Medicinal use of animals by hunters in North eastern Brazil

Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol. 17 (3), July 2018, pp. 485-493 Medicinal use of animals by hunters in North eastern Brazil José Aécio Alves Barbosa 1 *, José Otávio Aguiar 1 & Rômulo Romeu Da Nóbrega Alves 2 1 Programa de Pós-Graduação em Recursos Naturais, Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Centro de Tecnologia e Recursos Naturais, Av. Aprígio Veloso, nr 882, Bodocongó, P.O. 58429-140, Campina Grande-PB, Brazil; 2 Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraíba, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Av. das Baraúnas, nr 351, Campus Universitário Bodocongó, P.O. 58429-500, Campina Grande-PB, Brazil E-mails: barbosa.joseaecioalves@gmail.com*, otavio.j.aguiar@gmail.com, romulo_nobrega@yahoo.com.br Received 24 August 2017, revised 2 April 2018 Animals (and their by-products) are used worldwide in the preparation of many traditional medicines. Despite this, research on medicinal use of animals is still neglected in comparison to studies on medicinal plants. This paper documents the medicinal use of animals by hunters residing in rural communities in the semiarid region (Caatinga) of Brazil. A total of 117 hunters provided information about the animal species used, body parts useful for preparing remedies and which diseases are treated with animal-based remedies. The Informant Consensus Factor and Use Value - Current / Potential were calculated to determine the consensus on which species are effective in treating specific diseases, and to measure hunting pressure on each species. The medicinal use of 39 animal species was registered, which were indicated to cure 46 ailments. The local medicinal fauna is largely based on wildlife, including endangered species. The high number of animals used by hunters makes it possible to conclude that any conservation strategy should include, in addition to an environmental approach, access to modern healthcare. Keywords: Hunting, Zootherapy, Wildlife conservation, Dry forest IPC Int. Cl. 8 : A01M, C11D 3/384, A01K 11/00, A01M 23/00, A21D 2/34, A61K 8/98, A61L 27/31, C07K 14/47 The widespread use of natural resources is a common practice in traditional medicine. Therefore, animals and their by-products are a significant part of the inventory of medicinal substances used by many peoples in different cultures since ancient times 1-4. Research on animals used for medical purposes is neglected in comparison to research on medicinal plants, even with the worldwide prevalence of the use of wildlife products in traditional medical practices 5. Current papers, however, have demonstrated the importance of zootherapy in various sociocultural contexts in the world, especially in developing countries 6. In Brazil, many species of wildlife are used for medicinal purposes since the colonial period, being therapeutic alternatives widely disseminated and available throughout the country 3,7-10, and many people continue to rely on zootherapy as an alternative or complement to the use of allopathic drugs 11,12. This practice seems common among hunters, as an attempt to maximize animal resources 9,13. *Corresponding author The use of animals for medicinal purposes is part of a set of traditional knowledge that has become increasingly relevant to discussion about fauna conservation, public health policies, sustainable management of natural resources, prospecting and biological patentes 14. In North eastern Brazil, especially in the semiarid region, animals and plants are widely used in traditional medicine and play a significant role in alternative treatments 15,16. Zootherapy is part of the culture in the semiarid of Brazil, and the knowledge about animal-based remedies is passed down through generations of hunters by oral tradition. Thus, the present paper aims to record the medicinal use of wildlife by hunters from two areas of the Brazilian semi-arid region. Methodology The work was carried out between August 2011 and October 2015 in the municipality of Queimadas (7º21'29" S, 35º53'53" W), and Fagundes (7º20'45" S, 35º47'51" W), located in the Agreste Mesoregion (Dry forest) of the state of Paraíba, Brazil. These municipalities are easily accessible and have

486 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL 17, NO 3, JULY 2018 predominantly rural characteristics, with communities following traditional customs (sertanejos). Fagundes has an area of 162 km² and an approximate altitude of 505 m. The municipality has a total population of 11,409 inhabitants, 5,942 of them live in the rural area. Its Human Development Index (HDI) is 0.559 17,18. Queimadas has an area of 409 km² and an approximate elevation of 450 m. The municipality has a total population of 41,054 inhabitants, of which 22,249 are in the urban area. Its Human Development Index (HDI) is 0.608 18,19. The studied area is subdivided in many communities. The Salvador and Catucar communities in Fagundes, and the Gravatá and Velez communities in Queimadas were the areas sampled in this paper. The localities present between 90 and 130 residences, distant from one another and close to mountains with preserved vegetation 13,20. The local vegetation is hyperxerophilic with stretches of deciduous forest. The climate is represented by the semiarid tropical type, with autumn-winter rains and an average annual precipitation of 431.8 mm 17,19. Procedures and data analysis Initially, hunters were identified with the help of residents of the areas studied, and later, those with specialized knowledge on animal-based remedies were selected for interviews by Snowball sampling 3,21. Before the interviews, all signed a free and informed consent term. Ethical approval for the research was obtained from the Comitê de Ética of the Universidade Federal da Paraíba (CAAE: 0013.0.167.000-05). Most of the hunters interviewed experience a stable marital relationship, by marriage or consensual union. The occupational activity of most of them is agriculture. The educational level of hunters is low, 43.75 % of them have not completed primary school. The average monthly income of the interviewees is 1.37 minimum wage (around R$ 1300) per capita (around US$ 400). The families present, in 35.41 % of the cases, three individuals per residence. Most of the interviewees are from the area surveyed, and have lived throughout their lives in the same region. The interview questions were about the local name of the animal used as medicine; by-products and used parts; treated diseases; use of medicinal products; spiritual aspects related to the use; use of live or dead animals; obtaining animals; dependence on wildlife medicinal products; reasons for using zootherapeutic drugs and transmission of traditional knowledge. The common names of the species were recorded as cited by the interviewees. The animals were identified by expert taxonomists (I) through examining samples donated by the interviewees; (II) observing photographs of the animals or their parts, visualized during the interviews; (III) using the vernacular names. All specimens and photographs were deposited at the Departamento de Ciências Biológicas of the Universidade Federal de Campina Grande. The treated diseases were grouped into 14 categories (Table 1), based on the classification used by the Centro Brasileiro de Classificação de Doenças 22. To estimate the level of agreement between interviewees over which animals to use for each category, we calculated the informant consensus factor ICF, (adapted 23 ) that quantifies the variability of animals used for each treatment, and therefore the consensus between practitioners. ICF = (NUR NS) / (NUR 1) Where, ICF = Informant Consensus Factor; NUR = number of use-reports in each category; NS = number of species used. The ICF score ranges from 0 to 1. A value close to zero may indicate high variation in species utilization, or if animals are randomly selected, or if informants do not exchange information about wildlife use. Values close to one indicates the high intracultural consensus. For each animal cited, the use value UV (adapted 24,25 ) was calculated. The use value (current and potential) was calculated using the following formulas: (UV C = ΣU C /n) e/ ou (UV P = ΣU P /n) Where, UV C = current use value of the species (species known and effectively used); UV P = potential use value of the species (species of known use, but not currently used); U C = number of citations of current use per species; U P = number of citations of potential use per species; n = number of informants. This differentiation in use values was important to minimize some calculation limitations, since the classic UV 24 does not distinguish between actual use and past use, which could overestimate or underestimate the analysis 13.

BARBOSA et al.: MEDICINAL USE OF ANIMALS BY HUNTERS IN NORTH EASTERN BRAZIL 487 Table 1 Categories of diseases with indication of registered zootherapeutic treatment Categories Diseases and illnesses mentioned by respondents Total Undefined diseases Inflammation, hoarseness, firtteething, cracks in the sole of the feet 5 and general pain. Some infections and parasitic diseases Erysipelas, chilblain, tuberculosis, influenza, warts and mumps. 6 Respiratory system Asthma, bronchitis, effusion, catarrh, cough, sore throat, sinusitis and tonsillitis. 8 Injuries, poisoning and other consequences of external causes Wounds, muscle strain and sprains. 3 Osteomuscular system and conjunctive tissue Arthritis, arthrosis, column pain, backache, osteoporosis, 7 osteoarthritis and rheumatism. Circulatory system Hemorrhage and thrombosis. 2 Urinogenital system Menstrual problems. 1 External causes of morbidity and mortality Alcoholism, to remove a splinter from skin, swelling and bleeding. 4 Skin and subcutaneous tissue Skin spots and acne. 2 Symptoms, signsand abnormal findings from medical and Tumors and furuncles. 2 laboratorial examination, not categorized in other part or section Ear (middle and inner ear) and mastoid apophysis Deafness and earache. 2 Diseases of the endocrine glands, metabolismo and nutrition Weakness and malnutrition. 2 Mental and behavioral perturbations Sexual impotence. 1 Ophthalmological diseases Pterygium. 1 Total 46 Results and discussion A total of 117 hunters were interviewed. They were aged between 32 and 79 yrs old (with an average age of 53 yrs old). The hunters cited a total of 39 species distributed in 34 wildlife families that are used as medicinal animals for the treatment of 46 diseases in the region. This sampling is high compared to other studies that list the medicinal animals in the region 13,26,27. It is necessary to consider both the knowledge and socioeconomic conjuncture of hunters using zooterapeutic drugs 20,28. This knowledge, coupled with the life stories, makes the hunters understand very well the ecological dynamics of the hunted species, which makes them important and with enormous potential to assist, under expert guidance, strategies of environmental and cultural conservation. The species recorded in this paper are basically arthropods and terrestrial tetrapods found in the region's ecosystem. This fact supports other research that exposes the tendency to use biodiversity in the ecological zone where people live 3,29. Four species are not part of the local fauna (Caiman sp., American rhea, Struthio camelus, Trichechus inunguis), and hunters reported acquiring their derivatives at fairs and formal and informal animals markets in the region. Part of the fauna is illegally traded. Several works denounce the illegal wildlife trade in the North east of Brazil, including zootherapy as one of the main justifications for its maintenance 30,31. This paper reinforces this claim, especially through the registration of derivatives of animals at risk of extinction, such as the Trichechus inunguis 32, which is freely marketed in the studied area. The most cited species were Salvator merianae (n=177), Caudisona durisa (n=154), Iguana iguana (n=130). The UV C varied between zero and 1.265, and the UV P varied between zero to 0.248. An amount of 31 species (79.5 %) presented UV C higher than UV P, and eight species only showed UV C, which constitutes a strong indication of the continuous pressure of the zootherapeutic practices upon the local fauna. In addition, six species (Salvator merianae; Caudisona durisa; Iguana iguana; Cerdocyon thous; Mesoclemmys tuberculata; Cavia aperea) showed a UV C greater than 0.3, which indicates the current risk of local overexploitation of these animals. A total of six species (15.4 %) presented a higher UV P than UV C, with three species presenting only VU P. For some animals like Amazona aestiva, this may be a sign of their local absence. This evidence is reinforced by the hunters' opinion on the scarcity of this species in the region. Another possibility is that the local culture of consuming animal-based remedies might have changed, making fundamental a more

488 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL 17, NO 3, JULY 2018 profound ecological analysis on these animal populations in the studied area. The hunters cited the following by-products as remedy: meat, bones, tail, feathers, paws, teeth, head, stomach, liver, gizzard, eggs, fat, abdomen, viscera and feces (Table 2). The zootherapeutic products listed in this paper corroborate other records for the North east Region of Brazil 3, for other regions of the country 33, for Latin America 34 and other areas 35-37, which demonstrates the undisputed dissemination of these practices and makes it essential to analyze the efficacy of these by-products. Animal-based remedies were used to treat 46 illnesses. The categories of diseases with the highest number of species used as treatment were respiratory diseases (18 species, 367 use citations), undefined diseases (12 species, 204 use citations) and diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue (8 species, 185 use citations). The IFC values were above 0.9 for nine of the categories of diseases listed (Table 3). The low number of species citations for some categories influenced this result, but it is worth mentioning the results for musculoskeletal disorders (IFC = 0.96), respiratory diseases and undefined diseases \(IFC = 0.95), that presented high ICF, despite the fact that more than 12 species were cited on average. Different parts of a single species can be used as raw materials to prepare different remedies, which are prescribed for the treatment of various diseases. The possibility of using different zootherapics for the same disease or the same animal to treat different diseases may be an adaptation of the hunters to the availability of animals 11,38,39. The local zootherapeutic products are used mainly for the treatment of diseases of the respiratory system, such as asthma, bronchitis, effusion, catarrh, cough, sore throat, sinusitis and tonsillitis. A similar trend in relation to medicinal animals was recorded in cities of North and North east Brazil 3,11,12,16,40,41. This fact amplifies the need to understand the zootherapeutic practices in the context of biodiversity conservation in the country 3,30. Besides being used for the elaboration of traditional medicines, the animals are also used as amulets in mystical cures, such as Cavia aperea (amulet to treat dentition) and Caudisona durisa (the rattle is used as an amulet to avoid snake bites). Due to this mystical aspect (superstitions), there has been a trend towards the use of live animals, as with Cyanocorax cyanopogon and Chelonoidis carbonaria, which are credited wih being capable of curing respiratory diseases with the symbolic rite of feeding them with the patient's food remains. Diseases with supernatural causes exist in different cultures 42, so, because traditional medical systems are organized as cultural systems, the use of wildlife substances, in addition to an ecological perspective, must also be understood from a cultural perspective 43. In every society there are beliefs that can be easily abandoned and there are ones that are strongly rooted within a culture, making them hard to change. This aspect is particularly relevant to the modes of disease transmission and how they can be effectively treated 44. In a study about the use of animals in zootherapy in fishing communities in the North and North east of Brazil, Alves 45 records that in the communities surveyed, besides the animals supplying raw material for the treatment of diseases using clinical methods, their products are also used in form amulets and spells in order to prevent and treat diseases associated with unnatural causes. The present work also identified that 21 species are on lists of threatened animals, such as Dasypus novemcinctus and Trichechus inunguis 32,46. Unscrupulous use of animal products in traditional medicine may result in undesirable consequences, including illegal wildlife trade and animal population reduction. Hence, the medicinal use of animals should be considered in conjunction with other forms of anthropogenic pressure 3,47. There is the necessity to increase understanding of the biology and ecology of species traditionally used as zootherapics to better assess the impacts of this form of use. Medicinal use of threatened species must receive urgent attention, and the loss and alteration of their habitats should be discussed in combination with current and future medicinal uses in order to preserve the bioprospecting potential of the fauna in Brazil 3,31. Biotherapeutic activities, if well managed, may be compatible with environmental conservation programs where the use of natural resources can and should occur in such a way that the fulfillment of human needs and the protection of biodiversity are guaranteed 11.

BARBOSA et al.: MEDICINAL USE OF ANIMALS BY HUNTERS IN NORTH EASTERN BRAZIL 489 Table 2 List of zootherapeutic animals and by-products and diseases treated. Zootherapeutic Species Citations UV C UV P Disease/ Used part Arthropods Blattidae Periplaneta americana (Linnaeus, 1758) Barata (American cockroach) 4 0.026 0.009 Earache/ Offal Asthma/ Whole animal Formicidae Acromyrmex landolti (Emery, 1980) Saúva (Leaf-cutter ant) 22 0.154 0.034 Asthma/ Whole animal Atta cephalotes (Linnaeus, 1758) Tanajura (Leaf-cutter ant) 21 0.162 0.017 Sore throat, catarrh in the chest, coughs and hoarseness/ Abdomen Gryllinae Acheta sp. Grilo (House cricket) 2 0.009 0.009 Asthma/ Whole animal Pholcidae Pholcus phalangioides (Füssli, 1775) Aranha (House spider) 4 0.026 0.009 Asthma/ Whole animal Termitidae Nasutitermes macrocephalus (Silvestri, 1903) Cupim (Termite) 25 0.214 Bronchitis, catarrh in the chest coughs, influenza, sore throat, sinusitis, tonsillitis and hoarseness/ Whole animal Vespidae Protonectarina sylveirae (Saussure, 1854) Marimbondo (Wasp) 12 0.068 0.034 Mumps/ Nest Hemorrhage, bleeding and menstrual problems/ Whole animal Amphibians Bufonidae Rhinella jimi (Stevaux, 2002) Cururu (Toad) 35 0.197 0.103 Erysipelas, warts/ Offal and Whole animal Leiuperidae Physalaemus gracilis (Boulenger, 1883) LC Caçote (Frog) 9 0.068 0.009 Warts/ Whole animal Leptodactylidae Leptodactylu svastus Lutz, 1930 Jia (Frog) 31 0.248 0.017 Sore throat/ Fat and meat Reptiles Alligatoridae Caiman sp. Jacaré (Alligator) 2 0.017 Weakness/ Meat Boidae Boa constrictor (Linnaeus, 1758) Jiboia (Boa) 35 0.299 Column pain, backache, rheumatism/ Fat Chelidae Mesoclemmys tuberculata (Luederwaldt, 1926) Cágado d água (Tuberculate toadhead turtle) 44 0.376 Column pain, backache, rheumatism, swelling, furuncles and tumors/ Fat Iguanidae Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758) DD/II Camaleão (Green iguana) 130 0.949 0.162 Rheumatism, pains in general, column pain, sore throat, earache, arthritis, osteoarthritis, furuncles and tumors/ Fat Rheumatism, arthritis and osteoarthritis/ Bones Teiidae (contd.)

490 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL 17, NO 3, JULY 2018 Table 2 List of zootherapeutic animals and by-products and diseases treated. (contd.) Zootherapeutic Species Citations UV C UV P Disease/ Used part Ameiva ameiva (Linnaeus, 1758) LC Bico doce (Jungle runner) 3 0.017 0.009 Warts/ Whole animal Salvator merianae (Duméril & Bibron, 1839) DD/II Teju (Tegu lizard) 177 1.265 0.248 Sore throat, earache, catarrh in the chest, coughs, influenza, hoarseness, tumor and swelling/ Fat Testudinidae Chelonoidis carbonaria (Spix, 1824) DD/II Jabuti (Red-footed tortoise) 17 0.120 0.026 Furuncles, tumors and pains in general/ Fat Asthma/ Whole animal Tropiduridae Tropidurus hispidus (Spix, 1825) Lagartixa Lizards 27 0.214 0.017 Erysipelas, chilblain, warts, skin spots and cracks in the sole of the feet/ Offal Asthma/ Tail Asthma, chilblain, warts and skin spots/ Whole animal Viperidae Caudisona durissa (Linnaeus, 1758) DD/III Cascavel (Neotropical rattlesnake) Birds Cathartidae 154 1.094 0.222 Rheumatism, pains in general, backache, and inflammation/ Fat Coragyps atratus (Bechstein, 1793) Urubu (Black vulture) 17 0.043 0.103 Asthma, alcoholism/ Liver and feather Tuberculosis/ Whole animal Columbidae Columba picazuro Temminck, 1813 LC Asa branca (Picazuro pigeon) 11 0.060 0.034 Sore throat, tonsillitis, bronchitis and hoarseness/ Whole animal Leptotila rufaxilla (Richard & Bernard, 1792) LC Juriti (Gray-fronted 6 0.026 0.026 Pterygium/ Gizzard dove) Corvidae Cyanocorax cyanopogon (Wied, 1821) Cancão (White-naped jay) 25 0.214 Asthma/ Whole animal Falconidae Herpetotheres cachinnans (Linnaeus, 1758) LR/II Acauã (Laughing falcon) 9 0.026 0.051 Sore throat, tonsillitis and hoarseness/ Whole animal Psitacidae Amazona aestiva (Linnaeus, 1758) Papagaio (Turquoise-fronted parrot) 6 0.009 0.043 Asthma, skin spots and acne/ Feces Rheidae Rhea americana (Linnaeus, 1758) EN Ema (Greater rhea) 3 0.026 Weakness and malnutrition/ Eggs Pain in general/ Fat Struthionidae Struthio camelus Linnaeus, 1758 LC Avestruz (Ostrich) 2 0.017 Weakness/ Meatandeggs Trochilidae Amazilia fimbriata (Gmelin, 1788) LC Beija-flor (Glittering-throated Emerald) 4 0.034 Asthma/ Whole animal (contd.)

BARBOSA et al.: MEDICINAL USE OF ANIMALS BY HUNTERS IN NORTH EASTERN BRAZIL 491 Tyrannidae Table 2 List of zootherapeutic animals and by-products and diseases treated. (contd.) Fluvicola nengeta (Linnaeus, 1766) Lavandeira (Masked water-tyrant) 16 0.137 Asthma/ Whole animal Mammals Canidae Cerdocyon thous (Linnaeus, 1766) LR/II Raposa (Crab-eating fox) 66 0.444 0.120 Arthritis, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, arthrosis, rheumatism, column pain, sprains and swelling/ Fat Caviidae Cavia aperea Erxleben 1777 LC Preá (Brazilian guinea pig) 52 0.342 0.103 Cracks in the sole of the feet/ Fat Firt teething/ Teeth, head and whole animal Kerodon rupestris (Wied-Neuwied, 1820) LC Mocó (Rock cavy) 25 0.214 Deafness/ Fat Thrombosis and effusion/ Estomach Cervidae Mazama gouazoupira (G. Fischer, 1814) LC Veado (Gray brocket) 7 0.034 0.026 Asthma, Male impotence/ Legs Dasypodidae Dasypus novemcinctus (Linnaeus, 1758) VU Tatu (Armadillo) 20 0.145 0.026 Deafness and earache/ Tail Euphractus sexcinctus (Linnaeus, 1758) LC Peba (Yellow armadillo) 13 0.094 0.017 Deafness and earache/ Tail Weakness/ Meat and fat Didelphidae Didelphis albiventris (Lund, 1840) LC Timbu (White-eared opossum) 5 0.034 0.009 Arthritis, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, backache, rheumatism and sprains/ Fat Molossidae Molossus molossus (Pallas, 1766) LC Morcego (Pallas s Mastiff Bat) 14 0.111 0.009 Asthma/ Whole animal Mustelidae Conepatus semistriatus (Boddaert, 1785) LC Tacaca (Striped hog-nosed skunk) Trichechidae Trichechus inunguis (Nattrer, 1883) VU/I Peixe-boi (Amazonian manatee) Legend: DD - Data Deficient; EN - Endangered; LC - Least Concern; LR - Lower Risk; VU - Vulnerable. 15 0.120 0.009 Arthritis and osteoporosis/ Fat 6 0.051 Wounds, inflammation, sprains, muscle strain, suck a splinter out of skin or flesh, arthritis, osteoarthritis, osteoporosis and rheumatism/ Fat Table 3 Categories of diseases, species cited and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) Ailment category Species All species (%) Use citation All use ICF citations (%) Undefined diseases 12 30.77 204 18.96 0.95 Some infections and parasitic diseases 7 17.95 42 3.90 0.85 Respiratory system 18 46.15 367 34.11 0.95 Injuries, poisoning and other consequences of 3 7.69 14 1.30 0.85 external causes Osteomuscular system and conjunctive tissue 8 20.51 185 17.19 0.96 Circulatory system 2 5.13 23 2.14 0.95 Urinogenital system 1 2.56 5 0.46 1 (contd.)

492 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL 17, NO 3, JULY 2018 Table 3 Categories of diseases, species cited and Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) (contd.) External causes of morbidity and mortality 6 15.38 20 1.86 0.74 Skin and subcutaneous tissue 2 5.13 16 1.49 0.93 Symptoms, signs and abnormal findings from 4 10.26 128 11.90 0.98 medical and laboratorial examination, not categorized in other part or section Ear (middle and inner ear) and mastoid apophysis 6 15.38 48 4.46 0.89 Diseases of the endocrine glands, metabolismo and 4 10.26 13 1.21 0.75 nutrition Mental and behavioral perturbations 1 2.56 5 0.46 1 Ophthalmological diseases 1 2.56 6 0.56 1 Conclusion The medicinal use of animals in the studied area resembles those described in many researches developed in Brazil. The high consensus among the hunters interviewed for the treatment of some categories of diseases makes it possible to infer that the use of animal-based remedies in the region is based on traditional systems of health perpetuated for generations. It is urgent to consider the hunting pressure exerted by the use of medicinal wildlife in the Brazilian semi-arid, since this form of use of the natural resources is related to the social and economic aspects of the local populations. Acknowledgement The authors would like to thank Universidade Federal de Campina Grande (UFCG)/ Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) for the PhD fellowship conceded to the first author. Special thanks are due to all interviewees, who kindly shared their knowledge with us. References 1 Alves RRN, Rosa IL & Santana GG, The role of animalderived remedies as complementary medicine in Brazil, BioScience, 57 (2007) 949 955. 2 Alves RRN, Vieira WLS & Santana GG, Reptiles used in traditional folk medicine: conservation implications, Biodiver Conserv, 17 (2008) 2037 2049. 3 Alves RRN, Barbosa JAA, Santos SLDX, Souto WMS & Barboza RRD, Animal-based remedies as complementary medicines in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil, Evidence-Based Comple Altern Med, (2011) doi:10.1093/ecam/nep134. 4 Albuquerque UP, Cooper Edwin L, Medeiros MFT, Alves RRN & Ladio AH, Medical Ethnobiology and Ethnopharmacology in Latin America / Evidence-Based Comple Altern Med, 2ª edn, (Hindawi), 2013. 5 Alves RRN & Rosa IL, Why study the use of animal products in traditional medicines?, J Ethnobiol Ethnomed, 1 (5) (2005) 1 5 doi:10.1186/1746-4269-1. 6 Nascimento ALB, Lozano A, Melo JG, Alves RRN & Albuquerque UP, Functional aspects of the use of plants and animals in local medical systems and their implications for resilience, J Ethnopharmacol, 194 (2016) 348-357. 7 Alves RRN, Melo MF, Ferreira FS, Trovão DMBM, Dias TLP, Oliveira JV, Lucena RFP & Barboza RRD, Healing with animals in a semiarid northeastern area of Brazil, Environ Dev Sustainab, 18 (2016) 1733-1747. 8 Alves RRN, Animal-based remedies as complementary medicine in Brazil, Forschende Komplementarmedizin, 15 (4) (2008) 226 227. 9 Moura FDBP & Marques JGW, Folk medicine using animals in the Chapada Diamantina: incidental medicine?, Ciência Saúde Coletiva, 13 (2) (2008) 2179 2188. 10 Ferreira FS, Brito AV, Ribeiro SC, Saraiva AAF, Almeida WO & Alves RRN, Animal-based folk remedies sold in public markets in Crato and Juazeiro do Norte, Ceará, Brazil, BMC Comple Altern Med, 9 (17) (2009) 1 8 doi:10.1186/1472-6882-9-17. 11 Alves RRN & Rosa IL, From cnidarians to mammals: The use of animals as remedies in fishing communities in NE Brazil, J Ethnopharmacol, 107 (2006) 259-276. 12 Alves RRN & Rosa IL, Zootherapy goes to tawn: The use of animal-based remedies in urban areas of NE and N Brazil, J Ethnopharmacol, 113 (2007) 541-555. 13 Barbosa JAA & Aguiar JO, Conhecimentos e usos da fauna por caçadores no semiárido brasileiro: um estudo de caso no estado da Paraíba, Nordeste do Brasil, Biotemas, 28 (2) (2015) 137-148. 14 Rastogi S & Kaphle K, Sustainable traditional medicine: taking the inspirations from ancient veterinary Science, Evidence-Based Comple Altern Med, 5 (2008) 1-6. 15 Alves RRN, Oliveira TPR & Rosa IL, Wild Animals Used as Food Medicine in Brazil, Evidence-Based Comple Altern Med, 2013 (2013) 1-12 doi:10.1155/2013/670352. 16 Alves RRN, Fauna used in popular medicine in Northeast Brazil, J Ethnobiol Ethnomed, 5 (1) (2009) 1-11. 17 CPRM - Serviço Geológico do Brasil. Projeto cadastro de fontes de abastecimento por água subterrânea. Diagnóstico do município de Fagundes, estado da Paraíba (CPRM/PRODEEM, Recife) 2005a. 18 IBGE - Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística. IBGE Cidades Censo 2010, (http://www.ibge.gov.br/cidadesat) 2017. 19 CPRM - Serviço Geológico do Brasil. Projeto cadastro de fontes de abastecimento por água subterrânea. Diagnóstico do município de Queimadas, estado da Paraíba (CPRM/PRODEEM, Recife) 2005b. 20 Aguiar JO & Barbosa JAA, Ouvindo os caçadores do semiárido: natureza, cultura, memórias e percepções acerca

BARBOSA et al.: MEDICINAL USE OF ANIMALS BY HUNTERS IN NORTH EASTERN BRAZIL 493 da caça no agreste paraibano, In: Representações do Sertão: poder, cultura e identidades, edited by Dias R S & Araújo J X, (Humanitas, São Paulo), 2013, 403-429. 21 Noy C, Sampling Knowledge: The Hermeneutics of Snowball Sampling in Qualitative Research, Int J Social Res Methodol, 11 (4) (2008) 327-344. 22 CBCD - Centro Brasileiro de Classificação de Doenças. Classificação Estatística Internacional de Doenças e Problemas Relacionados à Saúde/ 2009. (http://www.datasus.gov.br/cid10/webhelp/cid10.htm) 2017. 23 Heinrich M, Ankli A, Frei B, Weimann C & Sticher O, Medicinal plants in Mexico: healers consensus and cultural importance, Social Sci Med, 47 (11) (1998) 1859 1871. 24 Rossato SC, Leitão-Filho HFE & Begossi A, Ethnobotany of caiçaras of the Atlantic Forest coast (Brazil), Econ Bot NY, 53(1999) 387-395. 25 Lucena RFP, Medeiros PM, Araújo EL, Alves AGC & Albuquerque UP, The ecological apparency hypothesis and the importance of useful plants: an assessment based on usevalue, J Environ Manage, 96 (1) (2012) 106-115. 26 Barbosa JAA & Aguiar JO, Apropriação e uso da fauna no semiárido paraibano: uma avaliação da percepção ambiental, In: Recursos Naturais uma abordagem multidisciplinar, edited by Lira W S, Franca K B, Franca, M I C & Lira HL. (Realize Editora/ UFPB, João Pessoa) 2012a, 297-344. 27 Barbosa JAA & Alves RRN, Um chá de que? Animais utilizados no preparo tradicional de bebidas medicinais no agreste paraibano, BioFar, 4 (2) (2010) 1-12. 28 Barbosa JAA, A caça e o uso da fauna no Agreste: um estudo etnobiológico a partir da memória dos caçadores do município de Queimadas (1940-2012) (M.Sc. Natural resources Dissertation/ Universidade Federal de Campina Grande, Campina Grande), 2013. 29 Adeola MO, Importance of wild animals and their parts in the culture, religious festivals, and traditional medicine of Nigeria, Environ Conserv, 19 (2) (1992) 125-134. 30 Ferreira FS, Fernandes-Ferreira H, Léo Neto NA, Brito SV & Alves RRN, The trade of medicinal animals in Brazil: current status and perspectives, Biodiver Conserv, 22 (2013) 839-870. 31 Ferreira FS, Albuquerque UP, Coutinho HDM, Almeida WO & Alves RRN, The Trade in Medicinal Animals in Northeastern Brazil, Evidence-Based Comple Altern Med, (Print), 2012 (2012) 1 20 doi:10.1155/2012/126938. 32 IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (http://www.iucnredlist.org/) 2017. 33 Costa Neto EM & Alves RRN, Zooterapia: os animais na Medicina Popular Brasileira (NUPEEA, Recife), 2010. 34 Albuquerque UP, Cooper Edwin L, Medeiros MFT, Alves RRN & Ladio AH, Medical Ethnobiology and Ethnopharmacology in Latin America, Evidence-Based Comple Altern Med, 2012 (2012) 1 2 doi:10.1155/2012/379160. 35 Alves RRN & Rosa IL, Animals in Traditional Folk Medicine, 1ªedn, (Springer Berlin Heidelberg), 2013. 36 Aloufi A & Eid E, Zootherapy: A study from North western region oh Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Indian J Tradit Knowle, 15 (4) (2016) 561-569. 37 Braga-Pereira F, Santoro FR, Santos CVD & Alves RRN, First record of Angola s medicinal animals: A case study on use of mammals in local medicine in Quiçama National Park, Indian J Tradit Knowle, 16 (4) (2017) 588-592. 38 Ferreira FS, Brito SV, Oliveira AW & Alves RRN, Conservation of animals traded for medicinal purposes in Brazil: Can products derived from plants or domestic animals replace produzcts of wild animals?, Regional Environ Change (Print), 16 (2016) 543-551. 39 Alves RRN, Mendonça LET, Confessor MVA, Vieira WLS & Lopez LCS, Hunting strategies used in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil, J Ethnobiol Ethnomed, 5 (12)(2009) 1 50 doi:10.1186/1746/4269-5-12. 40 Marques JGW, Pescando pescadores: Ciência e Etnociência em uma Perspectiva Ecológica, 2ªedn, (NUPAUB/USP, São Paulo), 2001. 41 Begossi A & Braga FMS, Food taboos and folk medicine among fishermen from the Tocantins River, Amazoniana, 12 (1992) 101-118. 42 Rubel A J, The Epidemiology of a Folk Illness: Susto in Hispanic America, In: Culture, Disease, and Healing: Studies in Medical Anthropology, edited by David L. (Macmillan Publishing Co., New York), 1977. 43 Barbosa JAA & Aguiar JO, Utilização místico-tradicional da fauna no semiárido paraibano, Revista Polêm!ca, 11 (4) (2012b) 642-649. 44 Ezinna E, Views on Tuberculosis among the Igbo in Nigeria, Indig Knowle Dev Monitor, 7 (2) (1999) 3-5. 45 Alves RRN, Uso e comércio de animais para fins medicinais e mágico-religiosos no Norte e Nordeste do Brasil. (Dr. Zoology Thesis/ Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa), 2006. 46 MMA Ministério do Meio Ambiente do Brasil. Espécies Brasileiras Ameaçadas de Extinção, Sobreexplotadas ou Ameaçadas de Sobreexplotação. (http:// www.mma.gov.br/biodiversidade/especies-ameacadas- deextincao) 2017. 47 Santos CAB, Albuquerque UP, Souto WMS & Alves RRN, Assessing the effects of indigenous migration on zootherapeutic practices in the semiarid region of Brazil, Plos One, 11 (2016) 1-14.