SWAB Guidelines for Antimicrobial Stewardship

Transcription

1 SWAB Guidelines for Antimicrobial Stewardship - Emelie C. Schuts Bsc (coordinator, SWAB), PhD student, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam - prof. dr. M.E.J.L. Hulscher (chair), Quality of Healthcare specialist, Scientific Center for Quality of Healthcare, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen - prof. dr. J.W. Mouton (NVMM), Medical Microbiologist, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam - dr. C.M. Verduin (NVMM), Medical Microbiologist, Department of Medical Microbiology and Infection Prevention, Amphia Hospital, Breda - dr. J.W.T. Cohen Stuart (NVMM), Medical Microbiologist, Department of Medical Microbiology, Medisch Centrum Alkmaar, Alkmaar - dr. J.W.P.M. Overdiek (NVZA), Hospital Pharmacist, Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Medical Centre Haaglanden, The Hague - dr. P.D. van der Linden (NVZA), Hospital Pharmacist, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Tergooi Hospital, Hilversum/Blaricum - dr. S. Natsch (NVZA), Hospital Pharmacist, Department of Pharmacy, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen - prof. dr. C.M.P.M. Hertogh (Verenso), Elderly Care Physician, Department of General Practice and Elderly Care Medicine, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam - dr. T.F.W. Wolfs (NVK), Pediatric Infectious Diseases specialist, Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Wilhelmina Children s Hospital, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht - dr. J.A. Schouten (NVIC), Intensive Care physician, Department of Intensive Care, Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen - prof. dr. B.J. Kullberg (VIZ, NIV), Internal Medicine/Infectious Diseases specialist, Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship

2 - prof. dr. J.M. Prins (co-chair) (SWAB), Internal Medicine/Infectious Diseases specialist, Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam NVMM: Nederlandse Vereniging voor Medische Microbiologie (Dutch Society of Medical Microbiology); NVZA: Nederlandse Vereniging van Ziekenhuisapothekers (Dutch Society of Hospital Pharmacists); NVIC: Nederlandse Vereniging voor Intensive Care (Dutch Society for Intensive Care); VIZ: Vereniging voor Infectieziekten (Dutch Society for Infectious Diseases); NIV: Nederlandse Internisten Vereniging (Netherlands Society of Internal Medicine); Verenso: Vereniging van Specialisten Ouderengeneeskunde (Dutch Association of Elderly Care Physicians) SWAB SWAB Secretariat Postbus ZG Bergen Lb Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship

3 Contents 1 Summary of recommendations p. 5 2 Introduction p. 7 3 Stewardship objectives and strategies p Stewardship objectives: Definitions of good quality antibiotic use p Stewardship strategies: summary of Cochrane review Interventions to p. 10 improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients 4 Methodology p Recommendations p Guideline adherence p Cultures from blood or site of infection p De-escalation p Adapt to renal function p IV to oral switch p Document the antibiotic plan p Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) p Stop criteria p Local guide present and in agreement with the national guidelines p List of restricted antibiotics p Bedside consult p Assess patient s compliance p Long Term Care Facility (LTCF) setting p Use of procalcitonin p Recommendations regarding stewardship strategies: interventions to reach p. 50 good quality antibiotic use Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship

4 7 Abbreviations p Funding and Conflict of Interest p Applicability p Reference list p. 58 Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship

5 1 Summary of recommendations Recommendation Strength Quality of Evidence 1 It is recommended to prescribe empirical antibiotic therapy according to the guideline. Strong Low It is recommended to take blood cultures and cultures from the site of infection before starting systemic antibiotic therapy. Strong * It is recommended to change empirical antibiotics to pathogendirected therapy as soon as culture results become available. It is recommended to adapt the dose and dosing interval of antibiotics to renal function. Strong Strong Very low Very low It is recommended to switch systemic antibiotic therapy from intravenous to oral antibiotic therapy after hours on the basis of the clinical condition and when oral treatment is adequate Strong Very low It is recommended to document an antibiotic plan in the case notes at the start of systemic antibiotic treatment. Strong * It is recommended to perform therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) in patients treated with aminoglycosides, glycopeptides, voriconazole, posaconazole or colistin. It should be considered to discontinue empirical antibiotic therapy for presumed bacterial infection based on the lack of clinical or microbiological evidence of infection. It is recommended to have a local antibiotic guide present in the hospital. The Guideline committee also recommends that the local antibiotic guide corresponds to the national antibiotic guidelines. It is recommended to use a list of restricted antibiotics. The A- teams should update their hospital antimicrobial restriction list regularly. It is recommended to perform a bedside consultation in patients with S.aureus bacteremia, bacterial endocarditis, intravascular infections or prosthetic joint infections. Strong Weak Strong Strong Strong Strong Very low Very low Low * Very low Very low 5 Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship 2016

6 The Guideline committee cannot make any recommendation for assessing the patient s compliance with the antibiotic prescription in the hospital setting. The Guideline committee is of the opinion that tailored application of guideline recommendations for the hospital setting may be considered in the LTCF setting NA * Strong * The Guideline committee cannot make recommendations which Stewardship strategy should be used to achieve the Stewardship objectives. Procalcitonin-guided antibiotic treatment discontinuation should be considered in the ICU setting. The Guideline committee does not recommend the use of procalcitonin for guiding treatment duration of respiratory tract infections. NA Weak Weak Low High High * no evidence obtained from the literature 6 Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship 2016

7 2 Introduction The Dutch Working Party on Antibiotic Policy (SWAB), established by the Dutch Society for Infectious Diseases, the Dutch Society for Medical Microbiology and the Dutch Association of Hospital Pharmacists, coordinates activities in the Netherlands aimed at optimization of antibiotic use, containment of the development of antimicrobial resistance, and limitation of the costs of antibiotic use. By means of the evidence-based development of guidelines, SWAB offers local antibiotic and formulary committees a guideline for the development of their own, local antibiotic policy. SWAB yearly reports on the use of antibiotics and on trends in antimicrobial resistance in The Netherlands in NethMap (available from in collaboration with the National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM-CIb). Purpose and scope of the SWAB Guidelines for Antimicrobial Stewardship Although the benefits of antibiotic use are indisputable, misuse and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, which has become a serious and growing threat to public health. 2,3 Patients with infections caused by resistant bacteria generally have an increased risk of worse clinical outcomes and death, and consume more healthcare resources than patients infected with the same bacteria not demonstrating the resistance pattern in question. 3 In addition, antibiotics can have serious adverse events, including adverse drug reactions and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Of all antibiotics prescribed in acute care hospitals, 20-50% are inappropriate. 4-8 Over the recent years there has been a worldwide trend to incorporate Antimicrobial Stewardship in hospitals with the goal to improve the quality of antimicrobial use. The primary goal of Antimicrobial Stewardship is to optimize clinical outcomes and ensure cost-effective therapy while minimizing unintended consequences of antimicrobial use, including toxicity, the selection of pathogenic organisms and the emergence of resistance. 9 The characteristics of Antimicrobial Stewardship programs (ASP) vary 10 and consist of a variety of interventions that can be designed and adapted to fit the infrastructure of any hospital. 11 In stewardship programs, two sets of interventions should be distinguished. The first set of interventions describes recommended care at the patient level, i.e., 'Stewardship 7 Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship 2016

8 objectives'. Examples of such objectives are: treat according to the guidelines, take blood cultures and cultures from the site of infection, or de-escalate therapy after culture results have become available. A second set of interventions describes recommended strategies how to achieve the Stewardship objectives as mentioned in the first set. These include restrictive (e.g. formulary restriction) and persuasive strategies (e.g. education, feedback) to improve appropriate antimicrobial use in patient care. The SWAB Guideline committee has systematically reviewed the yield of each Stewardship objective these systematic reviews have been published separately. 12 The evidence for the various improvement strategies to achieve these ASP objectives was systematically reviewed in a Cochrane review. 11 In addition, the use of procalcitonin (PCT) as Stewardship strategy has recently been systematically assessed. 13 The aim of this SWAB guideline is to summarize, for the hospital setting, the current state of evidence of the effects of the various Antimicrobial Stewardship objectives in adults 12 and of the effects of various Stewardship improvement strategies. 11,13 Effectiveness is assessed on patient outcomes (e.g., mortality, length of stay), adverse events, costs and bacterial resistance. It is important to emphasize that for some objectives, like IV to oral switch, not showing harm (equivalence) is an important outcome. Some outcomes may also be more relevant for one objective than for another. For example, switching a patient from IV to oral therapy may decrease the likelihood of catheter-related events, but we would not expect this stewardship intervention to impact mortality or bacterial resistance. Based on this information, recommendations are formulated for clinicians and members of hospital Stewardship teams. We additionally investigated which recommendations could be made for the Long Term Care Facility (LTCF) setting. Complementary to this guideline is the Practical Guide Antimicrobial Stewardship in the Netherlands' ( This is intended as a resource for A-teams in setting up an Antimicrobial Stewardship Programme in their hospital. It is not a guideline, but a guide containing suggestions on how the different elements of a stewardship programme can be designed and what the conditions are for a properly functioning A-team taking into account the local situation. Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship

9 3 Stewardship objectives and strategies: systematic literature review 3.1 Stewardship objectives: Definitions of good quality antibiotic use Using a RAND-modified Delphi procedure among international experts, we previously developed a set of 11 quality indicators (QIs) that can be used to measure appropriateness of antibiotic use in the treatment of all bacterial infections in hospitalized adult patients. 14 As these QIs were designed to be used in ASPs to determine for which aspects of antibiotic use there is room for improvement, we considered them as a set of Stewardship objectives. The Antimicrobial Stewardship objectives are: (1) prescribe empirical antibiotic therapy according to the local guideline, (2) take at least two sets of blood cultures before starting systemic antibiotic therapy, (3) take cultures from suspected sites of infection before starting systemic antibiotic therapy, (4) change empirical to pathogen-directed therapy as soon as culture results become available, (5) adapt dose and dosing interval of systemic antibiotics to renal function, (6) switch systemic antibiotic therapy from intravenous (IV) to oral antibiotic therapy after hours on the basis of the clinical condition and when oral treatment is possible, (7) document the antibiotic plan in the case notes at the start of systemic antibiotic treatment, (8) perform therapeutic drug monitoring, and (9) discontinue antibiotic therapy if infection is not confirmed. Two additional QIs describe recommended care at the hospital level: (10) a local antibiotic guide should be present in the hospital, and (11) these local guides should be in agreement with the national antibiotic guidelines. Three additional objectives were mentioned in the 2007 IDSA guidelines on Antimicrobial Stewardship 9 and/or were identified during a consensus meeting with the Antimicrobial Stewardship guideline development group representing the professional societies most involved in establishing ASPs in the Netherlands. These additional objectives were: (12) use a list of restricted antimicrobials (through formulary limitation or by the requirement of preauthorization and justification), (13) perform a bedside consultation for patients with certain infectious conditions, and (14) measure patient s compliance with the antibiotic prescription. All 14 Antimicrobial Stewardship objectives and the corresponding structured clinical questions are presented in Table 1. Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship

10 We performed a search of all relevant studies published until April 2014 in the Embase, OVID MEDLINE and PubMed databases, for each of the above-mentioned 14 objectives, i.e., we performed 14 separate systematic searches. To be eligible, at least one of the following four primary outcomes had to be mentioned in the abstract: patient outcome (i.e. mortality, length of stay), adverse events, costs or antimicrobial resistance. We included studies that compared patients in whom the targeted Antimicrobial Stewardship objective was met (the intervention group) with patients in whom the targeted objective was not met (the control group). For example, patients in whom empirical treatment was prescribed in accordance with the guideline as compared to patients in whom it was not. For all systematic reviews we followed the PRISMA criteria and the study protocol was registered at PROSPERO. 1,15 For a further description of the Methodology, the description of the retrieved studies, and the Systematic review of each Stewardship Objective we refer to the published paper. 16 In Chapter 5, Recommendations, the main findings will be summarized for each Stewardship Objective separately. 3.2 Stewardship strategies: summary of Cochrane review Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices for hospital inpatients Having defined the set of Antimicrobial Stewardship objectives, it is also important to define the various strategies how to achieve these ASP objectives. Recently, a Cochrane review systematically reviewed the evidence for the various strategies. 11 The objective of this review was to estimate the effectiveness of professional interventions that, alone or in combination, are effective in Antimicrobial Stewardship for hospital inpatients, to evaluate the impact of these interventions on reducing the incidence of antimicrobialresistant pathogens or Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and to evaluate their impact on clinical outcome. The main comparison was between interventions with a restrictive element and those that were purely persuasive. Restrictive interventions were implemented through restriction of the freedom of prescribers to select some antibiotics. Persuasive interventions used one or more of the following methods for changing professional behaviour: dissemination of educational resources, reminders, audit and feedback, or educational outreach. Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship

11 Restrictive interventions had significantly greater impact on prescribing outcomes at one month and on microbial outcomes at 6 months, but there were no significant differences at 12 or 24 months. Interventions intended to decrease excessive prescribing were associated with reduction in CDI and colonization or infection with aminoglycoside- or cephalosporin-resistant gram-negative bacteria, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Four interventions intended to increase effective prescribing for pneumonia were associated with significant reduction in mortality, whereas nine interventions intended to decrease excessive prescribing were not associated with significant increase in mortality. 11 Overall, the results of the Cochrane review showed that interventions to reduce excessive antibiotic prescribing to hospital inpatients can reduce antimicrobial resistance or hospital-acquired infections, and interventions to increase effective prescribing can improve clinical outcome. The use of restrictive interventions showed more immediate impact, but persuasive and restrictive interventions were equally effective after six months. In addition to this Cochrane review, more systematic reviews have been published evaluating Stewardship strategies. 7,10,11,17-25 These will be summarized in an update of this guideline foreseen for Concept SWAB Guidelines Antimicrobial Stewardship 2016

12 Table 1. Structured Clinical Questions: Population 1, Intervention, Comparator, Outcome (PICO) Intervention Comparator Outcome Methodology Definitions Empirical therapy according to the Empirical therapy not Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Empirical systemic antibiotic therapy prescribed according to local guidelines according to the Costs Observational studies guide or national guidelines 2 guidelines Resistance rates Blood cultures Not taking blood Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Take at least two sets of blood cultures before starting systemic cultures Costs Observational studies antibiotic therapy Resistance rates Cultures from the site of infection Not taking cultures from Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Take cultures from suspected sites of infection, preferably before the site of infection Costs Observational studies starting systemic antibiotic therapy Resistance rates De-escalation of therapy Therapy not de- Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Change to narrow-spectrum antibiotic or stop antibiotics as soon as escalated Costs Observational studies culture results are available 14,26-28 Resistance rates Adjustment of therapy to renal Therapy not adjusted to Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Adjustment of dose and dosing interval of systemic antibiotics function renal function Costs Observational studies Resistance rates Switch from intravenous to oral Not switching Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Switch after h, when the clinical condition of the patient is therapy intravenous to oral Costs Observational studies stable, oral intake and gastrointestinal absorption are adequate, Resistance rates and when sufficiently high concentrations in blood with a suitable oral antibiotic can be achieved 14,29, Population for all searches: patients treated with antibiotics in a hospital or long-term care facility All results extracted if both reported

13 Documented antibiotic plan Not documenting the Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Documented antibiotic plan should include indication, drug name antibiotic plan Costs Observational studies and dose, and administration route and interval, and should be Resistance rates included in the case notes at the start of systemic antibiotic treatment Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) Not performing TDM Clinical outcome and adverse events Costs Resistance rates Randomized controlled trials Observational studies NA Discontinuation of antibiotic therapy if Not discontinuing Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Discontinuation of empirical treatment based on lack of clinical or infection is not confirmed antibiotic therapy if Costs Observational studies microbiological evidence of infection 3 infection is not Resistance rates confirmed Presence of a local antibiotic guide No local antibiotic guide Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Local antibiotic guide present in the hospital and assessed for present Costs Observational studies update every 3 years Resistance rates Local antibiotic guide in agreement Local antibiotic guide Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Corresponds for all features but can deviate on the basis of local with national antibiotic guidelines not in agreement with Costs Observational studies resistance patterns national antibiotic Resistance rates guidelines List of restricted antibiotics Not using a list of Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Removal of specific antibiotics from the formulary or restriction of restricted antibiotics Costs Observational studies use by requiring preauthorisation by a specialist (infectious Resistance rates and use of diseases or medical microbiology) or allowing use for only 72 h antibiotics with mandatory approval for further use; studies in outbreak settings excluded 3 Studies only reporting on differences between discontinuing and continuing treatment were included, whereas those including more general reports on deescalation of therapy (broad to narrower spectrum or stopping treatment based on culture results) were included in the review of de-escalation of therapy

14 Bedside consultation Not performing bedside Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials Formal consultation by an infectious disease specialist leading to consultation Costs Observational studies written comments and advice on treatment based on physical Resistance rates examination and review of medical records (informal consultation, for example by telephone, does not count as bedside consultation) Assessment of patients adherence Not assessing patients Clinical outcome and adverse events Randomized controlled trials NA compliance Costs Observational studies Resistance rates

15 4 Methodology of developing this guideline The guideline was written according to the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research & Evaluation (AGREE) instrument. 31 The recommendations in this guideline are based on the conclusions from the systematic reviews of the literature on the 14 Stewardship objectives and the Cochrane review on Stewardship strategies. 6,12,16 Conclusions from the literature are divided into conclusions regarding mortality, length of stay (LOS), cost and resistance rates. In addition, when at least three papers in a specific search reported results on other variables (e.g. Treatment failure), these conclusions are also reported. For full text and the remaining outcomes we refer to the appendix of the original paper. 12 In addition to the AGREE instrument, the Guideline committee followed a guideline development process comparable to that of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), which includes a systematic method of grading both the quality of evidence (very low, low, moderate, and high) and the strength of the recommendation (weak or strong). 32 The quality of evidence is graded according to the GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) system, adopted by SWAB. Quality of evidence is determined by several factors, the most important of these being study design (Table 2) 1. The remaining factors (e.g. Risk of Bias) can downgrade or upgrade the quality of evidence based on design. For example, a observational study with a serious risk of bias is considered to have a very low quality of evidence. The quality of evidence is indicated with an asterisk (*) when no evidence was obtained from the literature. Strength of recommendations are graded as Strong or Weak, taking the quality of evidence, patients values, resources and costs, and the balance between benefits, harms and burdens into account (Table 2) 33. The SWAB Stewardship Guideline committee and for example the WHO are of the opinion that a low quality of evidence does not necessarily lead to a weak recommendation 32,34 : for example, little evidence supports taking blood cultures or cultures from suspected sites of infection, but the Guideline committee nevertheless strongly recommends to take cultures. Likewise, strong evidence for a certain intervention can sometimes nevertheless result in a weak recommendation. The reasons for the guideline committee to give strong or weak recommendations are discussed for each recommendation in the section: Other considerations, where applicable divided into 15

16 patients values, resources and costs, and the balance between benefits, harms and burdens. When scientific verification could not be found, recommendations were formulated on the basis of the opinions and experience of the members of the Guideline committee. Notably, conclusions regarding costs had to be carefully approached. Since cost is a variable that is highly subjective to the setting and time of research, it is difficult to translate the effects of the included studies to the current healthcare environment in the Netherlands. The Guideline committee is of opinion that an increase in costs should not prevent the A-teams from pursuing Stewardship objectives. Preparation of the guideline text was carried out by a multidisciplinary committee consisting of experts delegated from the professional societies for Infectious Diseases (VIZ), Internal Medicine (NIV), Medical Microbiology (NVMM), Intensive Care (NVIC), Hospital Pharmacy (NVZA), Pediatrics (NVK), Elderly Care Medicine (Verenso), and a methodologist and quality of care expert. After consultation with the members of these professional societies, the definitive guideline was drawn up by the delegates and approved by the board of SWAB. 16

17 Table 2. Approach and implications to rating the quality of evidence and strength of recommendations using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology 1,32 17

18 5 Recommendations 5.1 Should empirical therapy be prescribed according to the guideline? Search strategy Empirical antibiotic therapy according to the guideline MEDLINE 489 hits (14/10/14) Embase 489 hits (14/10/14) PubMed not MEDLINE 48 hits (14/10/14) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 760 Full-text articles assessed 110 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 40 Literature overview 40 studies were identified, originating from over 10 countries spanning five continents. Patient populations across studies were diverse, but the vast majority (32) of studies was on lung infections (Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP), Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia (HAP) and Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia (VAP)). A large number of studies (21) were multicenter studies, others were exclusively set in university (9), tertiary care (6) and community hospitals (4). Most studies reported data from both Intensive Care Unit (ICU) and hospital wards, but eight showed data exclusively from the ICU setting. All studies were observational and the risk of bias was mostly serious. Therefore, the quality of research was judged to be poor. Of 37 studies reporting the effect on mortality, the majority (31) showed that having empirical therapy prescribed according to the guideline resulted in a lower mortality rate, with 14 studies showing a significant difference. One study reported no effect on mortality and five studies reported a higher mortality rate, one being significant. A significant Relative Risk Reduction (RRR) of 35% (Relative Risk (RR) 0.65, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) , p<0.0001) was found across all studies reporting on mortality, with moderate heterogeneity (I 2 65%). Since the majority of studies looked at pulmonary infections, mainly CAP, we performed a sensitivity analysis which did not reveal a different impact on mortality. All four studies reporting on treatment failure showed a significant difference in favor of guideline adherence. Of the 24 studies assessing the impact on hospital LOS, 17 18

19 reported a lower length of stay in case of adherence to the guideline, and in eight of those studies the difference was significant. Notably, this effect was not so clear for ICU length of stay. The remaining seven studies showed a non-significant longer length of stay for guideline-adherent patients in four and no effect on LOS in the other three studies. All studies reporting data on costs (4) reported that expenditures can be saved when adhering to guidelines, with the savings in two of these studies being highly significant. Conclusions Outcome 4 Quality of evidence Conclusion Mortality Very low Pooled data show a significant decrease of mortality. Length of hospital stay Very low The majority of studies reports a decrease in length of hospital stay. Length of ICU stay Very low Insufficient data to draw a conclusion. ICU admission Very low Insufficient data to draw a conclusion. Readmission Insufficient data to draw a conclusion. Treatment failure Very low All studies report a consistent and significant effect: a decrease of treatment failure rates. Cost Very low All studies report a consistent effect: a decrease of expenses, with two studies reporting a significant decrease. Resistance Very low One study reports a significantly higher percentage of resistant bacteria in non-adherent 4 Given here are the outcomes reported in three studies or more. For full text and the remaining outcomes we refer to the appendix of the original paper 12 19

20 with a positive culture Other considerations The Guideline committee is of the opinion that there are no reasons to assume that prescribing empirical therapy according to the guideline wouldn t hold true for other infections than CAP. Recommendation Strength Quality of evidence The Guideline committee recommends to prescribe empirical antibiotic therapy according to the guidelines. Strong recommendation Low 20

21 5.2 Should blood cultures or cultures from the site of infection be taken before starting systemic antibiotic therapy? Search strategy Blood cultures MEDLINE 1027 hits (17/04/2014) Embase 1673 hits (17/04/2014) PubMed not MEDLINE 64 hits (17/04/2014) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 1921 Full-text articles assessed 9 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 0 Cultures from the site of infection MEDLINE 696 (17/04/2014) Embase 1169 (17/04/2014) PubMed not MEDLINE 90 (17/04/2014) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 1352 Full-text articles assessed 14 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 0 Literature overview No papers were found on performing blood cultures or taking culture samples from the site of infection. A recently presented study reported that performing blood cultures reduces the length of hospital stay. 35 This study was not included since it was not yet published at the time of our search. Conclusions No conclusions can be drawn since no published literature was found for this objective. Other considerations In a RAND-modified Delphi procedure among international experts, performing (blood) cultures was considered an important Quality indicator describing appropriate antibiotic use in hospitalized adults. 14 Although we did not find direct evidence that performing a (blood) culture is beneficial for the patient, the indirect evidence is obvious. De-escalation of antibiotic therapy and IV-oral switch have positive effects on clinical outcome, adverse 21

22 events and costs, and performing a (blood)culture is a prerequisite for de-escalating and switching. Also, (blood) culture results are important for monitoring local resistance data, which are necessary to guide the empiric therapy recommended in the local antibiotic guides. Recommendation Recommendation Strength Quality of evidence The Guideline committee recommends to take blood cultures and cultures from the site of infection before starting systemic antibiotic therapy. * no evidence obtained from the literature Strong recommendation * 22

23 5.3 Should empirical antibiotics be changed to pathogen-directed therapy as soon as culture results become available? Search strategy De-escalation of therapy based on culture results MEDLINE 929 hits (24/02/2014) Embase 1756 hits (24/02/2014) PubMed not MEDLINE 123 hits (24/02/2014) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 2726 Full-text articles assessed 121 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 25 Literature overview We identified 25 studies meeting our inclusion criteria, originating from 12 countries on three continents (Europe, North America, Asia), with most studies being performed in the United States (9). Patient populations were very diverse, varying from pulmonary infections (CAP, HAP, VAP and Health Care Associated Pneumonia (HCAP)) to bacteremia and sepsis. Nine of 25 were multicenter studies, and nine were solely in ICU patients. There was one good quality Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT), but most studies scored having a serious risk of bias, resulting in poor quality evidence. The hypothesis of these studies is usually to demonstrate non-inferiority of de-escalating therapy. Nevertheless, of the 19 observational studies reporting data on mortality rates, 17 studies showed a beneficial effect of de-escalation, with seven of those showing significant results. The two remaining studies reported a higher mortality rate, although the difference was not significant. A significant RRR of 56% (RR 0.44, 95% CI , p<0.0001) was found across all studies reporting on mortality, with moderate heterogeneity (I 2 59%). A sensitivity analysis of observational studies did not reveal a different impact on mortality. Ten studies assessed the impact of de-escalation on length of stay, with nine observational studies all showing a trend for decreasing hospital stay, two being significant. The only RCT reported a non-significant longer length of hospital and ICU stay. All four observational studies showed a reduced number of days spend in the ICU, with two of those studies showing a significant difference. 23

24 Of the 13 studies reporting on costs, 11 studies showed savings when comparing deescalation to unmodified therapy, with five studies reporting a significant difference. Two studies claim higher cost due to de-escalation, with one study reporting higher cost due to culturing specimens and one study reporting significantly higher median daily antimicrobial costs. Conclusions Outcome Quality of evidence Conclusion Mortality Very low Pooled data shows a significant decrease of mortality. Length of hospital stay Very low The majority of the studies reports a decrease in length of hospital stay. Length of ICU stay Very low All studies report a consistent effect: a decrease in length of ICU stay. Cost Very low The majority of the studies reports a decrease of expenses. Other considerations The hypothesis of these studies was usually to demonstrate non-inferiority of de-escalating therapy. Indeed, non-inferiority was demonstrated for all outcomes reported. Moreover, meta-analysis showed a significant beneficial effect on mortality. Recommendation Strength Quality of evidence The Guideline committee recommends to change empirical antibiotics to pathogen-directed therapy as soon as culture results become available. Strong recommendation Very low 24

25 5.4 Should dose and dosing interval of systemic antibiotics be adapted to renal function? Search strategy Adapting dose and dosing interval of antibiotics to renal function MEDLINE 531 hits (11/04/2014) Embase 846 hits (11/04/2014) PubMed not MEDLINE 15 hits (11/04/2014) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 1087 Full-text articles assessed 24 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 5 Literature overview Five studies were identified, originating from the Netherlands (1 study), France (1), the United States (2) and Japan (1). Patient populations across studies were very diverse, but in general most patients had renal impairment or were treated with medication that needs careful monitoring. All five were single-center studies, in university-affiliated hospitals (2), tertiary care centers (2) and one general hospital. Three studies were performed in the hospital setting and two studies were solely ICU based. The study design was observational for all five studies, resulting in a serious risk of bias. Therefore, the quality of studies can be considered poor. Very few data on our pre-defined endpoints were reported in these studies. One study noted a non-significant positive effect on mortality of adjusting therapy to renal function. A significant effect on reducing ICU length of stay was shown by the same study. Three studies looking at adverse effects claimed a beneficial effect of adjusting according to renal function, with two of three being significant. Most studies (4) looked at the effects on costs. All four studies showed cost savings by adjusting therapy according to renal function, but no significance levels were mentioned. Conclusions Outcome Quality of evidence Conclusion 25

26 Mortality Very low One study reports a non-significant positive effect on mortality. Length of ICU stay Very low One study reports significant benefits with regard to length of ICU stay. Adverse Drug Events Very low All studies report a consistent effect: a decrease of adverse drug events. Cost Very low All studies report a consistent effect: a decrease of expenses. Other considerations We were able to identify only five studies in which in all patients doses were adapted to renal function by the study team. Nevertheless, adapting the dose consistently appeared to decrease toxicity. In clinical practice, physicians adjust in only 50 % of the cases where adjustment is needed. 36 Therefore, the Guideline committee has decided that recommendations concerning dose adaptation in case of renal failure should be followed and the renal function of the patient should be monitored. As this applies to all medication but applies to only a small minority of patients (9%) treated with antibiotics, 37 the Guideline committee considers adapting the dose and dosing interval of antibiotics to renal function an Antimicrobial Stewardship objective that should not be a priority of the A-team. Recommendation Recommendation Strength Quality of evidence The Guideline committee recommends to adapt the dose and dosing interval of antibiotics to renal function. Strong recommendation Very low 26

27 5.5 Should systemic antibiotic therapy be switched from intravenous to oral antibiotic therapy after hours on the basis of the clinical condition and when oral treatment is feasible? Search strategy Switch antibiotic therapy from intravenous to oral therapy MEDLINE 1247 hits (11/04/2014) Embase 603 hits (11/04/2014) PubMed not MEDLINE 27 hits (11/04/2014) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 1499 Full-text articles assessed 112 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 18 Literature overview 18 studies were identified, originating from 13 countries on four continents (Europe, North America, South America, Asia). The majority of studies (12) were multicenter and patient populations were very diverse, varying from CAP to pyogenic liver abscess. 13 studies were RCTs and five were observational studies. Quality of evidence was generally low due to small size of patient groups and a serious risk of bias. There were five RCTs reporting data on mortality, with four showing a non-significant beneficial effect and one showing a non-significant negative effect. One observational study reported a non-significant lower mortality rate in the IV to oral switch group. A sensitivity analysis of RCTs only did not reveal a different impact on mortality. There were 11 studies reporting data on cure/resolution, none showed a significant result. Seven studies reported a positive effect on cure/resolution, three studies reported a negative effect and one study did not show any effect. Both observational studies and five RCTs showed a significant effect on reducing hospital length of stay. Three observational and eight RCTs showed that switching therapy from IV to oral leads to cost savings, with one RCT and two observational studies reporting a significant difference. Conclusions 27

28 Outcome Quality Conclusion Mortality Very low Pooled data show a non-significant decrease of mortality. Length of hospital stay Very low The majority of the studies report a decrease in length of hospital stay. Failure and relapse Very low Insufficient data to draw a conclusion. Cure/Resolution Very low The majority of the studies report a beneficial effect on cure/resolution. Adverse events Very low Insufficient data to draw a conclusion. Cost Very low All studies consistently report a decrease of expenses. Other considerations No other considerations. Recommendation Recommendation Strength Quality of evidence The Guideline committee recommends to switch systemic antibiotic therapy from intravenous to oral antibiotic therapy after hours on the basis of the clinical condition and when oral treatment is feasible Strong recommendation Very low 28

29 5.6 Should the antibiotic plan be documented in the case notes at the start of systemic antibiotic treatment? Search strategy Documenting an antibiotic plan MEDLINE 109 hits (24/04/2014) Embase 205 hits (24/04/2014) PubMed not MEDLINE 13 hits (24/04/2014) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 234 Full-text articles assessed 2 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 0 Literature overview No studies were found on documenting an antibiotic plan in the case notes at the start of systemic antibiotic treatment. Conclusions No conclusions can be drawn, since no literature was found for this objective. Other considerations In a RAND-modified Delphi procedure among international experts, documenting an antibiotic plan in the case notes at the start of systemic antibiotic treatment was considered an important quality indicator describing appropriate antibiotic use in hospitalized adults. 14 Although we did not find direct evidence that documenting an antibiotic plan in the case notes at the start of systemic antibiotic treatment is beneficial for the patient, the Guideline committee considers documentation of great importance. Also, documenting an antibiotic plan is part of most hospital quality assurance programs and should therefore be pursued as an important Stewardship objective by the hospital s A-team. Recommendation Recommendation Strength Quality of evidence 29

30 The Guideline committee recommends to document an antibiotic plan in the case notes at the start of systemic antibiotic treatment. * no evidence obtained from the literature Strong recommendation * 30

31 5.7 Should therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) be performed? Search strategy TDM MEDLINE 868 hits (14/04/2014) Embase 1842 hits (14/04/2014) PubMed not MEDLINE 16 hits (14/04/2014) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 2250 Full-text articles assessed 64 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 17 Literature overview 16 unique studies were identified, originating from the United States (11 studies), Spain (1), Japan (1), France (1), South Korea (1) and the Netherlands (1). Populations were patients treated with aminoglycosides (11 studies), vancomycin (4) and voriconazole (1). Only two studies were multicenter studies. Single-center settings included university hospitals (2), tertiary care centers (7) and community hospitals (5). Out of 16 studies we identified seven RCT/non-randomized controlled trials (NRCT) and nine observational studies. A NRCT is an experimental study in which people are allocated to different interventions using allocation methods that are not random. Mortality rates were presented in six RCT/NRCTs. No significant differences were found, but there was a tendency towards lower mortality rates for patients with TDM in four studies and higher mortality rates in two. Three observational studies reported data on mortality, with one showing no effect and two studies reporting a significant reduction when using TDM. A sensitivity analysis revealed a significant effect on mortality in observational studies (3), but no significant effect in RCTs (6). Four of five RCT/NRCT reported a decreased length of hospital stay for patients receiving TDM compared to those not receiving TDM, with two studies showing a significant difference. One RCT reported a non-significantly prolonged length of stay. In the observational studies, four of six studies reported a reduced length of stay, with three of four reporting significant differences. The remaining two observational studies reported a non-significantly longer length of stay. Thirteen studies, four NRCTs and nine observational 31

32 studies, reported on nephrotoxicity. A significant RRR of 50% (RR 0.50, 95% CI , p<0.02) was found across all studies reporting on nephrotoxicity, with moderate heterogeneity (I 2 45%). The data regarding costs using TDM show a wide variation, but overall the data seem in favor of TDM, with two of three RCT/NRCTs reporting non-significant cost savings and one RCT reporting non-significant higher costs. All five observational studies report cost savings, with one study showing a significant difference. Conclusions Outcome Quality Conclusion Mortality Very low Pooled data show a non-significant decrease of mortality. Length of hospital stay Low The majority of the studies reports a decrease in length of hospital stay. Failure Very low The majority of the studies reports a decrease of treatment failure rates. Nephrotoxicity Very low Pooled data show a significant decrease of nephrotoxicity in studies related to TDM of aminoglycosides. Cost Very low The majority of the studies report lower expenses. Resistance Very low One study reports non significant changes in susceptibility of the bacterial organisms to gentamicin. Other considerations 32

33 All evidence found for this objective is on aminoglycosides, glycopeptides or voriconazole. However, although no specific studies are published, compelling arguments can be made for TDM of colistin and posaconazole. Recommendation Recommendation Strength Quality of evidence The Guideline committee recommends to perform therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) in patients treated with aminoglycosides, glycopeptides, voriconazole, posaconazole or colistin. Strong recommendation Very low 33

34 5.8 Should empirical antibiotic therapy for presumed bacterial infection be discontinued based on the lack of clinical or microbiological evidence of infection? Search strategy Discontinue therapy MEDLINE 148 hits (24/04/2014) Embase 393 hits (24/04/2014) PubMed not MEDLINE 27 hits (24/04/2014) Total titles screened after removing all duplicates 447 Full-text articles assessed 19 Studies included in qualitative synthesis 3 Literature overview Only three studies were identified, all originating from the United States. All studies addressed patients with pulmonary infections, two specifically VAP. All were single-center ICU studies, in one university-affiliated teaching hospital, one tertiary care hospital and one university-affiliated tertiary care veterans medical center. Two of three studies were lowquality randomized controlled trials and one study was observational with a low risk of bias, making the overall quality of the evidence very low to moderate. One RCT and the observational study included fewer than 50 patients per group. Clinical endpoints were comparable. One observational study reported a positive effect on mortality and the two RCTs also reported a non-significant favourable difference in mortality rates. A sensitivity analysis of RCTs did not reveal a different impact on mortality. A decrease in ICU length of stay was reported by both RCTs, with one study showing a significant effect. One RCT also reported that discontinuing therapy led to lowering expenditures and reported a significant beneficial effect on resistance rates. Conclusions Outcome Quality Conclusion Mortality Low Pooled data show a non-significant decrease of mortality. 34

35 Length of hospital stay Moderate Insufficient data to draw a conclusion. Subsequent infection and superinfection Low Insufficient data to draw a conclusion. Cost Very low One study reports lower expenses. Resistance Low One study reports a decrease in antimicrobial resistance and/or superinfection Other considerations Very little evidence was found for this objective and studies were mainly on VAP. These studies reported a beneficial effect on clinical outcome, indicating that discontinuation of antibiotic therapy is a safe option if infection is not confirmed. Also, this objective can be considered part of Antimicrobial Stewardship objective de-escalation, which is strongly recommended in this guideline. In addition, in a practice test this objective was difficult to operationalize. Study results showed a kappa value of 0.24, indicating that agreement between investigators was very low, partly because the impossibility to design a good algorithm for lack of clinical evidence of infection left it subject to personal interpretation. Given the absence of evidence for this objective and the difficulties in operationalization of this objective, the Guideline committee does not consider discontinuation of antibiotic therapy an Antimicrobial Stewardship objective that should be actively pursued by the A- team. Recommendation Recommendation Strength Quality of evidence The Guideline committee recommends to discontinue empirical antibiotic therapy for presumed bacterial infection based on the lack of clinical- or microbiological evidence of infection. Weak recommendation Very low 35