm; studied or KBR Nat. Park,, SVL=46.9cm, TL=4.8cm, TBL=51.7cm; examined Nandikonda,, SVL=34.4cm, TL=3.7cm, TBL=38.1cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=43.7cm, TL=4.5cm, TBL=48.2cm; Vijayapuri (N),, SVL=46.1cm, TL=4.7cm, TBL=50.8cm Description : This short venomous snake reaches to a length of about 800 mm. Body stout and cylindrical; Body scales are strongly keeled. Snout short, bluntly pointed. Dorsal colouration is light to dark brown, brick red, grey or sand coloured with zigzag patterns. Lower surface whitish speckled with brown (Image 3.3.8.2a & Fig. 3.3.8.2b). (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : This terrestrial, nocturnal snake inhabits arid, semi-arid areas but also found in rocky areas with heavy rainfall. It is the most violent snake easily excited and bites. When alarmed, inflates lung and rubs saw-edged scales together to make a rasping sound. Its main food includes small mammals, lizards, skinks, geckos, frogs, scorpions and larger insects and also centipedes. Hibernation or aestivation is seen in unfavourable conditions. It is viviparous and produces 4 8 live young at a time (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Scalation : Body scales are strongly keeled in 27 37 rows; two outermost rows are the largest; 4 7 lowest body scale rows (adjacent to ventrals) oblique, with serrated keels; ventral shields are 132 185; subcaudal shields 23 39; anal shield divided or undivided. Eye surrounded by 10 21 small scales; temporals small, keeled except the lower most row; supralabials 10 12 (Fig. 3.3.8.2b) (Smith, 172

1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.8.2a. Distribution map of Echis carinata (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Fig. 3.3.8.2b. Head scalation pattern in Echis carinata (Schneider, 1801) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. IUCN Status : Not Evaluated. 173

3.3.8.3 Genus Trimeresurus Lacépède, 1804 Type species Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw, 1802). The body is cylindrical; tail moderate or short. Head is large, triangular and distinct from neck. Eyes moderate with vertical pupils. Head shields small, nostrils small in the nasal shields. A deep pit in the side of the face in between the preocular and loreal. Body scales in 17 31 rows at the mid body, keeled. Ventrals rounded and angulated; subcaudals usually paired rarely united. Forty eight species belonging to this genus are known from Asia and Indonesia (McDiarmid et al., 1999; Wallach, et al., 2014). Fourteen species of this genus recorded from India (Aengals et al., 2012). Species of Trimeresurus Lacépède, 1804 found in Telangana Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw, 1802) Bamboo pit viper Type locality : Vizagapatam, India (Russell, 1796). Vernacular name : Bodroo pam (Russell, 1802), Veduru pamu. Etymology : After the Greek tri meaning three, mere meaning part and surus = oura meaning tail and Latin gramineus meaning grassy. Synonyms : Coluber graminaeus Shaw, 1802; Coluber viridis Bechstein, 1802; Vipera viridis Daudin, 1803 (fide Smith, 1943); Trimeresurus elegans Gray, 1853: 391 (fide Stejneger, 1907); Trimeresurus viridis Beddome, 1862 (fide Smith, 1943); Trimeresurus gramineus Günther, 1864; Trimeresurus gramineus Boulenger, 1890; Lachesis graminaeus Boulenger, 1896; Lachesis gramineus De Rooij, 1917; Trimeresurus occidentalis Pope & Pope, 1933; Trimeresurus gramineus Smith, 1943; Trimeresurus gramineus Menthey, 1983; Trimeresurus gramineus Welch, 1994; Trimeresurus occidentalis Welch, 1994; 174

Trimeresurus gramineus Mcdiarmid, Campbell & Toure, 1999; Trimeresurus gramineus Gumprecht et al., 2004; Trimeresurus gramineus Malhotra & Thorpe, 2004; Trimeresurus (Craspedocephalus) gramineus David et al., 2011 Distribution World : Endemic to India. India : Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tamil Nadu. Telangana : Rare; vouchers observed and studied from Adilabad and Mahbubnagar districts (Fig. 3.3.8.3a). Specimens : Kawal,, SVL=33cm, TL=8cm, TBL=41cm; studied or Vatavarlapally,, SVL=37cm, TL=9cm, TBL=46cm examined Fig. 3.3.8.3a. Distribution map of Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana; locality records from where the species was studied. Description : The thick venomous snake reaches to a length of about 1140 mm. Body stout and cylindrical; Body scales are smooth and posterior 175

median rows weakly keeled. Snout larger. Dorsal colouration is yellowish-green, grass green or olive brown. Lower surface glossy white or yellow with green shade. A dark temporal streak may be present and an uneven line along the flanks may be present (Image 3.3.8.3a & Fig. 3.3.8.3b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Sharma, 2003; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Ecology : This nocturnal, hill forest snake is mostly found on low bushes preferably bamboo and often near stream edges. When provoked anchors its tail to the branch or if it is on ground vibrates its tail and causes a fast bite. Its main food includes small mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians. It is viviparous and produces 4 15 live young at a time (Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). Fig. 3.3.8.3b. Head scalation pattern in Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw, 1802) showing the characteristic scales on the head; A. dorsal aspect, B. lateral aspect and C. ventral aspect. Scalation : Body scales are smooth, glossy in 21 rows, posterior median rows feebly-keeled; ventral shields are 145 177; divided subcaudal shields 55 71; anal shield undivided; 8 11 scales on a line between supraoculars; three preocular and two postoculars; internasal larger, separated by 1 or 2 small scales; heat sensitive loreal pit is present; supralabials and subocular are separated by 176

two rows of scales; temporal small and smooth; supralabials 10 12, first completely separated from nasal; infralabials 12 (Fig. 3.3.8.3b) (Smith, 1943; Daniel, 2002; Whitaker & Captain, 2004). IUCN Status : Least Concern ver 3.1 (Srinivasulu et al., 2013). 3.4 SPECIES DISTRIBUTION MODELLING OF SNAKES IN TELANGANA The results of the species distribution modelling of all the 29 species of snakes belonging to eight families reported from Telangana as observed during the present study is provided under. 3.4.1 Beaked worm snake Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril & Bibron, 1844) The species distribution modelling for Beaked worm snake Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril & Bibron, 1844) indicates that the whole of the region is suitable for the presence of this species with western parts showing most likelihood (Fig. 3.4.1a). Major areas of Adilabad, Hyderabad, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nizamabad and Ranga Reddy districts are showing very good suitability. Table 3.4.1a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 4) for Beaked worm snake Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril & Bibron, 1844) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO6 Minimum Temperature of Coldest Month 62.1 65.2 ALT Altitude 15.7 0 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 11.8 17.1 BIO10 Mean Temperature of Warmest Quarter 10.4 17.7 [Variables (n = 16) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 177

Fig. 3.4.1a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Beaked worm snake Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril & Bibron, 1844) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.1b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Beaked worm snake Grypotyphlops acutus (Duméril & Bibron, 1844) in Telangana The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.1b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.1c) for Grypotyphlops acutus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.776 which is in between 0.70>AUC 0.80 and is interpreted as predicted 178

model has performed well and is acceptable. Mininimum Temperature of Coldest Month (BIO6) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.1a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Beaked worm snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.1b. 3.4.2 Brahminy worm snake Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) The species distribution modelling for Brahminy worm snake Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) indicates that in general the whole of the region is suitable for the presence of this species with northwestern and south western areas showing most likelihood and major area of Khammam district showing least likelihood (Fig. 3.4.2a). Northern part of Adilabad, Hyderabad, eastern and southeastern Ranga Reddy, southeastern part of Mahbubnagar, and northwestern region of Nalgonda districts show very good suitability for the presence of this species. Fig. 3.4.2a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Brahminy worm snake Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) 179

The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.2b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.2c) for Ramphotyphlops braminus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.794 which is in between 0.70>AUC 0.80 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is acceptable. Precipitation of Wettest Month (BIO13) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.2a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Brahminy worm snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.2b. Table 3.4.2a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 4) for Brahminy worm snake Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 34.1 4.6 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 16.9 14.9 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 15.9 29.1 BIO1 Annual Mean Temperature 10.8 5.4 BIO7 Temperature Annual Range 6.6 0.4 ALT Altitude 3.6 22.5 BIO6 Minimum Temperature of Coldest Month 3.2 0 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 3 0.2 BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 2.4 3.6 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 1.7 0.3 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 0.4 1.3 BIO8 Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter 0.4 6.7 BIO4 Temperature Seasonality 0.4 4.5 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 0.2 4.4 BIO10 Mean Temperature of Warmest Quarter 0.2 0.9 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 0.1 0.2 BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 0.1 0.9 [Variables (n = 3) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 180

Fig. 3.4.2b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Brahminy worm snake Ramphotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana 3.4.3 Indian rock python Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) The species distribution modelling for Indian rock python Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) indicates that although the whole of the Telangana state is suitable for the presence of this species the western parts of the state show most likelihood (Fig. 3.4.3a). Major areas of Adilabad, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda and Nizamabad districts are showing very good suitability for Python molurus. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.3b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.3c) for Python molurus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.685 which is in between 0.60>AUC 0.70 and is interpreted as predicted model is bad. Precipitation of Driest Month (BIO14) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.3a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Indian python was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.3b. Table 3.4.3a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 3) for Indian rock python Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 58.3 19.5 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 35.7 80.5 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 6 0 [Variables (n = 17) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 181

182

Fig. 3.4.3a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Indian rock python Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.3b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Indian rock python Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana 183

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3.4.4 Red sand boa Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801) The species distribution modelling for Red sand boa Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801) indicates that the eastern parts of the state are least suitable for the presence of this species with southwestern parts showing most likelihood (Fig. 3.4.4a). Parts of Adilabad, Nizamabad, northwestern parts of Karimnagar, Khammam, southwestern, southern, southeastern parts of Medak, northwestern and eastern parts of Warangal districts show suitability for the presence of this species. The entire districts of Hyderabad, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy show very good suitability. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig 3.4.4b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig 3.4.4c) for Eryx johnii in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.865 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Annual Precipitation (BIO12) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.4a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Red sand boa was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.4b. Table 3.4.4a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 9) for Red sand boa Eryx johnii in Telangana Variable Percent Permutation contribution importance BIO12 Annual Precipitation 54.9 0 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 31.5 0 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 5.6 27.4 BIO5 Maximum Temperature of Warmest month 2.6 36.3 BIO10 Mean Temperature of Warmest Quarter 2.6 0 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 1.2 2.9 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 1.1 33.2 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 0.3 0.2 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 0.1 0 [Variables (n = 11) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 186

Fig. 3.4.4a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Red sand boa Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.4b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Red sand boa Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801) in Telangana 187

3.4.5 Common sand boa Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) The species distribution modelling for Common sand boa Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) indicates except for certain parts of the central region of the state and parts of southern region of the state the whole of the region is not suitable for the presence of this species with southern parts and parts of Godavari river basin showing most likelihood (Fig. 3.4.5a). Parts of Adilabad, major areas of Karimnagar, Khammam, Nizamabad and Warangal and parts of Medak, Mahbubnagar and Ranga Reddy districts show least suitability, while central and northeastern parts of Adilabad, major parts of Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy districts the entire Hyderabad district, northwestern part of Karimnagar and Warangal districts, southeastern part of Nizamabad district and southeastern part of Khammam district show very good suitability for this species. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.5b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.5c) for Gongylophis conicus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.893 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Precipitation of Wettest Month (BIO13) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.5a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Common sand boa was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.5b. 3.4.6 Common trinket snake Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803) The species distribution modelling for Common trinket snake Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803) indicates that the whole of the region is suitable for the presence of this species with northern parts showing most likelihood (Fig. 3.4.6a). Highly forested tracts of Adilabad, northeast Nizamabad, eastern parts of Medak, and northeastern parts of Ranga Reddy district are showing very good suitability, while the northeastern part of Khammam district show less suitability. 188

Table 3.4.5a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 13) for Common sand boa Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 59.4 19.7 ALT Altitude 7.8 21.5 BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 6.2 0.7 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 6 9.7 BIO6 Minimum Temperature of Coldest Month 5.6 32.8 BIO11 Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter 4.3 0 BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 3.2 5.9 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 2.3 0 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 2 6.2 BIO3 Isothermality 1.6 3.4 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 0.9 0 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 0.4 0.1 BIO5 Maximum Temperature of Warmest Month 0.2 0 [Variables (n = 7) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.6b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.6c) for Coelognathus helena in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.752 which is in between 0.70>AUC 0.80 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is acceptable. Min Temperature of Coldest Month (BIO6) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.6a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Common trinket snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.6b. 189

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Fig. 3.4.5a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Common sand boa Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.5b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Common sand boa Gongylophis conicus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana 191

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Table 3.4.6a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 13) for Common trinket snake Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana Variable Percent contribution Permutation importance BIO6 Minimum Temperature of Coldest Month 32.2 0 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 30 32.2 BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 19.1 43.3 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 11.9 23.8 BIO11 Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter 6.7 0 BIO3 Isothermality 0 0.7 [Variables (n = 7) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. Fig. 3.4.6a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Common trinket snake Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) 193

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Fig. 3.4.6b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Common trinket snake Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana 3.4.7 Indian rat snake Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) The species distribution modelling for Indian rat snake Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) indicates that except for the northern most part of the state the whole of the region is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.7a). Major part of Adilabad, northwestern part of Karimnagar, parts of Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak and northern and northeastern parts of Nizamabad districts show least suitability, while western and central regions of Adilabad, Hyderabad Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts show very good suitability for this species. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.7b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.7c) for Ptyas mucosa in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.819 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Min Temperature of Coldest Month (BIO6) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.7a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Indian rat snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.7b. 195

Table 3.4.7a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 13) for Indian rat snake Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 35.9 27.6 ALT Altitude 14.9 19.4 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 13.1 0 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 11 15 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 7.8 3.4 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 7.4 7.4 BIO8 Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter 4.7 18.6 BIO7 Temperature Annual Range 2.3 0 BIO1 Annual Mean Temperature 1.4 0.7 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 0.7 3.3 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 0.3 3.1 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 0.1 0 BIO5 Maximum Temperature of Warmest Month 0.1 1.5 BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 0.1 0.1 [Variables (n = 7) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.8 Banded racer Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) The species distribution modelling for Banded racer Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) indicates that the whole of the region is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.8a), except for a small area northeast of Khammam district which shows least suitability all the other districts show high suitability index of the presence of the species. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.8b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.8c) for Argyrogena fasciolata in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.743 which is in between 0.70>AUC 0.80 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is acceptable. Precipitation of Warmest Quarter (BIO18) is 196

the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.8a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Banded racer was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.8b. Fig. 3.4.7a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Indian rat snake Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.7b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Indian rat snake Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana 197

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Table 3.4.8a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 6) for Banded racer Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana Variable Percent contribution Permutation importance BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 58.5 43.3 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 20.9 24.9 BIO6 Minimum Temperature of Coldest Month 17 29.5 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 2.7 0 BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 0.5 0.2 BIO11 Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter 0.4 2.1 [Variables (n = 14) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. Fig. 3.4.8a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Banded racer Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) 200

Fig. 3.4.8b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Banded racer Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana 3.4.9 Nagarjunasagar racer Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976 The species distribution modelling for Nagarjunasagar racer Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976 indicates that Nalgonda, Hyderabad, south and southeastern parts of Ranga Reddy, northeastern and southern parts of Mahbubnagar and western part of Khammam district show high suitability for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.9a), while the remaining parts of Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy and Warangal and Adilabad districts show least suitability. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.9b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.9c) for Coluber bholanathi in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.957 which is in between 0.90>AUC 1 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is excellent. Precipitation Seasonality (BIO15) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.9). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Nagarjunasagar racer was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.9b. 201

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Fig. 3.4.9a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Nagarjunasagar racer Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976 in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.9b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Nagarjunasagar racer Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976 in Telangana 203

Table 3.4.9a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 5) for Nagarjunasagar racer Coluber bholanathi Sharma, 1976 in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 77.6 59 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 12.9 16.1 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 5.8 0 BIO7 Temperature Annual Range 2.3 15.7 BIO3 Isothermality 1.3 9.2 [Variables (n = 15) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.10 Common kukri snake Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) The species distribution modelling for Common kukri snake Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) indicates that the whole of the region is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.10a). Greatern suitability is seen in the districts of Hyderabad, aprts of Nalgonda, southeastern part of Mahbubnagar, southern part of Khammam. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.10b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.10c) for Oligodon arnensis in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.699 which is in between 0.60>AUC 0.70 and is interpreted as predicted model has not performed well and is bad. Precipitation Seasonality (BIO15) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.10a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Common kukri snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.10b. 204

Table 3.4.10a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 3) for Common kukri snake Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 98.5 95.2 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 1.4 0.1 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 0.1 4.7 [Variables (n = 17) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. Fig. 3.4.10a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Common kukri snake Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.10b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Common kukri snake Oligodon arnensis (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana 205

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3.4.11 Russell s kukri snake Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) The species distribution modelling for Russell s kukri snake Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) indicates that the except for major parts of Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda, Hyderabad and Ranga Reddy districts that show high suitability for this species (Fig. 3.4.11a) all the other districts exhibit least suitability for the presence of this species. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.11b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.11c) for Oligodon taeniolatus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.936 which is in between 0.90>AUC 1 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is excellent. Annual Precipitation (BIO12) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.11a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Russell s kukri snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.11b. Fig. 3.4.11a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Russell s kukri snake Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) 207

Table 3.4.11a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 2) for Russell s kukri snake Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO12 Annual Precipitation 98 100 BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 2 0 [Variables (n = 18) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. Fig. 3.4.11b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Russell s kukri snake Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853) in Telangana 3.4.12 Common bronzeback tree snake Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) The species distribution modelling for Common bronzeback tree snake Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) indicates that except for northeastern and northern parts of Adilabad district and some areas in the northeastern part of Nizamabad district the whole of the region is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.12a). Hyderabad, parts of Ranga Reddy, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda, and Khammam districts are showing very high suitability. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.12b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.12c) for Dendrelaphis tristis in Telangana indicates that the area 208

under curve (AUC) is 0.755 which is in between 0.70>AUC 0.80 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is acceptable. Precipitation Seasonality (BIO15) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.12a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Common bronzeback tree snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.12b. Table 3.4.12a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 3) for Common bronzeback tree snake Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 88.7 67.1 BIO5 Maximum Temperature of Warmest Month 7.5 21.2 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 3.8 11.7 [Variables (n = 17) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. Fig. 3.4.12a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Common bronzeback tree snake Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) 209

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Fig. 3.4.12b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Common bronzeback tree snake Dendrelaphis tristis (Daudin, 1803) in Telangana 3.4.13 Common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1754) The species distribution modelling for Common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1754) indicates that the whole of the state is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.13a). The districts of Adilabad, Nizamabad, Karimnagar, northwestern parts of Warangal, Hyderabad, northeastern and southeastern parts of Ranga Reddy, Nalgonda, northeastern parts of Mahbubnagar and southwestern part of Khammam show high suitability for the presence of the species. Central and southeastern part of Nalgonda, extreme southeastern part of Khammam and Mahbubnagar show very high suitability for the presence of this speices. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.13b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.13c) for Lycodon aulicus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.813 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Precipitation of Coldest Quarter (BIO19) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.13a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Common wolf snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.13b. 212

Table 3.4.13a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 3) for Common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1754) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 73.1 56.4 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 22.6 43.6 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 4.3 0 [Variables (n = 17) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. Fig. 3.4.13a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1754) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.13b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Common wolf snake Lycodon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1754) in Telangana 213

3.4.14 Barred wolf snake Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) The species distribution modelling for Barred wolf snake Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) indicates that parts of Adilabad, Karimnagar, northwestern part of Warangal, the whole of Nalgonda district, northeastern and southeastern parts of Mahbubnagar district, and southeastern and southwestern parts of Khammam districts are suitable for the presence of the species (Fig. 3.4.14a). Of these areas extreme southeastern part of Mahbubnagar, southeastern to central parts of Nalgonda and extreme southern part of Khammam districts show very high suitability for the presence of the species. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.14b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.14c) for Lycodon striatus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.918 which is in between 0.90>AUC 1 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is excellent. Precipitation of Coldest Quarter (BIO19) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.14a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Barred wolf snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.14b. Table 3.4.14a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 4) for Barred wolf snake Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 95.6 90.2 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 3.8 2 ALT Altitude 0.4 7.8 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 0.2 0 [Variables (n = 16) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 214

Fig. 3.4.14a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Barred wolf snake Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.14b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Barred wolf snake Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana 215

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3.4.15 Yellow-collared wolf snake Lycodon flavicollis Mukherjee & Bhupathy, 2007 The species distribution modelling for Yellow-collared wolf snake Lycodon flavicollis Mukherjee & Bhupathy, 2007 could not be done as the species is currently known only from a few, closely located sites in urban conglomerate of Hyderabad. 3.4.16 Forsten s cat snake Boiga forsteni (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854) The species distribution modelling for Forsten s cat snake Boiga forsteni (Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854) could not be done as the species is currently known only one location in Mahbubnagar district. 3.4.17 Common Indian cat snake Boiga trigonata (Bechstein, 1802) The species distribution modelling for Common Indian cat snake Boiga trigonata (Bechstein, 1802) indicates that the only the eastern parts of the Telangana region is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.17a). Parts of Adilabad, Hyderabad, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nizamabad, Ranga Reddy districts show least suitability, while the major areas of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda, Nizamabad and Warangal districts are showing very good suitability. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.17b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.17c) for Boiga trigonata in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.817 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Altitude (ALT) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.17a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Common Indian cat snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.17b. 218

Table 3.4.17a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 2) for Common Indian cat snake Boiga trigonata (Bechstein, 1802) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance ALT Altitude 98.2 95 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 1.8 5 [Variables (n = 18) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. Fig. 3.4.17a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Common Indian cat snake Boiga trigonata (Bechstein, 1802) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.17b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Common Indian cat snake Boiga trigonata (Bechstein, 1802) in Telangana 219

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3.4.18 Common vine snake Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) The species distribution modelling for Common vine snake Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) indicates that parts of the central and western region of the state are suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.18a). Northwestern parts of Mahbubnagar and ranga Reddy districts, central parts of Karimnagar and Warangal districts, northeastern part of Adilabad district, southeastern part of Khammam district are least suitable for the presence of the species. Eastern part of Khammam district, Hyderabad and southeastern part of Ranga Reddy district, northwestern part of Nalgonda district, and southeastern part of Mahbubnagar district show very high suitability for the presence of the species. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.18b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.18c) for Ahaetulla nasuta in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.832 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Altitude (ALT) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.18a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Common vine snake was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.18b. 3.4.19 Striped keelback Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) The species distribution modelling for Striped keelback Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) indicates that ecept for a small area in southern Mahbubnagar district that shows least suitability, other areas in all the ten districts are suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.19a). The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.19b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.19c) for Amphiesma stolatum in Telangana indicates that the area 221

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under curve (AUC) is 0.776 which is in between 0.70>AUC 0.80 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is acceptable. Altitude (ALT) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.19a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Striped keelback was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.19b. Fig. 3.4.18a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Common vine snake Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.18b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Common vine snake Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) in Telangana 223

Table 3.4.18a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 14) for Common vine snake Ahaetulla nasuta (Lacépède, 1789) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance ALT Altitude 27.5 20.9 BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 24.8 5.7 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 12.4 12.9 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 10 12.1 BIO11 Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter 5.2 0.2 BIO6 Minimum Temperature of Coldest Month 4.1 14.9 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 3.7 0 BIO3 Isothermality 3.5 17.1 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 2.8 0 BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 2.3 11.6 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 2.2 0.8 BIO1 Annual Mean Temperature 0.9 3.4 BIO5 Maximum Temperature of Warmest Month 0.3 0.4 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 0.1 0 [Variables (n = 6) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.20 Olive keelback water snake Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803) The species distribution modelling for Olive keelback water snake Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803) could not be done as the species is currently known only one location in Nalgonda district. 224

Fig. 3.4.19a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Striped keelback Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.19b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Striped keelback Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana 225

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Table 3.4.19a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 14) for Striped keelback Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance ALT Altitude 41.8 12 BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 31.1 10.3 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 11.8 16.1 BIO1 Annual Mean Temperature 9.6 17.9 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 1.6 4.5 BIO4 Temperature Seasonality 1.3 4.6 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 1.1 6.5 BIO8 Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter 0.9 18.3 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 0.7 9.5 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 0.1 0 [Variables (n = 6) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.21 Green keelback Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) The species distribution modelling for Green keelback Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) indicates that except for southeastern and parts of southwestern Mahbubnagar, major parts of Nalgonda district, southern most part of Ranga Reddy district, the other parts of the state are least suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.21a). Extreme southeastern part of Mahbubnagar distrct and southwestern part of Nalgonda district show very high suitability for the presence of the species. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.21b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.21c) for Macropisthodon plumbicolor in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.983 which is in between 0.90>AUC 1 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is excellent. Annual Precipitation (BIO12) is 227

the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.21a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Striped keelback was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.21b. Table 3.4.21a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 6) for Green keelback Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO12 Annual Precipitation 61.1 32.1 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 16.5 22 BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 13.9 7.8 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 4.1 21.5 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 2.7 6.8 BIO11 Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter 1.7 9.8 [Variables (n = 14) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.22 Checkered keelback Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) The species distribution modelling for Checkered keelback Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) indicates that districts of Nalgonda, Hyderabad, major part of Waranagal, Karimnagar, Adilabad, southeastern and southwestern parts of Khammam and central parts of Nizamabad districts are suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.22a). Except for these areas all the parts of the state are unsuitable for the presencde of the species. High degree of suitability is seen in Hyderabad, southeastern part of Ranga Reddy, central, northeastern and northwestern parts of Nalgonda district, southeastern part of Khammam district and northeastern part of Karimnagar districts. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.22b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.22c) for Xenochrophis piscator in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.848 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Precipitation of Driest Quarter 228

(BIO17) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.22a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Striped keelback was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.22b. Fig. 3.4.21a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Green keelback Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.21b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Green keelback Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839) in Telangana 229

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Table 3.4.22a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 12) for Checkered keelback Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 28 30.7 ALT Altitude 23.1 26.8 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 20.1 30.7 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 13.3 0 BIO8 Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter 5.6 2.5 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 5.2 0 BIO1 Annual Mean Temperature 2.4 0.7 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 0.9 5.3 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 0.5 0 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 0.4 1.3 BIO10 Mean Temperature of Warmest Quarter 0.4 1.4 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 0.1 0.6 [Variables (n = 8) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.23 Common smooth-scaled water snake Enhydris enhydris (Schneider, 1799) The species distribution modelling for Common smooth-scaled water snake Enhydris enhydris (Schneider, 1799) could not be done as the species is currently known only from one location in Nalgonda district. 3.4.24 Banded krait Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) The species distribution modelling for Banded krait Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) indicates that except for major part of Nalgonda, Hyderabad, eastern part of Ranga Reddy district, northeastern part of Medak district, southwestern part of Karimnagar district, northeastern part of Warangal and to some extent Khammam districts, a small region in the western part of Medak district the rest of the region in the state is not suitable for the presence of the species (Fig. 3.4.24a). Hyderabad, northeastern part of Warangal district, eastern part of Ranga Reddy district are highly suitable for the presence of the species. 232

Fig. 3.4.22a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Checkered keelback Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.22b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Checkered keelback Xenochrophis piscator (Schneider, 1799) in Telangana The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.24b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The 233

receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.24c) for Bungarus fasciatus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.947 which is in between 0.90>AUC 1 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is excellent. Precipitation Seasonality (BIO15) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.24a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Banded krait was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.24b. Table 3.4.24a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 7) for Banded krait Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 54.9 70.7 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 12.8 14.4 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 12.4 3.8 BIO3 Isothermality 10.6 6.8 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 6 0 ALT Altitude 1.8 4.3 BIO14 Precipitation of Driest Month 1.4 0 [Variables (n = 13) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.25 Common Indian krait Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) The species distribution modelling for Common Indian krait Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) indicates that major parts of the state are suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.25a). However, major part of Khammam, central part of Warangal, northwestern part of Medak, southern part of Nizamabad, some parts of western Mahbubnagar show least suitability for the presence of this species. Hyderabad, eastern part of Ranga Reddy districts, western parts of Nalgonda district, southern part of Mahbubnagar, eastern part of Karimnagar and small areas in the eastern part of Warangal districts are highly suitable for the presence of this species. 234

Fig. 3.4.24a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Banded krait Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.24b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Banded krait Bungarus fasciatus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.25b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.25c) for Bungarus caeruleus in Telangana indicates that the area 235

under curve (AUC) is 0.834 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Precipitation Seasonality (BIO15) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.25a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Common Indian krait was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.25b. Table 3.4.25a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 15) for Common Indian krait Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 20.1 22 BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 18.8 5.3 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 15.9 6.4 ALT Altitude 12.6 8.6 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 10.1 10.6 BIO8 Mean Temperature of Wettest Quarter 7.4 4.3 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 5.6 20.7 BIO10 Mean Temperature of Warmest Quarter 3 0 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 2.1 0 BIO11 Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter 1.4 0 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 1.4 1 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 0.5 7.3 BIO3 Isothermality 0.5 3.7 BIO6 Minimum Temperature of Coldest Month 0.5 9.3 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 0.1 0.7 [Variables (n = 5) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.26 Spectacled cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) The species distribution modelling for Spectacled cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) indicates that the region toward the south of the state is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.26a). Parts of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, 236

Medak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad and Warangal districts shows least suitability, while other parts of these districts show fairly good suitability, some parts in Adilabad, Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda, Ranga Reddy and Warangal districts are showing very good suitability. Fig. 3.4.25a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Common Indian krait Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.25b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Common Indian krait Bungarus caeruleus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana 237

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The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.26b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.26c) for Naja naja in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.861 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Maximum Temperature of Warmest Month (BIO5) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.26a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Spectacled cobra was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.26b. Table 3.4.26a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 13) for Spectacled cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO5 Maximum Temperature of Warmest month 25 7 BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 22.3 10 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 21.2 6.4 BIO10 Mean Temperature of Warmest Quarter 15.4 39 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 5.1 16.6 BIO17 Precipitation of Driest Quarter 3 4.3 BIO1 Annual Mean Temperature 1.9 1.6 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 1.9 4.2 BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 1.5 5 ALT Altitude 1.2 1.5 BIO6 Minimum Temperature of Coldest Month 1 1.9 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 0.5 0.2 BIO7 Temperature Annual Range 0.1 2.3 [Variables (n = 7) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 240

Fig. 3.4.26a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Spectacled cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.26b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Spectacled cobra Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758) in Telangana 241

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3.4.27 Russell s viper Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) The species distribution modelling for Russell s viper Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) indicates that most of the region is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.27a). Most of the eastern parts of Adilabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda and Warangal districts shows least suitability, while some areas in these districts show fairly good suitability, Hyderabad, northwestern part of Nalgonda, parts of Khammam, Mahbubnagar, eastern parts of Ranga Reddy district and western part of Warangal district are showing very good suitability. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.27b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.27c) for Daboia russelii in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.867 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Precipitation Seasonality (BIO15) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.27a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Russell s viper was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.27b. Table 3.4.27a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 11) for Russell s viper Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO15 Precipitation Seasonality 29.1 18.7 BIO13 Precipitation of Wettest Month 19 0 BIO18 Precipitation of Warmest Quarter 15.5 5.3 ALT Altitude 10.4 6 BIO1 Annual Mean Temperature 8.7 22.7 BIO10 Mean Temperature of Warmest Quarter 6.9 8.6 BIO9 Mean Temperature of Driest Quarter 3.8 14.7 BIO3 Isothermality 3.2 6.3 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 2.2 17.1 BIO12 Annual Precipitation 0.9 0 BIO16 Precipitation of Wettest Quarter 0.3 0.7 [Variables (n = 9) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 243

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Fig. 3.4.27a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Russell s viper Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.27b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Russell s viper Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797) in Telangana 3.4.28 Saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) The species distribution modelling for Saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) indicates that except for southwestern part of Mahbubnagar, Ranga Reddy and Medak district and southern parts of Khammam, and northeastern part of 245

Adilabad district most of the region is suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.28a). The above mentioned areas show least suitability for the presence of this species. Parts of Hyderabad, Khammam, Mahbubnagar, Nalgonda and Ranga Reddy districts show very good suitability. The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.28b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.28c) for Echis carinatus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.894 which is in between 0.80>AUC 0.90 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is good. Precipitation of Coldest Quarter (BIO19) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.28a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Saw-scaled viper was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.28b. Table 3.4.28a. Relative contributions of the environmental variables (n = 3) for Saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana Percent Permutation Variable contribution importance BIO19 Precipitation of Coldest Quarter 90.9 71.8 BIO2 Mean Diurnal Range of Temperature 7.8 14.6 BIO5 Maximum Temperature of Warmest Month 1.2 13.5 [Variables (n = 17) not contributing in influencing the species distribution are not represented in the table]. 3.4.29 Bamboo pit viper Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw, 1802) The species distribution modelling for Bamboo pit viper Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw, 1802) indicates that except for forested parts of Adilabad district, parts of Nizamabad, Medak, Ranga Reddy, Mahbubnagar, and Khammam districts which are most suitable for the presence of this species (Fig. 3.4.29a) all the other parts of the state show least suitability for the presence of this species. 246

Fig. 3.4.28a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) Fig. 3.4.28b & c. Graph showing the omission rate and predicted area, and the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for Saw-scaled viper Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) in Telangana 247

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The omission rate and predicted area as a function of the cumulative threshold (Fig. 3.4.29b) depicts the omission rate being close to the predicted omission. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (the specificity in curve is defined using predicted area) (Fig. 3.4.29c) for Trimeresurus gramineus in Telangana indicates that the area under curve (AUC) is 0.996 which is in between 0.90>AUC 1 and is interpreted as predicted model has performed well and is excellent. Mean Temperature of Coldest Quarter (BIO11) is the most contributing environmental variable relatively to the MaExnt model (Table 3.4.29a). The average monthly variation in the temperature and precipitation from the sites where the Bamboo pit viper was recorded is presented in Table 3.4.29b. Fig. 3.4.29a. Map showing the predicted distributed range for Bamboo pit viper Trimeresurus gramineus (Shaw, 1802) in Telangana with known occurrences (depicted as black dots). Areas identified as suitable based on climatic variables are shown in green scale: light green (low suitability) to dark green (high suitability) 249