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Chapter 13 Forensic Entomology Objectives After reading this chapter, you will understand: The stages of death. The role insects play in the decomposition of carrion. Postmortem interval. How insects can be used to estimate postmortem interval. The life cycle of insects. How variables affect results of scientifi c experiments. You will be able to: Distinguish among major insect types associated with carrion. Identify the relationship between insect type and the stages of death. Perform the same experiments that forensic entomologists do. Estimate time of death from case description. Rear fl ies from pupae and larvae to adult. Explore variables affecting the determination of time of death. 368

When I was young I used to wait On master and hand him his plate And pass the bottle when he got dry And brush away the bluetail fly One day he ride around the farm The fl ies so numerous they did swarm One chanced to bite him on the thigh The devil take the bluetail fly The pony run, he jump, he pitch He threw my master in a ditch He died and the jury wondered why The verdict was the bluetail fly They lay him under a simmon tree His epitaph is there to see Beneath this stone I m forced to lie A victim of the bluetail fly! from early American folk song, Jimmy Crack Corn and I Don t Care 369

Activity 13.1 Test Your Knowledge of the Insect World Use the handout provided by your teacher to record your answers. 1. What is a bug? a) an insect b) a pest c) a hidden microphone d) any or all of the above, depending on who you are talking to 2. A person who studies insects is an: a) etymologist. b) insectologist. c) entomologist. d) erythologist. 3. Insects are the most numerous living things on earth: true or false? 4. Taxonomy is: a) the science of taxicabs. b) the classification of things. c) a book in the Bible. d) income tax evasion. More than likely, the bluetail fly was a horsefly. 5. What is the proper name for insects with a hard, outer-body casing and jointed legs? a) arthropods b) snails c) mammals d) lobsters 6. Most insects live on land: true or false? 7. The three basic body parts of an insect are: a) head, eyes, tail. b) head, wings, legs. c) head, abdomen, wings. d) head, thorax, abdomen. 8. How many legs does an insect have? a) four b) six c) eight d) any of the above 9. All adult insects have four wings: true or false? 10. Which is not an insect? a) spider b) ant c) bee d) beetle 11. Metamorphosis is: a) a change in the body of insects. b) Sting s new CD. c) the middle earth. d) a process of extraterrestrial travel. 12. Larva is: a) a Hindu god. b) a volcanic rock. c) the immature stage of d) a skin disease. insect development. 370 Chapter 13

Activity 13.1, continued 13. Exoskeleton is: a) the outer structure of b) the tough outer covering a spacecraft. of insects. c) X-man s skeleton. d) bones found in the woods. 14. Hypothetically, if a pair of houseflies bred in April, and all the offspring lived, how many flies would there be by August? a) 10 5 b) 10 10 c) 10 15 d) 10 20 15. Label the parts of this housefly as indicated in the diagram: 16. Label the parts of this beetle as indicated in the diagram: The common housefl y is a major transmitter of diseases such as typhoid fever, conjunctivitis, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, anthrax, leprosy, cholera, diarrhea, and dysentery. It is estimated that there are 300 million insects for each person on earth! Forensic Entomology 371

Laboratory Activity 13.1 macrofauna: animals visible to the naked eye, generally 1 mm and longer Collection and Observation of Insects A Berlese funnel is used to separate macrofauna from collected soil samples. Different types of organisms can be examined with a stereomicroscope, and perhaps some can be identified. Materials Berlese funnel, either purchased or constructed from a large, 6- to 8-inch-wide funnel; galvanized screen with 1/8- to 1/4-inch mesh; and cheesecloth. Cut the screen with tin snips into a round disc that will fit snugly about two-thirds of the way down into the throat of the funnel. Line the mouth of the funnel with a single layer of cheesecloth and press it down so that it lies on top of the screen. The cheesecloth should drape over the funnel s top rim (see Figure 13.1). lightbulb soil cheesecloth funnel screen collecting vial with alcohol There are 1,462 recorded species of edible insects. A few treats: Thailand bee grubs in coconut cream Laos dragonfl y nymphs United States locust stew Philippines parched locusts Japan boiled wasp larvae South Africa deep-fried mopani worms And a favorite mealworm chocolate chip cookies Figure 13.1 Berlese funnel ring stand to hold funnel and lamp vial wider than funnel stem filled one-half full with rubbing alcohol (70 percent isopropyl alcohol) and a few drops of glycerin to retard evaporation stereomicroscope forceps or tweezers trowel or spoon to collect soil samples plastic ziplock bags, 1 gallon marking pen 15-cm ruler lamp with a 40- or 60-watt bulb 372 Chapter 13

Laboratory Activity 13.1, continued Procedure 1. Collect soil samples; start with one about 6 inches square, 1 inch deep. Different lab groups should collect from different areas. 2. Place the sample in a plastic bag. Label it with date; group or student identification; description of the collecting site, including whether it was in shade or partial/direct sun; whether it is moist or dry; and type of soil (sandy, clay, organic, etc.). 3. If the sample is very wet, let it dry overnight in a cardboard box lined with newspaper. It may still be damp the next day. 4. Place the soil sample on top of the cheesecloth in the funnel. (No need to remove twigs, leaves, grass, etc.) 5. Place the collecting vial with alcohol beneath the funnel stem. 6. Turn on the light and watch what happens. Make daily records of the number of specimens that fall into the collecting vial. 7. After a day or two, pour off the alcohol, use forceps or a toothpick to remove specimens, and observe them with the stereomicroscope. Measure each organism and sketch it in your notebook. The chart below (Table 13.1) can serve as a model. Do not write in the textbook! Table 13.1: Soil Specimens No. Found No. of Body Segments No. of Pairs of Legs No. of Pairs of Wings Common Name Class & Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 The types of organisms will vary according to the habitat. You may find ants (Hymenoptera), pillbugs (Isoptera), beetles (Coeloptera), cockroaches (Blattodea), earwigs (Dermaptera), springtails (Collembola), and immature insects that are difficult to identify, as well as earthworms, mites (Arachnida), spiders (Arachnida), and even centipedes Forensic Entomology 373

Laboratory Activity 13.1, continued (Chilopoda) and millipedes (Diplopoda). Figure 13.2 depicts a few of these insects. dichotomous: divided into two parts ; therefore, dichotomous keys always give two choices in each step in identifying an organism springtail, <5 mm beetle, 10 20 mm mite, <1 mm silverfish, 12 25 mm Figure 13.2 Common soil macrofauna pillbug, extended and coiled, to 14 mm cockroach, 10 15 mm earwig, ant, 5 10 mm On my return to the laboratory [from the crime scene]... I put the soil samples into Berlese funnels to extract the arthropods. From M. Lee Goff s A Fly for the Prosecution, p. 82 8. If you want to go further in identification, use a dichotomous key for insect orders, available from your teacher or online at http://earthlife.net/ insects/orders-key.html or www.amnh.org/learn/biodiversity_counts/ident_ help/text_keys/text_keys_index.htm. 9. Compare your data with those of other groups. Is there a relationship among collection site, type of soil, and other factors? What do you think caused the animals to leave the soil in the funnel? How could you test your hypothesis? Taxonomy taxonomy: the classifi cation of things in an orderly way that indicates natural relationships Taxonomy of modern humans: Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: sapiens Carl Linnaeus (1707 1778) is credited with devising an orderly system of classification which has been especially useful in the organization of biological systems. This method of classification is called taxonomy and is applicable to many different systems. Linnaeus established conventions to impart a unique name for every living species. How does this work? A kingdom is the broadest category; it is subdivided into a smaller unit, phylum, and so forth until we come to species, which is assigned a unique name. 374 Chapter 13

Species Genus Family Order GO TO TOPIC CODE www.scilinks.org classification systems forensics2e375 Class Phylum Kingdom Figure 13.3 The steps of taxonomy We are especially interested in arthropods, especially beetles (Coleoptera) and flies (Diptera), as you will learn shortly. Let s take a look at the classification of a particular beetle that eats carrion: Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda (arthropods) Class: Insecta (insects) Order: Coleoptera (beetles) Family: Silphidae (carrion beetles) Genus: Nicrophorus Species: humator What does all this have to do with forensic science? Forensic entomology is the use of insects and other arthropods to aid in legal investigations. There are three general areas of application: urban entomology, affecting man and his environment (e.g., insect damage to structures); stored products entomology, such as insects infesting foodstuffs; and medicolegal entomology (or forensic medical entomology), which deals with necrophagous (carrion feeding) insects that typically inhabit human remains. This is the subject that will occupy the rest of this chapter, particularly as it relates to the determination of the postmortem interval (PMI) associated with the time of death. arthropods: animals characterized by jointed legs, a segmented body, and a hard, nonliving exo- (outer) skeleton. The exoskeleton does not keep up with the growth of the insect, and so must be shed periodically. This process is called molting. The stages between molts are termed instars. carrion: the carcass of a dead and decaying animal entomology: the scientific study of insects necrophagous: feeding on carrion; from the Greek word phagos, to eat, and necro, meaning dead postmortem interval (PMI): the time elapsed since a person has died Forensic Entomology 375

Most animals and plants are known only by their genus and species names. Genus name is spelled with a capital letter, whereas the species name is normally spelled with a small letter; in printed text the pair are normally written in italics. To solve a crime, investigators must answer the five W s : Who was the victim, and/or the perpetrator; what happened; when did it happen; where did it happen; and why did it happen? The Process of Death Let s look at death in order to relate it to various methods of estimating when it occurred. Realize that death is a process, not an event. Different tissues and organisms in a living body die at different The cause of death usually is quite obvious, especially to a medical examiner or forensic pathologist. The manner of death usually requires detective work as to what happened. For example, the corpse s lungs are full of water: The cause of death is drowning; the manner of death could be accidental, suicide, homicide, natural (pulmonary edema), or undetermined. rates. For example, brain cells deprived of oxygen die within 3 7 minutes, whereas skin cells can live up to 24 hours. Even the definition of death varies within the legal and medical fields, especially now when a person can be on life-support systems. Physical Methods of Determining Time of Death A pathologist usually determines the time of death. It is most accurate if the body is found within the first 24 hours after death, using the indicators of algor mortis, livor mortis, and rigor mortis. After that time period, other methods must be employed; estimations are made by studying the environmental conditions and other information regarding the scene. Algor mortis refers to the cooling rate of the body algor mortis: the cooling of body temperature after death after death. Immediately upon death, the body can no longer metabolically maintain its temperature of 98.6 F (37 C) and begins to equalize its temperature to Temperature conversions: that of its environment. Measuring the internal body C (5/9) ( F 32) temperature can give some indication of the time of F (9/5) C 32 death, theoretically following Newton s law of cooling, which states that the rate of change of the temperature of an object is proportional to the difference between its own temperature and the ambient temperature (i.e., the temperature of its surroundings). This can be expressed mathematically by a simple first-order differential equation: dy ry dt or dt K (T TS ) dt This method of measurement was used for some time, but it applies only to small, inorganic substances, so it works with hot coffee or a pizza 376 Chapter 13

coming out of the oven, but not for corpses. In some Glaister equation: a instances, the temperature of the corpse remains the formula used for determining the same for a while or even rises due to reactions in cells approximate time period since as they shut down, as well as by bacterial generation death based on body temperature of heat. Simpler to apply than Newton s exponential temperature decay, and more accurate, is the Glaister equation: Hours since death 98.4 F internal body temperature 1.5 This equation can be used from one to 36 hours after death, but is most accurate within the first 12 hours. Generally, a body cools about 1 11 2 degrees Fahrenheit per hour until it reaches ambient temperature. Consideration must be given to the temperature of the environment, type of clothing on the body, wetness of the clothing, air movement, how many layers of clothing, and other conditions. Also, the greater the ratio of surface area to mass, as with children or smaller adults, the faster the body cools. The Potato Corpse Laboratory Activity 13.2 Materials several large baking potatoes of different sizes several large sweet potatoes of different sizes a large beet a large baking apple microwave oven thermometer Procedure 1. Weigh each item and record the dimensions. 2. Heat each food product in a microwave. Prick them prior to heating to let steam escape. The beet and apple should be placed in a tray to catch any juices. Forensic Entomology 377

Laboratory Activity 13.2, continued 3. Remove the product and insert a thermometer into the center. It will take a little practice to get the internal temperature to around 100 F. 4. Record room temperature and the temperature of the body as a function of time. 5. Graph your results in your science notebook. Analysis Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Describe the data mathematically. Compare results from the different materials with your classmates. Explain any differences. How reproducible are the results? What other variables could be explored? Livor mortis refers to the pooling of blood in the body due to gravity after the heart stops. It appears on the skin as a purplish-red discoloration and can give an indication of the position of the body at the time of death. It does not occur in the areas of the body that are in contact with the ground or constricted by other objects, as the capillaries are compressed in those places. Livor mortis begins within a half hour after death and is most evident within the first 12 hours. After this time, the discoloration of livor mortis will not move regardless of how the body is disturbed. This fact can be useful in determining whether a body has been livor mortis: a purple or red moved after death. discoloration of the skin caused by pooling of blood after death Rigor mortis refers to the rigidity of the skeletal muscles after death. Immediately upon death muscles rigor mortis: a stiffness in begin to relax; ATP (adenosine triphosphate, an the muscles that occurs shortly enzyme in the muscles) begins to break down, fluid after death concentrations change, and the muscles become rigid. Rigor mortis begins in the smaller muscles so is first observed in the face, neck, and jaw. The noticeable stiffness of rigor mortis can occur Extract from JonBenet Ramsey s autopsy report 378 Chapter 13

within a few hours of death and is gone within approximately 30 hours, leaving the body limp. The effects of rigor mortis begin to disappear in the same order in which they began, the small muscles becoming limp first, and then the larger muscles of the trunk, arms, and legs. Rigor mortis is affected by environmental conditions such as temperature, dehydration, condition of muscles, and their use prior to death; hence there are uncertainties in determining the time of death from rigor mortis also. The observations in Table 13.2 may be used in estimating time of death, but must be used with caution: Table 13.2: Rule of Thumb in Estimating Time of Death Temperature of Body Stiffness of Body Time Since Death warm not stiff not dead more than 3 hours warm stiff dead between 3 and 8 hours cold stiff dead between 8 and 36 hours cold not stiff dead for more than 36 hours Estimating Time of Death Activity 13.2 A body, quite stiff, has been found lying on the floor in the basement of a tenement building. Body temperature is measured to be 86 F; lividity (discoloration) is not complete. The police want you, as medical examiner, to estimate the time of death. You have available to you a study done on 114 natural deaths in 1872 (see Figure 13.4). Justify your conclusion. How accurate is it? What factors could affect your opinion? Percent of Deaths 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Hours Figure 13.4 Time for the onset of rigor mortis Forensic Entomology 379

Within four minutes of death, decomposition begins. Cells are deprived of oxygen, carbon dioxide in the blood increases, ph decreases, and wastes accumulate, poisoning the cells. Enzymes dissolve cells from the inside out, causing them to rupture, releasing fluids. This entire process is termed autolysis. autolysis: a process by which a biological cell self-destructs putrefaction: the decomposition of animal proteins, especially by anaerobic microorganisms CH 3 CH 2 COOH propionic acid CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 COOH butyric acid N skatole H H 2 NCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 NH 2 putrescine H 2 NCH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 NH 2 cadaverine Autolysis is first observed after a few days by the appearance of fluid-filled blisters on the skin and skin slippage where sheets of skin slough off areas of the body. Putrefaction is the next step of decomposition. It is the destruction of the soft tissues of the body, primarily by bacteria. Usually the first visible sign of putrefaction is a greenish cast to the skin. Gases such as methane and ammonia, released by continued decomposition of tissues, cause bloating. The odor of volatile butyric and propionic acids is unpleasant. Further decay of proteins and fats yields such interesting and odoriferous compounds as skatole, methyl disulfide, and the aptly named cadaverine and putrescine. By this time, the body is a mass of fluids and smells just awful. Some call this stage black putrefaction. (See Table 13.3.) The stages are continuous; the times are for general reference and are dependent upon many variables. Table 13.3: The Stages of Decomposition Stage Initial or fresh decay (autolysis) Putrefaction or bloating Black putrefaction Butyric fermentation Dry decay (diagenesis) Description The cadaver appears fresh externally but is decomposing internally due to the activities of bacteria present before death (0 4 days). The cadaver is swollen by gas produced internally, accompanied by the odor of decaying flesh (4 10 days). Flesh of creamy consistency, with exposed body parts black. Body collapses as gases escape. Fluids drain from body. Odor of decay very strong (10 20 days). Cadaver drying out. Some flesh remains at first; cheesy odor from butyric acid (20 50 days). Cadaver almost dry; slow rate of decay. May mummify (50 365 days). 380 Chapter 13

Adipocere formation sometimes occurs months to years after death. Adipocere is usually a yellowish-white, greasy, waxlike substance that forms as a result of the saponification of fatty acids, most often catalyzed by a particular anaerobic bacterium. Conditions most favorable to its formation are burial in a moist, alkaline soil (which retards putrefaction and scavengers), high body fat of the corpse, and burial in a casket within a burial vault. This process helps to preserve the body, which may aid in identification and recognition of injuries. (For a fascinating mystery involving this subject, read Carved in Bone by Jefferson Bass.) Mummification is the result of dehydrated tissue, usually skin, that has survived decay. It commonly develops under hot, dry conditions with persons of low body fat and can occur as early as one month after death. In the final stage, bone is chemically altered, especially by moisture and the ph of soil. This process is called diagenesis. The rate of decomposition depends on many variables; most important are the environment, temperature, and the presence of scavengers. For example, a body decays twice as fast underwater and half as fast underground. The following equation gives a very rough estimate for time of decomposition of soft tissue for a person lying on the ground: Number of days to become skeletonized adipocere: also called grave wax, insoluble fatty acids left as residue from preexisting fats from decomposing cadavers. It is formed by the slow hydrolysis of fats in wet ground and can occur in both embalmed and untreated bodies. saponification: the alkaline hydrolysis of fatty acid esters. In chemistry, it refers to the reaction of a base with a fat to form soap. diagenesis: the process of chemical and physical change in deposited sediment during its conversion to rock 1,285 average temperature, ºC Thus, if the average temperature around the corpse is 20ºC (68ºF), it will take about 64 days to leave only a skeleton. In the tropics, at an average temperature of 30ºC, it would take only 30 days or less because of the higher humidity. This gives investigators a ballpark time frame with which to begin their investigation. 13.1: Colonel William Shy An interesting anomaly occurred when Dr. Bill Bass, of Body Farm fame, was called to investigate an apparent defiling of the grave of a Confederate colonel, William Shy, who was killed in 1864. The disturbed grave was thought to contain a recent burial. The hole had presumably been dug by those who dumped the body; the cast-iron coffin had also been broken open. On top of the coffin, Dr. Bass found the body Forensic Entomology 381

of a large man, dressed in a tuxedo, decayed, but with flesh of a pink, healthy color. Judging from the state of the decayed flesh and the odor, Dr. Bass estimated the time since death to be six to 12 months. However, there was no other body in the grave. After comparing the body s physical dimensions to those of Colonel Shy, and considering the method of embalming bodies in the mid 1800s, the teeth, and the type of clothes on the corpse, Dr. Bass came to the conclusion that the corpse was indeed Colonel Shy, right where he was supposed to be. The body was 113 years old, not 12 months! Apparently, the lead-lined coffin and embalming method (using arsenic compounds) had prevented normal decomposition beyond autolysis which had occurred prior to burial. The disturbance at the grave site was caused by grave robbers looking for Confederate souvenirs to sell. Lt. Col. W. M. Shy, 20th Tenn. Infantry, C.S.A. Born May 24, 1838. Killed at Battle of Nashville, Dec. 16, 1864. Life Cycle of Insects Many insects are carrion eaters. Indeed, if it weren t for them, our forests and meadows would be full of animal parts. The life cycle of insects is metamorphosis: biological process in the development of animals, usually involving conspicuous changes in the animal s form or structure. About 88 percent of all insects go through complete metamorphosis in four major stages. molt: the shedding of an insect s outer skeleton during a growth stage instar: a developmental stage of arthropods, generally referring to changes in the size of the larvae well known. For example, the four principal stages of metamorphosis of a fly are: (1) egg; (2) larva (maggot); (3) pupa (plural, pupae); (4) winged adult. Figure 13.5 shows the detailed life cycle of the common housefly (Musca domestica). The female fly deposits 100 150 eggs at a time. They hatch as larvae, which eat a lot and grow fast. With a somewhat rigid exoskeleton, they must molt. The first larval stage is called the first instar; the second, the second instar. The third instar is the longest. By this time, the larva is full and no longer interested in eating. It becomes restless and moves away from the food source. It is now in its prepupal stage, during 382 Chapter 13

12 24 hrs adult, 6 8 mm 3 days 12 hrs eggs, 1.2 mm pupa, 9mm 2 days 1st instar, 3 mm 12 hrs 2nd instar, 6 mm prepupa, 12 mm 24 hrs 12 hrs Figure 13.5 3rd instar, 17 mm The life cycle of Musca domestica which it gradually darkens and hardens to form a pupa, the brittle casing from which the adult fly emerges. Forensic Entomology Knowing the stage of insect inhabitation of a corpse and the duration of stages in the insect s life cycle can lead to an estimate of the time since colonization. Estimating the time it takes for the insect to find the corpse and start laying eggs allows the investigator to calculate the PMI. For example, a corpse found with empty pupae of the housefly tells us only that the time since colonization is more than seven days (Figure 13.5). Suppose, however, that unhatched pupae of another species of fly are also found, and it is known from laboratory studies that it takes nine days from egg-laying to pupation for this species of fly under similar conditions. Assuming oviposition within one day of death for both flies, the PMI can be estimated to be about ten days. As a body undergoes successive stages of decomposition, it attracts a succession of different insects; some feed on the products of decomposition, and some feed on the feeders themselves. Like the life cycle of individual insects, the succession of insect predators on a oviposition: the depositing or laying of eggs. To oviposit means to lay eggs. A vulture boards an airplane, carrying two dead raccoons. The stewardess looks at him and says, I m sorry, sir, only one carrion allowed per passenger. Forensic Entomology 383

corpse follows a predictable pattern, although it is somewhat influenced by geography as well as by local conditions. Insect species also vary from region to region, from habitat to habitat, and from season to season. The Insects of Death Flies (Diptera) and beetles (Coleoptera) are the two most common orders of insects found on corpses. Over 1 million species of fl ies are estimated to inhabit our planet. Adult flies have one pair of wings (see question 15 in Activity 13.1). The larvae appear wormlike. Diptera undergo complete metamorphosis. Table 13.4: Major Families of Diptera Found On or Near Carrion Family Calliphoridae Sarcophagidae Muscidae Piophilidae Examples Blowflies such as the blue- and greenbottle flies. In the early stages of decomposition, often the most abundant larvae on a corpse. Different species have specific preferences for oviposition (in shade or light) and habitat (urban or rural). Flesh flies. These are large flies that lay live larvae instead of eggs, and may be present shortly after death. Their larvae eat blowfly maggots. A large family that includes the ubiquitous housefly. Sometimes found during the later stages of decomposition. Dark, shiny flies such as the cheese skipper. The larvae are scavengers and are associated with the late stage of decomposition. Beetle adults have two pairs of wings, but the top pair is hard and protects the flight wings folded underneath (see question 16 in Activity 13.1). Like Diptera, they have three pairs of legs. The larvae have different shapes and The heaviest beetle in the world is the African Goliath beetle, which can weigh 3 ounces and measure 5 inches in length. The longest beetles in the world are the long-horned beetles from South America and Fiji, which attain a length of about 8 inches. sizes some wormlike, some with legs, many soft and C-shaped (grubs); pupae are like pale, mummified versions of the adult. Coleoptera undergo complete metamorphosis. Most beetles are nocturnal and may be found under a body or in the soil surrounding the remains. See Table 13.5. Blowflies and flesh flies arrive at a body first, sometimes within minutes of death, attracted by the molecules of decay. Later to come are the houseflies. The female fly lays eggs within natural body openings and wounds. Inhabitation is a complex 384 Chapter 13

Table 13.5: Major Families of Coleoptera Found On or Near Carrion Family Staphylinidae Silphidae Histeridae Dermestidae Scarabidae Cleridae Carabidae Tenebrionidae Examples Rove beetles. Can be present within hours of death as well as months later. Adults and larvae feed on eggs and larvae of other species. Carrion beetles, burying beetles. Example is the sexton beetle, found during the early stages of decomposition. Adults and larvae feed on maggots as well as carrion. Clown and hister beetles. Present from early on to the start of the dry stage of decomposition. Adults and larvae feed on maggots and pupae, and on the larvae of Dermestes beetles. Skin beetles, hide beetles. Feed on dried skin and tissues during the later stages of decomposition. Hide beetles. Some of the last arrivals at a corpse (dry decay stage). Examples are ham beetles and checkered beetles. These are predators of flies and other beetles. Ground beetles. Larvae and adults are predatory. Found during all stages of decomposition. Darkling beetles. Larvae and adults are predatory. interaction of different insects and decaying body chemistry. Fly eggs hatch as maggots that feed only on soft, mushy body parts. Maggots can form large, moving masses that, along with bacterial decomposition, can raise the temperature around them to well above ambient temperature. Maggots account for the loss of most of the body s mass. Predators, such as ants, wasps, and beetles (hister, rove, and burying beetles), continue to arrive at the scene of death. Beetles feed on the corpse and other arthropods present, and they lay their eggs on or under the corpse. The first fly families to arrive only like the semifluid environment, so as the corpse dries, cheese skippers and coffin flies take over. Checkered beetles now arrive to feed on flies and other beetles. This feeding frenzy has now reduced the body to 20 percent or less of its original weight, with primarily skin and bones remaining. The flies and maggots are gone. The rove beetles remain, and hide beetles arrive. In the soil under the corpse, the number of mites increases. By the ambient: concerning the surrounding area or environment mites: tiny eight-legged creatures belonging to the order Acarina, related to spiders and ticks. Some mites live freely, others as parasites. There are 15 board-certified members of the American Board of Forensic Entomology (ABFE) in the United States and Canada. There are only 62 scientists involved in this field of study worldwide. end of the decay stage of decomposition, the insects have left, and the corpse has been reduced to about 10 percent of its original weight. Forensic Entomology 385

13.2: Body in the Basement From FBI files In the southeastern United States during mid-november, police were called to investigate a foul odor that was coming from a small, single-family home in an impoverished section of town. Investigating officers soon discovered the badly decomposed body of a young, black female in a shallow grave in the dirt basement of the dwelling. The victim had died of a single bullet wound to the head inflicted with a small-caliber rifle. A careful examination of the corpse and excavation of the soil in and around the grave site revealed the presence of numerous larvae of Calliphora vicina (a blowfly) and larvae and pupae of a relative of the housefly, Synthesiomyia nudesita. Specimens collected from the scene were reared in the laboratory. Supplemental information including climatic data and soil temperatures was reviewed in an effort to determine the intervening climatic conditions. Using information on the developmental biology of both of these species of flies, an estimate was made that the victim had died and was colonized by flies approximately 28 days prior to the time of discovery. Investigators were able to target their investigation in and around the estimated time of death. Shortly thereafter, a suspect was identified. This individual eventually confessed to having killed the victim 28 days prior to the time the body was found. She had buried the victim in the basement of the house shortly after committing the homicide. In this case, the larvae of two species of flies provided investigators with the only scientifically reliable method of estimating the time of the victim s death. Why were specimens collected at the scene reared in the laboratory? It is difficult to characterize fly species from their larvae, so they are raised to the adult fly, which is easier to examine and classify. The life cycle for the particular species can then be used to estimate PMI. Why were data on climatic conditions gathered? Insects are cold-blooded; therefore, their development is temperature-sensitive. Data obtained in lab rearing at 72 F will not reflect accurate life cycle times at other temperatures; for example, at 62 F, metamorphosis will take longer. There are methods to estimate the effect of temperature on metamorphosis, which we will explore next. 386 Chapter 13

The Effects of Temperature on Rearing of Maggots This activity demonstrates the effect of temperature on the rate of metamorphosis. The data can then be used to explore the concept of thermal units and their application for estimating PMI. pupae rearing medium such as raw liver or ground beef or canned dog food containing beef a pint-size clear plastic container with a tight lid or screen vermiculite or sterile sand (heated above 100ºC) Materials thermometer, or data logger if available paper towel stereomicroscope ruler forceps or tweezers labels and marking pen nail or awl or a screen vial with isopropyl alcohol Laboratory Activity 13.3 Forensic entomologists use domestic pigs for research because they closely follow human decomposition and are inexpensive and readily available. Procedure Construct a rearing chamber as follows: 1. Add 1 2 inch of vermiculite or sand to the bottom of the plastic container. 2. Place the rearing medium on a moist, crumpled paper towel occupying about 1 3 1 2 of the surface of the vermiculite. It is important to keep the medium moist by sprinkling the protruding paper towel with water. (Liver dries out more readily than ground beef or dog food). 3. Punch a number of holes in A rearing chamber the lid with a small nail, small enough so no flies can escape, or stretch vinyl screening over the top of the container using a rubber band. 4. The flies will like a bottle cap of water, with a sponge cut to fit in the cap so they don t drown, and a bottle cap with moist sugar. 5. Place the rearing chamber in areas of different but constant temperature (from 55 to 85 F), where observations can be made on a daily basis. Forensic Entomology 387

Laboratory Activity 13.3, continued a) Musca domestica b) Sarcophagidae c) Calliphora vicina Figure 13.6 Common fl ies eclosion: emergence of an adult fl y from its pupal case GO TO TOPIC CODE www.scilinks.org graphing forensics2e388 6. Keep a time log and note when the pupae were received, when they were put into the chamber, when the first and last flies appeared, and so forth. Watch closely for oviposition. 7. Describe (draw or take a close-up photograph) and measure each stage of the metamorphosis. 8. To obtain an accurate length, you must kill the larva by immersing it in alcohol. 9. Note the time of the third instar (when growth levels off and then decreases). Soon thereafter, the maggots will stop feeding, leave their medium, and initiate pupation. 10. Continue recording data until flies emerge (eclosion). 11. Cool the chamber to 32 F or below to immobilize the flies, then pick out several and kill them in 70 percent isopropanol. 12. Observe the flies under a stereomicroscope and try to identify them. 13. Present the larvae growth data as a graph. Your teacher will collect growth data for the different temperatures from your classmates so that you can graph the effect of temperature on larvae growth. 14. What conclusions can be made? 388 Chapter 13

Temperature Dependence: Degree-Days Insect development is dependent upon temperature. As you noted in Activity 13.3, the higher the temperature, the faster the growth. However, while an insect will not develop below a threshold temperature, above a certain temperature its development also stops. Within the development temperature range, however, insect growth is regulated by the amount of thermal energy absorbed, or, simply, per unit of heat. Growth rate is expressed in temperature-time units such as a degree-day or degree-hour. Accumulated units represent the energy needed to effect a change from, say, eggs to the third instar. Refer back to Figure 13.5. Assuming a constant temperature of 68 F, it takes 36 hours to grow from eggs to the third instar, or 36 20 C (68 F) 720 accumulated degreehours (ADH). This is the total amount of energy required to effect this change for this particular species of fly. At 10 C, it will take twice as long to get to the third instar: 720 degree-hours/10 72 hours. Theoretically, any combination of time and temperature that adds up to 720 is valid. How do forensic entomologists use this concept to find a PMI? We will use an example to illustrate the process. On September 16, two squirrel hunters found a body in the woods under a large oak tree. The forensic entomologist called to the scene found lots of maggots on the body, the largest being 18 mm long. There were also some new prepupae wiggling around the corpse. The forensic entomologist decided that the development stage was the very end of the third instar. At 3 PM, he recorded an ambient temperature of 74 F. He collected many live specimens and got them back to his lab quickly in order to raise them to flies. Several weeks later, he was able to identify them as blue blowflies with the disgusting name of Calliphora vomitoria. It took 536 hours at 68 F (20 C) for the collected maggots to degree-day: a unit of measure of the energy absorbed by a biological system, causing growth Entomologists borrowed the concept of degree-day from agriculturists, who used it to predict certain stages in the growth cycle of plants for timely application of fertilizer or when to spray their fields, for example. Calliphora vomitoria Forensic Entomology 389

become adult flies. A literature search revealed that this particular species of fly has a life cycle (from egg to eclosion) of 555 hours at a constant temperature of 27 C, and that it prefers shady places and has a low threshold temperature (temperature below which this fly is not active). The forensic entomologist now needed to know the temperatures that the corpse experienced during its stay under the oak tree. A remote weather station was located about 3 miles from the site of the corpse. As with most such stations, it recorded maximum and minimum temperatures each day. These temperatures are shown in Table 13.6. Table 13.6: Weather Station Log Silver Falls Weather Station [NWS-467R] Temperature Log for September 2007 Temperature, F Date Maximum Minimum Median Sept 1 76 62 69 2 78 66 72 3 79 69 74 4 80 72 76 5 78 70 74 6 77 71 74 7 76 70 73 8 74 68 71 9 74 66 70 10 76 68 72 11 75 69 73 12 76 68 72 13 74 64 69 14 76 68 72 15 78 68 73 16 76 66 71 17 74 62 68 18 72 60 66 19 70 60 65 20 70 58 64 390 Chapter 13

Now, how does our forensic entomologist estimate PMI? The first step is to convert the available data to accumulated degree-hours (ADH). 1. 2. 3. published life cycle: 555 hours 27 C 14,985 ADH lab study: third instar to eclosion: 536 hrs 20 C 10,720 ADH thermal energy needed from eggs to third instar: 14,985 10,720 4,265 ADH The average median temperature for the first 20 days of September 70.9 F (21.6 C); therefore: 4. 4,265 ADH/21.6 C 197 hours (8 days, 5 hours), the amount or time since the bluebottle flies deposited their eggs on the body. This would be September 8 at 10 AM. But the body was in the woods for about eight days before it was found; thus, the average of the median temperatures from September 8 to September 16 should be used. Will this make a significant difference? A remote weather station Some entomologists subtract the base or threshold temperature before calculating ADD or ADH, but the species of fly must be known, and even then the reading is an approximation. When temperatures are close to the lower limit, this calculation can become important. All these calculations do not account for the time it takes for flies to find a body. Sometimes they arrive within minutes, depending upon the location, amount of blood, and temperature. So calculations such as these give only the minimum PMI. What other variables might skew the results? The weather station was 3 miles from the corpse. Would the temperature have been the same at both places? Perhaps the station was in a sunnier location. To check, our forensic entomologist would have left a temperature recorder at the site for 4 5 days and then compared its readings to those from the weather station. Suppose the site temperature readings were as follows: Forensic Entomology 391

Date, September Max Temp, F Min Temp, F 17 72 60 18 70 58 19 68 58 20 68 56 The time for the first fly to find the body was an estimate. The more blood, the faster the flies arrival. The part of a body exposed is a factor; for example, the liver, heart, and lungs are choice sites for flies. Burn victims also attract flies more quickly. Sometimes clothes can retard colonization. How about insect repellent? Burial, water, and plastic coverings may also delay oviposition. Maggots feed in masses that generate their own heat. It has been recorded that the temperature of a maggot mass can be well above ambient temperature. This would tend to A mass of maggots feeding on a corpse sounds like a bowl of Rice Krispies after pouring on the milk. How would these readings affect the estimated time of death? accelerate decay. Toxins and drugs consumed by the person can sometimes accelerate, sometimes retard decomposition. Indeed, traces of drugs have been found in maggots feeding on bodies. We will explore this topic later. Habitat Fly species can vary geographically according to climate, season, and habitat. For example, in the summer, green blowflies of the genus Phaenicia are common, whereas in the fall, bluebottle flies, Calliphora, are prevalent. Insects found in urban settings, such as Calliphora vicina, may differ from those in the countryside, like Calliphora vomitoria. Some fly species prefer warm weather, such as the hairy maggot blowfly Chrysomya rufifacies; others are more active at cooler temperatures. Some like sunlit areas, like the greenbottle fly Lucilia illustris; some prefer shade, such as the black blowfly Phormia regina. (See Figure 13.7.) Some flies are not active at night. An experienced forensic entomologist can use this knowledge, for example, to corroborate field evidence, infer postmortem movement of a corpse, or even infer prior burial, freezing, or wrapping of a body. Each case is unique due to the high number of variables involved. 392 Chapter 13

a) Phaenicia sericata b) Chrysomya rufifacies c) Lucilia illustris d) Phormia regina Figure 13.7 Flies Fly Infestation as a Function of Habitat Laboratory Activity 13.4 Do different flies have different preferred habitats? Are there different fly species in your testing area? Can you identify them? raw beef liver, 30 50 g plastic container, 1 qt or larger, with tight-fitting lid sand or vermiculite (the latter is better) thermometer masking or duct tape Materials killing vial with isopropanol ruler stereomicroscope labels and marking pen forceps or tweezers flypaper trap Forensic Entomology 393

Laboratory Activity 13.4, continued Trap and rearing container (fl ypaper stuck to outside of container) Procedure 1. Punch holes in the sides of the plastic container to allow access to flies while keeping rainwater out. Paper-punch-size is good. 2. Place the meat on a crumpled, wet paper towel, then place both on the sand or vermiculite. 3. Insert the thermometer through a hole in the side of the container into the sand. 4. Place containers outside, one on or near the ground in a consistently shady area, another in a sunny area. 5. Anchor them by using long nails punched through the bottom of the container into the soil or by some other means that won t inhibit sampling, like with a rock on top. 6. Another container should be placed outside on a windowsill. Try to anchor this one also so that birds won t disturb it. 7. Another container can be placed inside, away from any windows; under an exhaust hood is a good place, as the container will smell. 394 Chapter 13

Laboratory Activity 13.4, continued 8. Place a fly trap near each habitat; collect any flies, examine them, and compare them with those that have hatched. 9. Record temperature and insect activity each day as often as you can, starting when each container is first put out. A data logger can record temperature and humidity hourly. 10. Look for eggs, maggots, and pupae, taking a sample at each stage of the life cycle and immersing it in alcohol so that it can be measured and described. Remember that the prepupal and pupal stages will be in the vermiculite. 11. Calculate degree-days/hours for each size or stage. 12. Any time after maggots become apparent, cover the holes in the container with tape so the hatched flies cannot escape. Analysis Questions 1. Identify the flies from identification cards or photographs. 2. Compare the data with those from the other habitats. Explain any differences. 3. Why can t identification be made from larvae alone? Beetles As mentioned earlier in the chapter, flies arrive first at a corpse; then the maggots take over and stay until most of the soft, mushy parts of the body are consumed. Some beetles (Table 13.5) may appear soon after death to feed on the maggots. As the body dries, different families of beetles arrive. They are generally nocturnal and may be found under the remains. Beetle Infestation of Carrion Laboratory Activity 13.5 slab of raw liver, 20 40 g plastic container, 1 qt with a lip nails Materials stereomicroscope forceps or tweezers killing vial with alcohol ruler Forensic Entomology 395

Laboratory Activity 13.5, continued Liver after several days Procedure 1. Place the liver on the ground and cover it with the plastic container turned upside down. Punch holes in the sides to allow access to flies. Insert nails through the lip into the ground to anchor it and protect the sample from predators. 2. Allow the container to sit for a few days before removing it. 3. Note any activity on top of the meat before gently lifting it up to observe what may be going on underneath it. Be sure to check in the soil also. 4. Continue your observations for several weeks. We are more interested in the activity of beetles than of flies and their larvae. Some beetles feed on fly larvae (like the Staphylinidae), some on carrion (Dermestidae), some on both larvae and carrion (Histeridae and Silphidae), and some on other beetles (Cleridae and Carabidae). Capture different arthropods and kill them in alcohol for examination and identification. 396 Chapter 13

Laboratory Activity 13.5, continued a) Rove beetle, Staphylinidae b) Dermestid beetle, Dermestes maculates c) Clown beetle, Hister nomas d) Sexton beetle, Nicrophorus hybridus e) Red-legged ham beetle, Necrobia rufipes Figure 13.8 Beetles f ) Hide beetle, Trox sp. Forensic Entomology 397

Other Uses of Insects in Forensic Science A chigger The presence of wounds can often be observed by maggot activity away from the usual body orifices. For example, activity on the forearms and palms of the hands would imply defensive wounds, probably from a knife attack. Insects can place a suspect at the scene of a crime. For example, a murder suspect had chigger bites like the ones investigators got at the crime scene. The chiggers were found to be localized to that one area, yet the suspect denied he had ever been there. Contraband trafficking can sometimes be traced by identifying trapped insects. For example, marijuana shipments seized in New Zealand contained nine species of Coeloptera (beetles) and Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ants). Only one of the species was native to New Zealand. The others were found to live in other specific areas and habitats, allowing for location of a probable source of the marijuana. The species of insects plastered on an automobile radiator allowed investigators to refute a suspect s alibi. The presence of drugs in a body can sometimes be detected by harvesting and testing the feeding maggots. In civil cases, insects found in stored food products or clothing can cause considerable discomfort as well as monetary losses. Structural entomology involves damage to buildings such as from termites and carpenter ants. A carpenter ant 398 Chapter 13

Maggot Ingestion of Drugs from a Corpse Flesh-eating insects have been found to have drug residues in their flesh as well as in their puparia. This allows examiners to sample for drug use in a corpse long after stomach contents, urine, and blood have disappeared. This activity simulates such a drug analysis and explores the effect of certain chemicals on metamorphosis. Ground beef, 40 60 g Fly pupae Benadryl (diphenylhydramine hydrochloride), ferric chloride [FeCl 3 6H 2 O], potassium ferrocyanide [K 4 Fe(CN) 6 ], potassium thiocyanate [KSCN], 2 percent cobalt thiocyanate solution [Co(SCN) 2 ] Materials clear plastic container, 1 qt, with a few small holes punched in the top, or cover the top with a screen vermiculite or sterile sand (heated above 100 C) spot plate Beral pipette a small killing vial with alcohol Laboratory Activity 13.6 puparia: cases formed by the hardening of the last larval skin in which the pupa is formed. Color starts out white and turns brown with time. Singular: puparium. Procedure The teacher may assign one of the four drugs to each investigative group and the control (no drugs ) to another group. 1. Make up a small amount of a saturated solution of one of the chemicals listed above. Mix about 1 2 cc into the sample of ground beef. Mix it well to evenly distribute it. 2. Place the meat on a moist, crumpled paper towel in the plastic container on top of about 1 2 inch of vermiculite or sand. Add water and sugar as described in Activity 13.3. 3. Label each container. 4. Add ten or so pupae. 5. Place each container in a A pupa warm spot. 6. Observe what is happening. When you are sure that the flies have laid their eggs or if maggots can be seen, let the flies out and remove the sugar and water. If the meat dries out, sprinkle a little water on the towel. Forensic Entomology 399

Laboratory Activity 13.6, continued 7. When the larvae reach the post-feeding stage (third instar) and are found in the vermiculite or sand, drop half of them into the killing vial. Allow the remaining ones to reach eclosion. Later, harvest the empty pupae and test for drugs in the same way that you did for the larvae. 8. Crush the larvae in the vial, and allow the alcohol to evaporate. 9. Add a small amount of hot distilled water and mix. 10. Take up a few drops of the maggot soup and place it in a well of the spot plate. Each investigative group should also add its sample to the spot plate. Color spot tests will be used to confirm the presence of the drug. Benadryl reacts with cobalt thiocyanate solution to form a deep blue precipitate; ferric chloride reacts with potassium thiocyanate solution to make a bright red color; the thiocyanate reacts with ferric chloride solution to make a red color; potassium ferrocyanide reacts with ferric chloride solution to make a deep blue color. The control should be placed in four separate wells of the spot plate and tested with each of the four reagents. No color should show. Analysis Questions 1. Record the results of the study in your notebook, and assess any problems that occurred. 2. Which test gave the best results? Why? Collection of Evidence A description is needed of the habitat, and of whether conditions are sunny, shady, or cloudy. Climatological data at the site would include temperature, humidity, evidence of rain, and weather data for a period spanning from 1 2 weeks before the victim s disappearance to 3 5 days after the body is discovered. Temperature should be recorded of the ground by the body and beneath the body, and of the maggot mass. All the different types of insects on the body, in the body, beneath the body, and flying over the body should be collected and labeled. Collection of the largest larvae is most important. Why? Live maggots should be packed carefully so that they can be reared in order to identify them and determine degree-days. Figure 13.9 summarizes collection requirements at the location of the corpse. 400 Chapter 13

EQUIPMENT 1. Hand Net 2. Forceps & Trowel 3. Thermometer 4. Vials, Jars, Plastic Bags SUPPORTING DATA NEEDED 1. Previous weather for area 2. On-site weather data (5 7 days) 3. Photos/video of crime scene 4. Record time of collecting HAND NET Use a standard insect net OR Make a small hand net from stiff wire and cut-off panty hose Collect flying insects over corpse with hand net Kill and preserve adult flies in fluid as with maggots MAGGOT Maggots concentrate in head and open wounds first also at corpse/ ground interface Preserve most maggots (a range of sizes and types) in 70% ethyl or isopropyl alcohol Label as per specimen jar label Collect about 2 dozen maggots and pupa. Keep maggots and pupa separate. Keep hairy and smooth maggots separate. Place all in a cooler or fridge. Do not freeze. Take 3 or 4 soil samples (a handful each) from under corpse (refrigerate but do not freeze) Label as per specimen jar label Secure, ventilated tin SOIL/FAUNA SAMPLE Take temperature of air and of maggot mass Sample at least 10cm deep BEETLES Collect beetles from on and underneath corpse FLY PUPA Fly pupa are seed-like, about 1/2 cm long, and red to dark brown in color Look for insect specimens (particularly maggots) in folds of clothes, here and at autopsy Maggots crawl away to pupate. Look under objects 3 10 m from corpse for pupa. SPECIMEN JAR LABEL: Location: Date/Hour of collection: Case No.: Sample No.: Detail: Collector: Figure 13.9 Collecting insects for forensic investigations New Developments in Forensic Entomology It must be remembered that the PMI is an estimate based upon many variables; not all experts agree. See, for example, www.courttv.com/trials/ westerfield/timeline/time_of_death.html and www.timeshighereducation. co.uk/story.asp?storycode 151843&sectioncode 26, for two murder trials where very famous forensic entomologists disagreed on the PMI. Clearly, more research needs to be performed. DNA is an important tool in many areas of forensic science, forensic entomology notwithstanding. DNA fingerprinting of adult fly species can be used to identify eggs and early-instar maggots. Computer modeling of the life cycle of flies may decrease the effect of the number of variables and unknowns in estimating PMI. A forensic entomologist named Arpad Vass has been analyzing the chemicals released into the soil and air from aging corpses in an effort to refine the PMI. A trend is also apparent in Forensic Entomology 401

forensic entomologists joining forces with botanists and anthropologists to evaluate evidence at the scene of death. On a shorter time scale, research is aimed at improving the measurement of relevant body temperatures in algor mortis. Also, there may be a relationship between the electrical conductance of tissue and the time since death. At one time it was thought that the potassium level in the vitreous humor of the eye was related to postmortem interval; now, mathematical modeling may be used to refine this method of measurement. As with most new developments in forensic science, the Daubert ruling must be satisfied. This is especially true in forensic entomology. 13.3: PMI Determined from Photographs In the summer of 1976, Chicago police raided the apartment of three suspected drug dealers. These men figured that two men living below them had turned them in, so they killed them. Their bodies were dumped in the basement of an abandoned building, one inside a trunk and the other wrapped in a blanket and carpeting. The suspected drug dealers were charged with murder. Three years later, when the case was finally ready for trial, the state s attorneys needed to corroborate the time of death. A professor from the University of Illinois, Bernard Greenberg, was called on to help. But all he had to work with were a few black-and-white photographs that showed the victims covered with post-feeding larvae and a few pupae. The pupae were lightcolored, implying that they were fresh, not old. Dr. Greenberg surmised that the insects were Phaenicia sericata because it was a common carrion fly in urban Chicago. He performed research to obtain ADH data for the development of the life cycle of several fly species at four different temperatures. He then used temperature data from the nearest weather station to the crime scene at the time of the crime in order to adjust his ADH data. He calculated the time of death to within 21 2 days of the actual shooting from three-year-old photographs and his research. His testimony at the trial confirmed that of one of the state s key witnesses (one of the three drug dealers not the most reliable of witnesses). The men were convicted of murder and sent to prison. A similar case occurred in 2006. In 1959, Stephen Truscott, then 14 years old, was convicted of murdering his schoolmate and friend, Abandoned building 402 Chapter 13

Lynne Harper. Evidence consisted of an erroneous eyewitness account of where they were last seen together and the pathologist report that death occurred precisely between 7:15 and 7:45 PM, based on stomach contents. Truscott was convicted of murder. His death sentence was later commuted, and he was released on parole after serving ten years. Forty-seven years later, a forensic entomologist from Michigan State University, Prof. Richard Merritt, examined photographs of the body and data on the maggots measurements that were recorded at the time. From the size of the maggots, he was able to conclude that Harper s time of death was not in the early evening before dark when Truscott was last seen with her, but after dark or the next morning when Truscott was home or in school. As a result, his conviction was set aside, but the court was not able to declare his innocence because of legal technicalities. Dr. Richard Merritt Forensic Entomology 403

Checkpoint Questions Answer the following questions. Keep the answers in your notebook, to be turned in to your teacher at the end of the unit. 1. On page 380, some of the chemicals that contribute to the odor of a decomposing corpse are listed. A living person does not contain such compounds. Where do they come from, i.e., what is the starting material? 2. Why is it important to know what chemicals are produced in the body as decomposition proceeds? 3. The time of colonization is used to describe insect activity in a body. Is this the same as the postmortem interval? Explain. 4. What are the two insect orders most commonly found on a decaying corpse? 5. In an experiment, you know that you have to deal with three variables. How do you proceed? 6. Prepare a dichotomous key for sorting and identifying a set of common objects, such as screws or paper clips. 7. Was the potato corpse activity (page 377) representative of algor mortis? Explain. 8. Sometimes remains are preserved on purpose, sometimes by accident. Name at least two examples of each. 9. What are the four principal stages of metamorphosis of Diptera? Why are they important to forensic entomology? 404 Chapter 13

10. A body is found still warm, but with rigor mortis. What is the estimated time of death? How could you be more exact? 11. Why is it important to know what kinds of fl y larvae inhabit a corpse? 12. What are the variables that affect the period of development of a particular species of fl y? 13. What do beetles have to do with estimating the PMI? 14. The ADD for the complete life cycle of Sarcophaga bullata has been observed to be 37 days at 27 C. What would it be at 18 C? 15. A fully clothed male was found, facedown, in the basement of a house at 8 AM on July 17. There was a maggot mass in his back, and infestations were apparent in his mouth and nose. The temperature in the basement was 70 F. The house was closed up, Photograph of a fl y reared from the corpse Forensic Entomology 405

Photograph of a beetle under the corpse yet there were a lot of housefl ies buzzing here and there. The forensic entomologist collected about 40 of the largest maggots, from 10 12 mm long. She did not see any puparia; however, there were two beetles under the body. The temperature in the basement was monitored for the next fi ve days and found to be very stable at 70 F. Back at the lab, half the maggots were placed in an incubator at 75 F at 9 AM. Flies started emerging from their pupae about 71 2 days (180 hours, to be exact) after incubation of the larvae. The forensic entomologist identifi ed the fl y and let it run through its life cycle. She found that it took 36 hours to grow larvae 12 mm long. What did she estimate the time of colonization (TOC) to be? The PMI? Identify the two insects shown. Is their presence consistent with the estimated PMI? Explain all your reasoning as if you were in court. 16. Why was the body of Col. Shy so well preserved? What other methods of preservation have been used on bodies? 17. Dr. Merritt used data on the size of the maggots on Harper s body to estimate PMI. What else would he have needed in making his estimate? 406 Chapter 13

Additional Project It is known that maggots, even puparia, will contain drug metabolites as a result of feeding on the drug user s body. Does this apply to beetles that devour body parts during the later stages of decomposition? Follow an appropriate procedure, but substitute for the rearing medium a portion of dried roadkill, pigskin, a dried-out pork chop, or a piece of leather. Pierce it while it is being soaked overnight in a solution of the drug that worked the best in Laboratory Activity 13.4. Oven-dry it and place it in a container with dermestid beetles that your teacher has supplied. Add some wood chips or pieces of bark and a small piece of cotton or filter paper that has been dampened. After the dried meat has been consumed, harvest some of the beetles and test for a color reaction. Dermestid beetle References Books and Articles Bass, J. Carved in Bone: A Body Farm Novel. New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2006. Catts, E. P., and N. H. Haskell. Entomology and Death, a Procedural Guide. Clemson, SC: Joyce s Print Shop, 2000. Goff, M. L. A Fly for the Prosecution. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000. Sachs, J. S. Corpse. New York: Basic Books, 2001. Sachs, J. S. A Maggot for the Prosecution, Discover, November 1998, p. 103. Gannon, R. The Body Farm, Popular Science, September 1997, p. 77. Schoenly, K. G., N. H. Haskell, D. K. Mills, C. Bieme-Ndi, K. Larsen, and Y. Lee. Using Pig Carcasses as Model Corpses, The American Biology Teacher, Vol. 68, 2006. Carloye, L. Of Maggots and Murder: Forensic Entomology in the Classroom, The American Biology Teacher, Vol. 65, 2003. Websites www.amonline.net.au/insects/insects/resources. htm#forensic; many good links www.forensicentomology.com/introduction.htm; a very complete exposure to forensic entomology http://research.missouri.edu/entomology; more links www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/insects-spiders/ webcast-forensicentomology/forensic-entomology. html; video explaining forensic entomology Forensic Entomology 407