LITERATURE REVIEW Animal Shelter Role and Types

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1 LITERATURE REVIEW Animal Shelter Role and Types Most animal shelters back in 1800 s were intended for handling large numbers of dogs for brief periods of time as part of animal control programs (Newbury et al. 2010). Wandering dogs, posing a nuisance and safety risk, would have been picked up and taken to the pound. It was not uncommon for pound masters to kill unclaimed dogs by clubbing or drowning them (Lane and Zawistowski 2007). According to ACTAsia For Animals (2012), shelters are a temporary solution to a complex problem which include animal abuse, abandoned pets, puppy mills and unwanted litters which then lead to overpopulation of strays, disease transmission, sick and injured animals, and animal attacks. Therefore, a shelter s role includes animal rescue, re-homing, re-uniting, public health and safety, providing a permanent sanctuary, education and campaigning, and a means for humane killing or euthanasia. According to Animals Asia and the Humane Society International (2007), an animal shelter s tasks should include providing a safe, clean, comfortable and species-appropriate environment for animals in need, preventing animal cruelty and suffering, teaching humane principles to the community, and lobbying for the enactment and enforcement of adequate animal protection laws. Some shelters have no-kill policies and will hold dogs until they are reclaimed, re-homed, are humanely killed for medical reasons, or die (Stafford 2006). An observation was done by Eckhardt (2011) on the types of animal shelters present at current time. From the observation, Eckhardt reported that there are six types of shelters: municipal shelters, traditional animal shelters, limitedadmission animal shelters, balanced-population animal shelters, animal sanctuaries, and rescue organizations. Hurley and Miller (2009) simply categorized shelters into municipal shelters, private Zshelters, and other types of shelters. Municipal shelters are completely government operated shelters and generally focus on stray animal pickup, control of dangerous animals, including

2 quarantines of animals that may have bitten someone, capture of free - roaming animals, nuisance complaints, investigation of animal cruelty complaints, handling of wildlife, and they are required to help every animal that comes to them (Eckhardt 2011, Hurley and Miller 2009). Private shelters are not-for-profit organizations; they are privately funded and their policies are often set by elected or volunteer boards of directors (Hurley and Miller 2009). Traditional animal shelters typically are committed to care for any animal that comes to them, and may be under contract with the local municipality to provide animal care or control. Limited-admission animal shelters do not euthanize animals for space but limit intake. Balanced population animal shelters exist in communities that have reached balanced companion animal populations. They take care of any animal in need, and do not euthanize for space. Animal sanctuaries primarily handle special needs, unadoptable animals, and large animals. Rescue organizations are dedicated to one breed or one type of animal, work through volunteers and foster homes, and have finite number of space (Eckhardt 2011). Policies and Protocols To build this foundation, organizations must have a clearly defined mission, policies and protocols that reflect current information, adequate staff training and supervision, and proper management of animal care. Animal health is interwoven into virtually every facet of sheltering or rescue programs; therefore veterinarians should be integrally involved with the development and implementation of an organizational plan, and must have supervision of medical and surgical care of animals (Newbury et al. 2010). Veterinarians work with shelters in a variety of capacities as volunteers, employees, or consultants in charge of the health-care program (Hurley and Miller 2009). According to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (2011), the role of the veterinarian is essential in providing adequate veterinary care that is in promoting an animal s health and welfare, and they should have the authority and responsibility for making judgements regarding animal welfare. Organizational functioning, employee health and well-being, and animal wellness are inextricably linked

3 (Reeve et al. 2004; Rogelberg et al. 2007). Authority and responsibility must be given only to those who have the appropriate knowledge and training. Supervision and accountability for all staff and volunteers are essential to ensure that policies and protocols guide daily activities (Newbury et al. 2010). All animals must carry out basic life processes and therefore have basic needs which can be grouped into five areas: physiological needs, social, psychological needs, environmental needs, and behavioural needs. Animals in captivity, such as pets or animals in a shelter or zoo are entirely dependent upon humans to provide the conditions that will satisfy their basic needs (RSPCA 2006). The ACTAsia For Animals (2012) organization stated that a high standard of animal welfare that covers the five freedoms in animal welfare is essential in an animal shelter. The five freedoms: freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition, freedom from discomfort, freedom from pain, injury and disease, freedom to express normal behaviour, and freedom from fear and distress; they are applicable to all animals use by humans and pets (Edwards 2010; Villalobos 2011). According to RSPCA (2006), the most important policy decisions are on neutering, rehoming and euthanasia. Newbury et al. (2010) stated that a clearly defined mission that forms the basis of shelter policies should include animal care, intake, treatment, adoption, and euthanasia. The establishment of policies helps to guide an organisation s work and will shape the day-to-day running of a shelter. The policies at a shelter should represent the principles that organisation sees as important. Benefits of establishing shelter policies: sets, maintains and monitors standards, ensures continuity of animal care, prevents misunderstanding and confusion for staff and supporters, and it ensure compliance with relevant legislation. Welfare and Health Management There is a critical relationship between animal health and animal welfare (OIE 2010). Health is not merely the absence of disease or injury but is also closely tied to an animal s physical and mental well-being (Newbury et al. 2010). Health, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 1948, is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of

4 disease or infirmity. The OIE (2010) defined the good state of welfare as: if the animal (as indicated by scientific evidence) is healthy, comfortable, well nourished, safe, able to express innate behaviour, and if it is not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress. Good animal welfare requires disease prevention and veterinary treatment, appropriate shelter, management, nutrition, humane handling and humane slaughter/killing (OIE 2010). Appropriate management is just as important for small animals, whether their environment is that of a single or multiple-pet home or a more intensive housing situation such as a kennel or cattery (Kahn and Line 2008). An understanding of the shelter s mission is critical to the design of an effective shelter health program (Hurley and Miller 2009). Hurley and Miller (2009) also stated that the design of a comprehensive program to control, manage, and reduce the transmission of disease in animal shelters is a challenge for the veterinary professional. Common Health Problems in Shelters Behaviour The National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy (NCPPSP) Regional Shelter Study found that behavioural problems, including aggression toward people or nonhuman animals, were the most frequently given reasons for canine relinquishment and the second most frequently given reasons for feline relinquishment (Salman et al. 2000). The behaviours associated with the decision to relinquish a canine or feline include aggression, separation-related behaviour, house soiling, fearful behaviour, destructiveness, vocalization, disobedience, digging, and chewing (Salman et al. 2000). When dogs are relinquished by their owners to shelters, problem behaviours such as fearfulness, aggression, hyperactivity, inappropriate elimination, separation anxiety, destructiveness and vocalisation are most often cited as the reason (Marston and Bennett 2003, Mondelli et al. 2004, Wells and Hepper 2000). Behaviour, and in particular aggression, is also the single most common reason for dogs to be returned by new owners to shelters (Wells and Hepper 2000; Orihel et al. 2005).

5 Aggression is not a unitary phenomenon but serves a variety of functions in an animal s life and can be dealt with effectively by determining the type of aggression (Houpt 2011). Aggression is defined as a behavior that leads to - or of which the apparent aim is to - to do harm to the physical (and/or psychological) integrity or freedom of another individual (Dehasse and Cornett 2003). Terry (2008) categorized dog aggression into human-directed aggression and inter-dog aggression. Categories of human-directed aggression include fear, possessive, territorial/protective, maternal, predatory, and dominance. Categories of inter-dog aggression include status-related, fear, arousal, possessive, protective, territorial, redirected, and predatory. It is now understood that keeping a social, inquisitive species in a bland environment results in abnormal behaviours indicative of compromised welfare. Unwanted adult pets now outnumber puppies and kittens, with many euthanized animals exhibiting potentially resolvable behaviour problems (Salman et al. 2000). Common Diseases Control of infectious and zoonotic diseases are a major problem in animal shelters (Foley and Bannasch 2004) where newly introduced animals can carry a variety of pathogens, stressed animals are more vulnerable to infection, and crowded and less-than-excellent hygiene conditions promote the spread of infection (Spain et al. 2001; Helps et al. 2005; Petersen et al. 2008). Hurley (2005a) stated that some common serious diseases in shelters include: Canine distemper, parvo, panleukopenia, kennel cough, feline upper respiratory tract infections (URI), ringworm (dermatophytosis), feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), Sarcoptic mange (scabies), infectious diarrheal diseases, such as whipworm, hookworm, giardia, coccidia and campylobacter. According to Peterson et al.(2008) common zoonotic diseases found in shelters are Bartonella henselae, Borrelia burgdorferi, gardia, brucellosis, hookworms, ringworm, leptospirosis, plague, rabies, roundworms, salmonella, and toxoplasmosis.

6 Canine distemper and canine parvo are the two most common infectious diseases, and preventable infectious canine diseases especially in unvaccinated dogs housed in pet shops, puppy mills and animal shelters (Larson and Schultz 2006; Schultz 2006b; Lechner et al. 2010; Steneroden et al. 2011) (Table 1). Puppies are the most susceptible to parvo, especially if they have roundworms or other internal intestinal parasites, protozoa, or bacteria. Despite aggressive therapy, parvo may have a high fatality rate. On the other hand, many adult dogs that become infected never actually show clinical signs of disease (Appel and Barr 2009). Canine distemper is associated with respiratory, gastrointestinal and neurologic clinical signs and is commonly spread through aerosol or droplet exposure however infection may occur through contact with other body secretions or through transplacental transfer (Litster et al. 2011). Table 1 Common diseases in shelter dogs Name Cause Information Source Canine distemper Canine Distemper Virus Distemper can be shed in all body secretions of acutely infected animals. It can be spread by direct contact, aerosol, or respiratory droplet exposure. Canine parvo Canine Parvo Virus After infection, it takes 5 days or longer for signs of disease to appear. CPV-2 faecal shedding rarely persists for >2 weeks. Canine Influenza Canine influenza subtype H3N8 virus (CIV) Canine influenza outbreaks reach epidemic proportions in facilities with high density and high turnover populations Hurley 2005d Day et al Crawford and King 2007 Upper respiratory tract infections (URIs) are the most common infectious diseases of shelter cats and can be challenging to control (Griffin 2009). Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) are among the most common infectious diseases of cats (Levy 2008). FIP is a major problem in cat shelters, and indeed for cats from any multicat environment (Addie 2005).

7 Ringworm, or dermatophytosis, is one of the most common infectious skin diseases of young and long-haired cats (Miller 2007). Table 2 Common diseases in shelter cats Name Cause Information Source Upper Respiratory Infection (URI) Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) Panleukopenia Feline herpes virus (also known as feline viral rhinotracheitis or FVR) and calicivirus, Bordetella bronchiseptica, Mycoplasma and Chlamydophila as secondary infections. Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) Feline (FCoV) coronavirus Feline panleukopenia virus (FPLV) Majority of URI in cats is caused by either FVR or FCV. Stress is almost always the most important factor influencing the incidence and course of feline URI. FeLV is commonly spread vertically from infected queens to their kittens and horizontally among cats that live together or that fight. FIV is shed in high concentrations in the saliva, which also contains infected leukocytes. The major mode of transmission is via bite wounds. The vaccine is not 100% effective,so the main way to prevent FIP is to attempt to stop cats from ever being exposed FCoV. The main source of virus is the faeces. Kittens are most severely affected due to immunodeficient with maternal antibody blockage combined with a highly contaminated environment. Ringworm Microsporum canis, M.canis, is responsible for 98 percent of cat cases and 70 percent of dog cases. Griffin 2009 Levy et al Levy et al Addie 2005 Stateler 2010 Miller 2007

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