The turtle fauna of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India with notes on natural history and conservation status

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1 Herpetology Notes, volume 6: (2013) (published online on 17 March 2013) The turtle fauna of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India with notes on natural history and conservation status Rajeev Basumatary 1,* and D.K. Sharma 2 Abstract. We present morphometric and natural history observations on 14 species of freshwater turtles of Kaziranga National Park, India, documented in our study during Turtle species assemblage in Brahmaputra river is found to be highest followed by Diffolu river and wetlands. Observations on microhabitat, reproductive behaviour has been included. Among so far recorded chelonians from the park, Nilssonia nigricans is extinct in the wild, whereas Chitra indica, Pangshura sylhetensis, Cuora mouhotii and Manouria emys are endangered. Though well protected inside the park, the turtles are threatened with habitat destruction and excessive fishing in certain areas. Keywords. Chelonian, Kaziranga, Brahmaputra, Diffolu, microhabitat, morphometry. Introduction Twenty nine species of tortoises and freshwater turtles occur in India. Northeastern India has the largest species diversity with 21 species (Ahmed and Das, 2009). However, most of these records are from Brahmaputra plain and adjoining areas in lower eastern Himalayas, and the hill states especially those south of the Brahmaputra basin is poorly surveyed (Pawar and Choudhury, 2000). Recently, the Ganges and Brahmaputra drainage has been identified as world s highest priority freshwater turtle conservation area (Buhlmann et al., 2009) and the Kaziranga National Park (KNP) is the largest remaining natural habitat of Brahmaputra drainage, known to harbor 81% of Northeastern regional freshwater turtle diversity (Ahmed and Das, 2009). Various workers have conducted chelonian survey in Northeastern India. However a detail study on the morphometry, distribution across various habitat types and natural history are lacking from this richest turtle pocket of Brahmaputra floodplain which has been addressed in this work. Study Area The Kaziranga National Park (KNP) is located between N and E. It is spread over the civil jurisdictions of Nagaon, Golaghat and Sonitpur districts in Assam (fig.1) with Brahmaputra River on the north and Karbi Anglong hills on the southern boundary of the park. With six numbers of new additions including river Brahmaputra and its islands the area has now increased to 860 sq. km. However, recent land cover mapping by remote sensing (Kushwaha, 2008) has shown a total area of 985 sq. km. including the Brahmaputra and its islands in the sixth addition area. The landscape is mainly dominated by riverine habitat (58.55%) i.e. Brahmaputra river and its sand, followed by Grassland (23.27%), Woodlands (12.27%), Wetlands and beels (5.18%) and Mora and Jiya Diffolu river (0.69%) (Vasu, 2003 and Kushwaha, 2008). Subtropical monsoonal climate prevails in KNP, with mean rainfall of 2220 mm, maximum and minimum temperature range between 37-5 C (Khuswaha and Unni, 1986). The grassland is consisting of both grasses and reeds and the dominant species are Saccharum sp., Imperata cylindrica, Erianthus ravaneae, Arundo donax, Phragmites karka, Imperata arundinacea, Neyraudia reynaudiana, Typha elephantina etc. (Vasu, 2003). 1 Department of Zoology, D.R. College, Golaghat , Assam, India 2 Department of Zoology, Gauhati University, Guwahati , Assam, India * Corresponding author; rajeevbasumatary@gmail.com Methods Our field survey for chelonians in KNP was mainly conducted within Opportunistic observations were made in forest trail, aquatic edges, grasslands, woodland, slow flowing streams, large river and wetlands. The survey team typically consisted of 1-2 researchers and an experienced forest guard as

2 60 Rajeev Basumatary & D.K. Sharma Figure 1. Location map and satellite image of the study site. (Image courtesy: Google earth) guide. Access of remote wetlands was made through elephant ride. Management burning patches were visited during February- April to record data. Riverine survey (Diffolu, Brahmaputra) was made from boat with 2-3 people visually searching for turtles along aquatic edges. Identified basking habitats were visited regularly to gather data. To see the annual grassland burning impact we walked along a transect. Information were collected from direct sightings, indirect evidence (shell) and questioning the forest staffs and fishermen in fringe areas. Morphometric data like CCL, CCW, SL, PL, CPW, SL, Ht, etc. were recorded at the spot by steel tape and dial vernier caliper. Taxonomic and natural history notes observed were recorded. Photographic record of individual (both dorsal and ventral view) along with detail close-up of important characters was made by 8 Megapixel Canon S5IS digital camera. Garmin 72 GPS was used for recording latitude and longitude along with altitude in each point where we encountered turtles. For identification of specimens, we referred to descriptions and taxonomic keys of authors like Das (1995, 2002), Prachag and Gemel (2002), Prachag et al. (2009), Fritz et al. (2008). In this research paper the records are presented under each species account in the following format: locality, date and time of record, nature of record, sex, morphometric measurements, habitat and natural history. Abbreviations used: CCL = curved carapace length, CCW = curved carapace width, SL= straight length, PL = plastron length, CPW = curved plastron width, SL = straight length, Ht = height, SCL = straight carapace length, SCW = straight carapace width, KNP = Kaziranga National Park, RF = Reserve Forest, LR = Large River (= River Brahmaputra), SFR = Slow Flowing River (= Diffolu river, Mora Diffolu), WL = Wood Land, GL = Grass Land (short grass and elephant grass), BEELS = Big wetlands, Marshes and ox-bow lakes.. Results Family Trionychidae Fitzinger, 1826 Nilssonia hurum (Gray, 1831) Mihibeel (South bank), 16 June 2008, 0845 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 46.5 cm, CCW = 38 cm. Caught during basking on muddy bank, aggressive. Arimora Borbeel (North Bank), 16 September 2009, 1035 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 22 cm, CCW = 18 cm, Ht = 5.5 cm, Found while moving on bank, Four eyespots on carapace distinct, plastron white in colour. Biswanath Ghat, 23 May 2010, Live specimen, Female, CCL = 23.5 cm, CCW = 21.8 cm, PL = 18 cm, SL = 24 cm. Ahmed and Das (2009) reported from Brahmaputra at Biswanath Ghat.

3 The turtle fauna of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India 61 Figure 2. Abundance of freshwater turtle species in different habitats of Kaziranga NP, India. Nilssonia gangeticus (Cuvier, 1825) Arimora, 2 November 2008, 1630 h., one individual was seen basking at southern bank of Brahmaputra, east of Arimora anti-poaching camp. It is also recorded from Brahmaputra River in Biswanath Ghat. Ahmed and Das (2009) recorded this species from Brahmaputra bank at Debeswari and Biswanath Ghat. Nilssonia nigricans (Anderson, 1875) Mihibeel, 21 September 2008, 0920 h., Male, CCL = 56.6 cm, CCW = 50.0 cm, SL = 52.4 cm. The individual was observed moving along the muddy bank of beel. Earlier records of the species from KNP include Praschag and Gemel (2002) from Biswanath Ghat (6th addition area), Ahmed and Das (2009) from Rangamatia beel (Agaratoli), Diffolu River at Diffolumukh camp, Sapekhati beel (near Gendarmari camp) and Bhengrai nullah (near Rongamatia camp). Morphometry of above records by Ahmed and Das (2009), (1) Near Diffolumukh camp- Diffolu river, Female, SCL = 45.0 cm, SCW = 47.0 cm, PL= 43.0 cm, (2) Sapekhati beel- Figure 3. A female Chitra indica from Bhaisamari beel of Kaziranga NP, India. Figure 4. Male Pangshura sylhetensis observed in the sandy bank of Brahmaputra river bordering Northern boundary of Kaziranga NP.

4 62 Rajeev Basumatary & D.K. Sharma Figure 5. Nilssonia nigricans basking in Mihibeel of Kaziranga NP. Figure 6. Subadult Nilssonia hurum caught while basking in bank of Mihibeel. Gendarmari camp, SCL = 43.0 cm, SCW = 42.0 cm, PL = 60.0 cm, (3) Bhengrai nala- Rongamatia camp, SCL = 58.0 cm, SCW = 48.0 cm, PL = 57.0 cm. Chitra indica (Gray, 1831) Bhaisamari Beel, 15 January 2009, 1050 h., Female, CCL = 16.2 cm, CCW = 15 cm, SL = 29 cm. Observed basking in a mid-channel (floating) island, approximately feet long, made of matted vegetation, organic debris, and soil. This species is also observed in Brahmaputra River. Ahmed and Das (2009) reported the species from sandy bank of Brahmaputra at Debeswari, Arimora and Agaratoli. Lissemys punctata (Webb, 1980) Diffolu river (at turtle point East of Azagar), 25 July 2008, 1400 h., 1 individual, photograph only, unidentified sex. Observed basking in submerged log along with P. sylhetensis. Diffolu river (at Kathonibari camp), 10 January 2009, 1520 h., 1 individual, unidentified sex. Observed basking in sand deposit in river bank. In earlier studies by Das (1990), the species was reported from Borbeel and Ahmed and Das (2009) from Brahmaputra River. Family Geoemydidae Theobald, 1868 Pangshura sylhetensis (Jerdon, 1870) Kathonibari camp, 19 November 2008, 1120 h., Live specimen, (1) Male, CCL = 8 cm, CCW = 8 cm, PL = 7.5 cm, CPW = 6.4 cm. (2) Male, CCL = 8.5 cm, CCW = 8.4 cm, PL = 7.4 cm, CPW = 6.6 cm. Basking in half submerged log in Diffolu river. Arimora camp, 05 January 2009, Complete shell, Male, CCL = 9.4 cm, CCW = 8.9 cm, PL = 8.1 cm, CPW = 7.5 cm. Collected by forest staff from bank of Brahmaputra near Arimora. Biswanath Ghat, 22 February 2010, Live specimen, Male, CCL = 9.5 cm, CCW = 9.6 cm, PL = 9.0 cm, SL = 7.8 cm. (2)Male, CCL = 7.4 cm, CCW = 7.5 cm, PL Figure 7. Lissemys punctata observed while basking in Diffolu river bank of Kaziranga NP. Figure 8. Female Hardella thurjii that was caught by fisher at Mora Diffolu channel, near Mihimukh.

5 The turtle fauna of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India 63 Figure 9. Male Pangshura tentoria that was rescued from fisherman in Bishwanath Ghat of Brahmaputra river. = 6.5 cm, SL = 6.2 cm, Ht = 3.0 cm. Lahkar (2000) first reported the species inside KNP from a locality near Jalki beel in Kohora Range by examining a freshly burnt female specimen (CCL = 19.5 cm). Sarma et al. (2009) observed nests of P. sylhetensis in Biswanath Ghat and Ahmed and Das (2009) also reported presence in Diffolu river and Brahmaputra at Arimora and Biswanath Ghat. Basking individuals were observed in Diffolu river, particularly at East of Azagar camp popularly known as Turtle point, Kathonibari, Hanuman and Hulalpath forest camps. They prefer half submerged logs inclined at angle, and climb up to a height of 2-3 feet from water surface. Fighting in the form of biting each other was observed between a basking male and female. Basking individuals were also observed in Brahmaputra main channel at various points like east of Arimora, Debeswari. This species has been observed sharing basking habitat with Pangshura tecta, P. smithii, P. tentoria and Lissemys punctata andersonii. Figure 10. A female Pangshura tecta from Baruntika beel of Kaziranga NP. Pangshura smithii (Gray, 1863) Biswanath Ghat, 25 November 2008, Live specimen, Female, CCL = 12.2 cm, CCW = 16.2 cm, PL = 11.7 cm, CPW = 8.4 cm, Rescued from fisherman and released back to Brahmaputra. Kathonibari camp, 20 December 2008, 1115 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 21.0 cm, CCW = 18.0 cm, CL = 13.5 cm, PL = 19 cm, CPW = 15.4 cm, Captured while basking on sand beach of Diffolu North of Kathonibari camp. Biswanath Ghat, (1) 13 January 2009, Live specimen, Female, CCL = 19.0 cm, CCW = 17.2 cm, PL = 17.7 cm, CPW = 14.4 cm, Caught in fisherman net, rescued and released back to Brahmaputra. (2) 20 December 2010, Female, CCL = 10.4 cm, CCW = 9.0 cm, PL = 9.0 cm, SL = 9.5 cm, Ht = 3.8 cm. This species was observed along the stretch of Diffolu river while basking in fallen logs. Pangshura tecta (Gray, 1831) Arimora, 2 November 2009, Complete shell with intact carapace and plastron, Male, CCL = 11 cm, CCW = 9 cm, PL = 9 cm, PW = 6.5 cm, reportedly collected Figure 11. Geoclemys hamiltonii basking in muddy bank covered partially with water hyacinth in Mihibeel. Figure 12. A male Melanochelys tricarinata that was found in the grassland area near Daflang beel of Kaziranga NP.

6 64 Rajeev Basumatary & D.K. Sharma Figure 13. Female Cuora amboinensis encountered in the woodland near Kathonibari camp at the bank of Diffolu river. by forest staff from Arimora Borbeel. Baruntika, 13 December 2008, 1140 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 18.5 cm, CCW = 17.5 cm, PL = 15.5 cm, CPW = 14.5 m, Collected from a channel of Bhaisamari beel North of Baruntika forest camp. Azagar camp, 15 December 2008, 0940 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 24.6 cm, CCW = 15.7 cm, SL = 22.2 cm, PL = 20.3 cm, Caught while basking on sandy bank of Diffolu river near Azagar anti-poaching camp. Baruntika Bhaisamari beel, 23 November 2008, 1110 h., Photograph only, Male, Basking on leaf of Ipomoea sp. P. tecta are commonly observed basking in Diffolu river (turtle point) and at Bhaisamari beel. Additional records are found from studies of Ahmed and Das (2009) at Brahmaputra, Baruntika Beel (Bhaisamari beel), Diffolu river and Arimora borbeel area. Pangshura tentoria (Gray, 1834) Biswanath Ghat, 3 January 2010, Two Live specimens, (1) Male, CCL = 8.9 cm, CCW = 8.2 cm, PL = 7.8 cm, CPW = 7.0 cm. (2) Male, CCL = 10.6 cm, CCW Figure 14. An adult female Cyclemys gemeli from Panbari woodland of Kaziranga NP, at the foothill of Karbianglong. = 10.4 cm, PL = 8.5 cm, CPW = 7.8 cm. (3) Female, CCL = 19.0, CCW = 16.5, PL = 16.2, PW = 10.2, SL = A total of 12 numbers of specimens were rescued from fishermen and were reported to entangle to the net in Brahmaputra River. 22 February 2010, Two live specimen, Male, (1) CCL = 8.9 cm, CCW = 7.9 cm, PL = 6.9 cm (2) CCL = 10.6 cm, CCW = 10.4 cm, PL = 9 cm. 9 December 2010, Three Live specimen, Male, (1) CCL = 8.0 cm, CCW = 7.6 cm, PL = 6.6 cm PW = 3.3 cm, SL = 7.6 cm, Ht = 3.5 cm. (2) CCL = 7.3 cm, CCW = 7.3 cm, PL = 6.2 cm, PW = 3.8 cm, SL = 7.0 cm, Ht = 3.3 cm. (3) CCL = 9.6 cm, CCW = 9.1 cm, PL = 7.4 cm, PW = 4.7 cm, SL = 8.1 cm, Ht = 4.0 cm. 20 December 2010, Four live specimen, (1) Female, CCL = 15.5 cm, CCW = 12.2 cm, PL = 12.4 cm, SL = 12.5 cm, Ht = 5.5 cm. (2) Male, CCL = 7.4 cm, CCW = 7.4 cm, PL = 6.0 cm, SL = 6.5 cm, Ht = 3 cm. (3) Female, CCL = 12.9, CCW = 12.2 cm, PL = 11.5 cm, PW =9.0 cm, SL = 12.5 cm, Ht = 5.0 cm. (4) Female, CCL = 12.3, CCW = 11.8 cm, PL = 7.8 cm, SL = 11.5 cm. Pangshura tentoria is observed commonly basking Figure 15. Varanus bengalensis digging for turtle nest near Baruntika bridge. Figure 16. Unconsumed eggs of G. hamiltonii recovered from nest that was removed by Varanus.

7 The turtle fauna of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India 65 Figure 17. View of Mihibeel, and a basking Geoclemys hamiltonii, which is also habitat of other turtles. along the Diffolu river, Bank of Brahmaputra at Arimora and also observed basking in the Brahmaputra river bank and in the Biswanath Ghat. Earlier records are from Gobrai (shells) by Das (1990) and Baruntika, Brahmaputra and Ahatguri (Agaratoli) by Ahmed and Das (2009). Melanochelys tricarinata (Blyth, 1856) Daflang beel, N E, 68 m., 11 June 2008, 1630 h., Live specimen, Male, CCL = 22.5 cm, CCW = 20.0 cm, PW = 12.5 cm, PL = 16.6 cm. Encountered at jeep route East of Daflang beel while crossing the road. Three yellow lines on carapace were distinct. The concavity of plastron was very much prominent than other species (Fig. 12). The locality was dominated by Imperata cylindrica (Ulu Kher) than other characteristic species of elephant grasses of KNP. Ahmed and Das (2009) reported from Mihimukh grassland area; from Debeswari and Mihimukh (burnt shells) and Mou Chapori (Burapahar). They also observed burnt shells (=6), burned in annual grassland management burning process in the park. Hardella thurjii (Gray, 1831) Mihimukh, 25 August 2008, 0615 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 36.7 cm, CCW = 27.7 cm, Was rescued from fisherman that was caught on fishing net near Mihimukh at the river Mora Diffolu channel bordering the park and then released inside the park. Mihibeel, 26 September 2008, 0820 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 40 cm, CCW = 33 cm, Captured at mud bank while basking. ~ 5 kg. Mihibeel, 28 October 2008, we encountered four individuals surfacing for breathing during survey by boat. Arimora borbeel, 02 November 2008, 1715 h., Dead specimen, Female, CCL = 50.5 cm, CCW = 48.0 cm, PL = 44.5 cm, PW = 36.5 cm. The area was dominated by Erianthus ravaneae (Ekora). The individual presumably died from Rhinoceros unicornis stampede as the animal was observed on a Rhino footstep with head pressed under mud. No sign of bleeding was observed. Weight ~ 10 kg. Bhaisamari beel, 13 December 2008, 1130 h., Live specimen, Male, CCL = 36 cm, CCW = 31 cm, PL = 25 cm, PW = 21 cm. Encountered while basking at the bank of Bhaisamari beel. The aquatic edge was muddy and surrounded by Erianthus ravaneae vegetation. Biswanath Ghat, 5 November 2010, Live specimen, Juvenile Female, CCL = 10.8 cm, CCW = 10.4 cm, PL = 9.2 cm, PW = 8.4

8 66 Rajeev Basumatary & D.K. Sharma Figure 18. Basking male and female Pangshura sylhetensis in Diffolu river. cm, SL = 10 cm, SW = 8 cm, Ht = 5 cm. Recovered from fisherman and released back to Brahmaputra. Characterised with yellow markings on carapace was very prominent especially at the margin of pleural scutes. The vertebral scutes were very prominent and somewhat pointed. The periphery of fore and hind-limb was also marked with yellow marginal line. The dermal scales of both fore and hind-limb had yellow coloration at anterior part. The species is also reported from Donga beel, Borbeel nullah by Ahmed and Das (2009). Cuora amboinensis (Daudin, 1801) Kathonibari, 22 November 2008, 1545 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 26.4 cm, CCW = 26.5 cm, PL = 24.7 cm, PW = 14.5 cm, Ht = 11 cm, Encountered on jeep road west of Kathonibari camp on North bank of Diffolu river. The habitat was woodland with semi sandy forest bed covered with thick leaf litter. Khalkhali, 10 December 2008, 1030 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 25 cm, CCW = 23.8 cm, PW = 11.8 cm, PL = 20.7 cm, SL = 21.4 cm, Ht = 11.2 cm. Collected by forest staff from Naobhangi nullah. Jamuguri, 13 March 2009, 1245 h., Live specimen, Male, CCL = 23.7 cm, CCW = 24.3 cm, PL = 20.5 cm, PW = 10 cm, SL = 19.4 cm, Ht = 11.6 cm. Captured from post burning open grassland area towards North of Jamuguri forest camp. Das (1990) reported the species from KNP and Ahmed and Das (2009) reported from Diffolu river and Rajamari camp. This species is vulnerable to grassland burning (Ahmed and Das, 2009). Cyclemys gemeli Fritz, Guicking, Auer, Sommer, Wink, Hundsdorfer, 2008 Panbari, Two specimens, (1) 16 May 2010, Live specimen, Male. CCW = 8.5 cm, CCW = 6.3 cm, SL = 7.2 cm. (2) 12 September 2009, Live specimen, Female, CCL = 23.3 cm, CCW = 20.2 cm, PL = 18.0 cm, PW = 11.5 cm, SL = 19.2 cm, Ht = 7.5 cm. Encountered in forest floor of Panbari. Vegetation is characterised by semi-evergreen forest with thick forest floor. However, we observed high degree of disturbance by local fire wood collectors. The adult female specimen released pungent smelling anal discharge when captured. Choudhury (2004) reported from Baghser RF.

9 The turtle fauna of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India 67 Table 1. Geographical coordinates and elevation of localities of turtle record in Kaziranga NP Locality Latitude Longitude Elevation (m) Arimora Borbeel (west) Baghmari camp Baruntika bridge (Turtle nest) Baruntika camp Batlduba beel (west of Borbeel) Bhaisamari beel (south) near Baruntika Bishwanath ghat (Brahmaputra) Bokpara camp Daflang beel (east) Debeswari Diffolu at Hulalpath camp Diffolu at Kathonibari camp Diffolu Turtle Point (east of Azagar camp) Dusuti camp Gobrai camp Goroimari camp Hanuman camp Jamuguri camp Karsing camp Laodubi (east) Mihibeel (south) Mihibeel (west) Mihimikh (Bheselimari beel) Mona Beel Panbari RF Second riding point (near mihibeel) Septimari Beel(Kohora) Woodland west of Kathonibari camp Geoclemys hamiltonii (Gray, 1831) Mihibeel, 28 October 2008, Three specimens, (1) 0830 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 26.5 cm, CCW = 21.5 cm, CL = 22.5 cm, PL = 19.5 cm, CPW = 13 cm. (2) h., Live specimen, Male, CCL = 26.5 cm, CCW23 cm, PL = 21.5 cm, CPW = 15.5 cm. (3) 1105 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 24.5 cm, CCW = 22.5 cm, PL = 20.5 cm. All were captured from the muddy bank of Mihibeel while basking. During the boat survey we encountered a pair of G. hamiltonii engaged in courtship; both were floating in water surface and swimming around each other at an approximate distance of 1-2 feet. During courtship individuals did not show fright behavior. One of the basking individual in Mihibeel showed a typical behavior that, when we

10 68 Rajeev Basumatary & D.K. Sharma Table 2. Summary of morphometry of turtles examined (excluding juveniles) Species Biometrics Range (max-min) Male (mean) Female (mean) Both sex (mean) G. hamiltonii n=8 n=12 n=20 Curved Carapace Length (cm) Curved Carapace Width (cm) Plastron length (cm) Shell height (cm) H. thurjii n=1 n=3 n=4 Curved Carapace Length (cm) Curved Carapace Width (cm) P. sylhetensis n=5 n=0 n=5 Curved Carapace Length (cm) Curved Carapace Width (cm) Plastron length (cm) P. smithii n=0 n=4 n=4 Curved Carapace Length (cm) Curved Carapace Width (cm) Plastron length (cm) P. tecta n=1 n=2 n=3 Curved Carapace Length (cm) Curved Carapace Width (cm) Plastron length (cm) P. tentoria n=8 n=4 n=12 Curved Carapace Length (cm) Curved Carapace Width (cm) Plastron length (cm) C. amboinensis n=1 n=2 n=3 Curved Carapace Length (cm) Curved Carapace Width (cm) Plastron length (cm) Shell height (cm) approached, it immediately buried himself completely in the mud and stayed buried at least for 45 minutes. Naobhangi Nullah near Khalkhali camp, N E, 06 December 2008, 1020 h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 35 cm, CCW = 33 cm, PL = 29 cm, CPW = 20 cm. This individual was found feeding on snail (Limnea sp.) in dried up Naobhangi channel. Bhaisamari Beel, 07 December 2008, 1335 h., Live specimen, Male, CCL = 39.8 cm, CCW = 34.2 cm, PL = 30.6 cm, PW = 21.8 cm, Ht = 11.6 cm. Captured from muddy bank of the beel. Dusuti camp, 21 December 2008, Three specimens, (1) Live specimen, Male, CCL = 29.5 cm, CCW = 25.5 cm, PL = 23.3 cm, PW = 17.5 cm, SL = 28 cm, Ht = 10.5 cm. (2) Live specimen, Male, CCL = 24 cm, CCW = 20.5 cm, PL = 19.2 cm, PW = 14 cm, SL = 21.5 cm, Ht = 10.5 cm. (3) Live specimen, Female, CCL = 19.3 cm, CCW = 17 cm, PL = 15.3 cm, PW = 12 cm, SL = 17.1 cm, Ht = 8.2 cm. The specimens were observed from a dried up marsh near the Dusuti anti-poaching camp. Hanuman Camp, 22 December 2008, Four live specimen, (1) Male, CCL = 19.3 cm, CCW = 17 cm, PL = 15.3 cm, SL = 17.1 cm, Ht = 8.2 cm. (2) Female, CCL = 16.4 cm, CCW = 15 cm, PL = 14 cm, SL = 14.4 cm, Ht = 8.3 cm. (3) Female, CCL = 16.0 cm, CCW = 14 cm, PL = 14.1 cm, Ht = 8 cm. (4) Male, CCL = 18.2 cm, CCW = 16.5 cm, PL = 15.6 cm, SL = 13.4 cm, Ht = 17.3 cm. Jamuguri camp south side grassland, 13 March 2009, 1100h., Live specimen, Female, CCL = 35.5 cm, CCW = 31 cm, PL = 29.5 cm, PW = 20.5 cm, SL = 32 cm, Ht = 13 cm. Collected from post burning open grassland near a marsh towards the South of Jamuguri anti-poaching camp. Goroimari camp, 13 March 2009, (1) 1420 h., Live specimen, Male, CCL = 32.5 cm, PL = 29.5 cm, PW = 22.5, SL = 32 cm, Ht = 12.5 cm. (2) Dead specimen, Female, CCL = 36.6 cm, CCW = 32.5 cm, PL = 29.5 cm, SL = 32 cm, Ht = 12.5 cm, Collected from Hindu hola. Laodubi East Marsh, N E, 12 October 2009, 1305 h., Two specimens, (1) Live specimen, Female, CCL = 18 cm, CCW = 17 cm, PL = 15 cm, PW = 12 cm, Ht = 12 cm. (2) Live specimen, Female, CCL = 16.4 cm, CCW = 15 cm, PL = 14 cm, PW = 11 cm, Ht = 8.3 cm. Both were collected from East boundary of the Laodubi beel. Baghmari, 20 December 2009, Two specimens, (1) Live specimen, Male, CCL = 18.0 cm, CCW = 16.3 cm, PL = 15.3 cm, PW = 12 cm, SL = 13.4 cm. (2) Live specimen, Female, CCL = 16.0 cm, CCW = 14.0 cm, PL = 14.0 cm, PW = 10 cm, Ht = 8 cm. Second Elephant Riding Tower near Mihibeel, 05 July 2008, 1250 h., Dead specimen, Female, CCL = 19 cm, CCW = 17.2 cm, was found on the bank of a nullah (drain) south of Mihibeel, near the Second Elephant Riding Tower. The specimen was lying dead at a foot step of elephant, with head inserted in the

11 The turtle fauna of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India 69 Table 3. Occurrence of turtles in different habitat types Species LR SFR WL GL BEELS N. hurum + _ + N. nigricans N. gangeticus + C. indica + _ + L. punctata P. sylhetensis P. tentoria P. tecta P. smithii + + _ G. hamiltonii + + _ + + H. thurjii + + _ + + C. amboinensis + + _ M. tricarinata _ + _ C. gemeli + mud. When examined sign of bleeding was observed through margins of scutes of plastron. Biswanath Ghat, 16 February 2010, 12 juveniles were recovered from fisherman and two of them measured, Juvenile Male, (1) CCL = 10 cm, CCW = 10.2 cm, PL = 9.3 cm. (2) CCL = 10.5 cm, CCW = 10.5 cm, PL = 8.9 cm, SL = 9.0 cm. Baruntika Bridge, 24 November 2008, 1255 h., we observed Varanus bengalensis digging for turtle nests and found eight dug out. The habitat was surrounded by water channel from three sides, with sparsely grown vegetation of characteristic elephant grass and reeds. All the nests were built in sand with very gentle slope to the water level and 6-9 feet away from water. The water channel had connection with Bhaisamari beel (Baruntika beel) towards the east. One nest contained 6 numbers of unconsumed eggs. The eggs were ellipsoidal in shape, white in colour and measured with length of cm and cm in width. After comparing with literatures (Das, 1995; Bhupathy and Choudhury, 1993) the eggs were identified as Geoclemys hamiltonii eggs. The average depth of the nest was 23 cm. The same day at 1315 h., another species of Varanus, V. salvator was seen exploring the area. Additional information on distribution in KNP are from works of Das (1990), Bhupathy and Choudhury (2004) in Pubmetekani Beel and Azagar Camp and Ahmed and Das (2009) at Diffolu River. Discussions Out of 17 species of chelonians so far reported from KNP by Ahmed and Das (2009), this study provides information on morphometry of 14 species (recorded in this study) along with natural history notes, microhabitat and distributional records in the park. The species recorded are Nilssonia hurum, N. gangeticus, N. nigricans, Chitra indica, Lissemys punctata, Pangshura sylhetensis, P. tecta, P. tentoria, P. smithii, Geoclemys hamiltonii, Hardella thurjii, Cuora amboinensis, Melanochelys tricarinata and Cyclemys gemeli. Among the rest three species, Morenia petersi was reported from the park without any locality record and Manouria emys was recorded from nearby Karbi-anglong Hills by Choudhury (1996, 2004). Again, Cuora mouhotii record by Ahmed and Das (2009) was based on two shells from Borjuri village, which were reportedly collected from Panbari RF area of Kaziranga. In this present study C. gemeli was recorded from Panbari RF, which possesses habitat characteristics very similar to M. emys and C. mouhotii. Unfortunately in recent years, massive destruction is going on in these areas, i.e. foothills of Karbi-Anglong, for jhoom (shifting) cultivation, removing of boulders and firewood collection. So we believe such activities have definitely threatened the habitat and its endangered chelonian dwellers, viz., M. emys and C. mouhotii.

12 70 Rajeev Basumatary & D.K. Sharma Table 4. Conservation Status of Chelonians recorded in Kaziranga NP Scientific Name Indian WLPA, 1972 IUCN Red List(2012) CITES(2011) Family: Trionychidae Nilssonia gangeticus Schedule I VU - A1d+2d Appendix I Nilssonia hurum Schedule I VU - A1cd+2d Appendix I Nilssonia nigricans Schedule IV EW Extinct in wild Appendix I Chitra indica Schedule IV EN - A1cd+2cd Appendix II Lissemys punctata Schedule I LR/lc Appendix II Family: Geoemydidae Pangshura sylhetensis Schedule I EN - B1+2c Appendix II Pangshura tecta Schedule I LR/lc Appendix I Pangshura smithii Not listed LR/nt Appendix II Pangshura tentoria Not listed LR/lc Appendix II Melanochelys tricarinata Schedule IV VU - B1+2c Appendix I Hardella thurjii Not listed VU -A1cd+2cd Not listed Geoclemys hamiltonii Schedule I VU - A1d+2d Appendix I Cuora amboinensis Not listed VU - A1d+2d Appendix II Cuora mouhotii Not listed EN - A1d+2d Appendix II Cyclemys gemeli Schedule I Not assessed Not listed Morenia petersi Not listed VU A1cd+2d Not listed Family: Testudinidae Manouria emys Schedule IV EN - A1cd+2cd Appendix II The abundance of protected freshwater habitats (large river, small rivers, beels, marshes) presumably contribute to the diversity and abundance of turtles in KNP. The Brahmaputra river and its sandy deposition (Sixth addition) is found to shelter most numbers of turtle species of KNP (n=11) and provide nesting habitat.75% of P. tentoria observed were from this habitat alone, followed by G. hamiltonii (35%). Two slow flowing rivers, Mora and Jiya Diffolu of the park, which is only 0.69% of the total area, is found to be critical habitat for chelonians in KNP, where 8 numbers of species (N. nigricans, L. punctata, P. sylhetensis, P. tentoria, P. tecta, P. smithii, G. hamiltonii and H. thurjii) are recorded. The endangered P. sylhetensis is found to prefer this habitat than other habitat types, and evidently around 60% record of this species is from Jiya Diffolu river only. Among Pangshura, P. tecta was observed very rarely in Brahmaputra as well as Diffolu river. Nine species were recorded from various lakes and marshes in this study. 70% of H. thurjii and 65% of G. hamiltonii and N. nigricans records were from beels. G. hamiltonii was found to avail a wide range of habitat types in KNP, including grasslands, Brahmaputra River, Diffolu river, lakes and marshes. N. gangeticus, M. tricarinata and C. amboinensis were observed to occur in single habitat, that is, Brahmaputra River, grassland and woodland respectively. It was the most frequently encountered turtle during our study period, and is believed to be most abundant with a healthy population, which is evident from present and earlier studies of Bhupathy and Choudhury (1994) and Ahmed and Das (2009). But, Rashid and Swingland (1997) reported the species to be declining fast and becoming rare throughout its range. Thus KNP population appears to be the critical for gene pool of this species. Another locally common species is the endangered P. sylhetensis, which can be observed

13 The turtle fauna of Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India 71 basking in the half submerged logs in Diffolu and in the bank of Brahmaputra. Its main and safe refuge is the (Jiya) Diffolu river, while its population in Brahmaputra is very much exposed to local fishermen, which is very commonly found entangled to the fishing nets along with H. thurjii, G. hamiltonii, P. tentoria and P. smithii. The evaluation of conservation status of turtles in KNP revealed that most of them are included in the threatened category in IUCN Red list, Among recorded C. indica, P. sylhetensis, C. mouhotii and M. emys are Endangered and N. nigricans is in Extinct in Wild category. However, wild populations of N. nigricans have been reported by Prachag and Gemel (2002) from various localities of Assam, Ahmed and Das (2009) and this study from Kaziranga National Park and Liebing et al. (2012) from Bangladesh. Hence, IUCN Red List of threatened species probably needs to be reviewed for the present Extinct in Wild category for N. nigricans. In the context of Indian Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, 7 species are in Schedule I and 4 in Schedule IV category. Moreover, 14 species are listed in CITES (2011) Appendix I and II. Recently, C. indica and N. nigricans have been included in World s Most Endangered Tortoises And Freshwater Turtles With High Risk Of Extinction list ( Rhodin et al., 2011). In Kaziranga animals like Elephant and Rhino are found to be one of the causes of turtle mortality. During our study we found two dead specimens, G. hamitonii and H. thurjii. G. hamiltonii was found dead in the footstep of elephant, while H. thurjii was recovered from rhino footstep. Moreover this study reports for the first time that, two species of Varanus, such as, V. bengalensis and V. salvator predate on turtle eggs, in KNP. The annual grassland burning as management practice of grassland habitat of Kaziranga has some adverse effects on herpetofauna including the turtles. Most affected species are the grassland dwellers like C. amboinensis, M. tricarinata, G. hamiltonii etc. Ahmed and Das (2009), reported 2 numbers of P. tecta, M. tricarinata (n=6), C. amboinensis (n=3) and 1 specimen of G. hamiltonii in post burning grassland patch. Moreover, turtles of KNP get exposed to poachers in the whole stretch of Brahmaputra River as they are not fully protected. Many of the turtles which get entangled to the fishing nets, though not captured, dies due to drowning. The list includes endangered P. sylhetensis and C. indica along with P. tentoria, P. smithii, G. hamiltonii, H. thurjii and N. gangeticus. This can be minimized by creating awareness among this fisherman community about the importance of these species. There is also scope for schemes of giving incentives to these fishermen for releasing back the turtles which are caught in their net. It is also realized that there is also requirement of regulation of fisherman number in the Brahmaputra. We also observed that there is also practice of collecting fallen logs as firewood from Brahmaputra, which can provide basking habitat for turtles. Egg collection is also practice in some river islands of Brahmaputra by local people. We found that turtles in KNP are very well preserved within the park but much attention has to be paid in newly added areas including the Biswanath Ghat area in Brahmaputra, which is very important area from the conservation point of view and having around 11 turtle species which are easily accessible to everybody. Acknowledgements. I offer my thanks to the University Grants Commission (UGC) New Delhi, for financial assistance and Assam Forest Department for providing permission to carry out this study; Abhijit Das for useful comments on draft manuscript and Arup Kr. Das, Robin Sarma, D.D. Baro, Neelam Dutta, Firoj Ahmed, Mayur Bawri, Jiten Lahon, Buddheswar Konwar, Manuj Kr. Bharali and Mrigakhi Borah for their help. References Ahmed, M.F., Das, A., Dutta, S.K. (2009): Amphibians and Reptiles of Northeast India- A Photographic Guide. 1st edition, Aaranyak, Guwahati, India. Ahmed, M.F., Das, A. (2009): Tortoises and Freshwater Turtles of Kaziranga National Park, Assam- Diversity, Distribution, Conservation Status. In: Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises of India. ENVIS Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, 12(1): Vasudevan, K., Ed., WII, Dehradun, India. Bhupathy, S., Choudhury, B.C. (1994): A Note on Reproductive Biology of the Spotted Pond Turtle, Geoclemys hamiltonii. 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