Performing Animal Welfare Society San Andreas, California

Transcription

1 ATTACHMENT 1 Performing Animal Welfare Society San Andreas, California

2 Introduction: The Performing Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) opened in 1984 and is a private not-for-profit organization governed by a Board. PAWS is located in San Andreas California, in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains approximately 200 km east of San Francisco. It is a member of the Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries. It is not an Association of Zoos & Aquariums (AZA) affiliated institution. The due diligence process was set out in the Council motion of October 25, 2011 and in the Zoo Board of Management motion of November 24, 2011 and recognizes the professional standards that govern the Toronto Zoo (TZ) as established by Canada s Accredited Zoos and Aquariums (CAZA) and the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA). Fact-finding and discussions included the following topics: PAWS site, financial, animal management and training, facilities, climate, nutrition, staffing, transportation, education and advocacy, and medical issues. Site Visit-December 19-20, 2011 General Comments: Five Toronto Zoo staff travelled to PAWS for the site visit: Dr. William Rapley Executive Director of Conservation, Education & Wildlife; Dr. Graham Crawshaw Senior Veterinarian; Maria Franke Curator of Mammals; Chris Dulong Wildlife Care Supervisor of African Savanna and Elephants; and Vernon Presley Senior Elephant Keeper. TZ staff were hosted for two days by Ms. Pat Derby Founder and President of PAWS, and Mr. Ed Stewart Co-Founder and Secretary-Treasurer. TZ also met Ms. Margaret Whittaker (trainer with Active Environments), Dr. Jackie Gai (contract veterinarian) and other keeping staff. PAWS has 930 hectares (2,300 acres) at the San Andreas site of which approximately 30 hectares (80 acres) is devoted to African elephant facilities PAWS has permits associated with having exotic animals in the state of California. They have six bears, five lions and 26 tigers also in the collection. Time was spent viewing the African elephant facilities both indoor and out. They have 3 female African elephants. TZ staff were only allowed to view two of the five elephant barns on the site. The presence of PAWS staff carrying or wearing facemasks suggested that some sort of quarantine was in place. Since that time, it has been learned that tuberculosis is an ongoing issue there. TZ was also shown one of the Asian bulls Nicholas who is in his own area. TZ asked to see the other Asian facilities and was advised, that on the advice of PAWS lawyer, they could not give access to the three other facilities. PAWS elephant collection also included (at the time) three female Asian elephants and three bull Asian elephants. Asian bull Sabu died January 12, 2012 after the site visit. The African cows are 21-year-old "Mara," 24-year-old "Maggie," and 43-year-old "Lulu.". Previously PAWS had accommodated two other African cows: "71" and "Ruby." Ruby died in March 2011 at the age of 50 and 71 in 2008 at the age of 26. Discussions covered facilities, ability to integrate TZ elephants, managing multiple herds, etc Page 2 of 12

3 Financial: An invitation was put forward for key PAWS staff to visit the Toronto Zoo (which occurred in March 2012). PAWS is a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit organization (NGO) in the United States. PAWS financial statements are available on their website at Toronto Zoo finance staff completed a financial review of the 2010 Audited Financial Statements and Form 990 (charitable income tax return) for the Performing Animal Welfare Society (PAWS). The review concluded that the financial well being of the organization is good, with the balance sheet indicating relative stability that could reasonably support the projected operating costs of the organization for the next two - three years. The only significant question related to the long term sustainability plan for the sanctuary with regard to the indefinite renewal of the land lease scheduled for Animal Management, Training & Enrichment: Active Environments, a professional animal training organization, works extensively with PAWS elephants and training. PAWS uses protected contact to manage their elephants. It was mentioned that PAWS staff no longer go in with their elephants but they do use distance as a barrier in large enclosures. They have a training program in place and training guidelines are documented. They do not work actively with the Africans on a daily basis. TZ observed a training session with two of their African elephants including a blood draw. PAWS does not have an elephant fitness program. Elephants are put out in the paddock for the day and brought in for the night. They keep all elephants separated in the barn at night, and they are put out in paddocks during the day when the temperature is above 5 Celsius. They do not have a formal behavioural enrichment program for the African elephants. They are not against an enrichment program and will look at the Toronto Zoo enrichment program. This is important since animals are held indoors for about 12 hours at night. The African elephants appeared to be generally in good physical health, although in our estimation they were heavy. Obesity can result in health complications in elephants as in other species. Daily logs are kept on all of PAWS' elephants. An Emergency Protocol is posted in the barns. The veterinarian is doing new protocols based on state requirements and this should be completed in They have firearms on site for any animal escapes/emergencies. Facilities: The African elephant house is an 1850 m 2 (19,900 sq. ft.) indoor facility. Outdoor space for the African elephants includes a 30 ha (80 acre) outside area. The elephants use of space in the outdoor areas is very seasonal. A significant portion of this space is a steep grade or treed ravine which is not used by the animals Page 3 of 12

4 Climate: The African elephant house is separated by a distance of approximately 40 m from the Asian female elephant house (Attachment 1). The Asian paddocks are adjacent to the African paddocks, and there is a shared waterway that fills up seasonally during rainfalls. There is a service road approximately 12 m wide at the closest point, separating the outdoor areas of the two species. This proximity is significant in the control of disease and is discussed further under Disease Concerns below. In the African barn there are 22 hydraulic gates and 9-10 individual stalls with a long hallway that can be used to introduce/socialize elephants. The floor substrate is a thick rubberized coating over concrete, with some give, and they have heaters and heated floors. A moveable chute is available to assist in the care and treatment of animals. The elephant indoor pool or spa consists of a deep concrete pool with no jets or hydro pump in the African elephant house. TZ staff were told the pool is not used much by the animals as they do not like to go in it. The pool was empty during the visit. The outdoor paddocks have elephant fences but, like many other elephant facilities in North America, are not predator proof. It is possible for mule deer, other wildlife, cats, pigeons, wild turkeys, and vermin to move freely between elephant paddocks. Wild deer, domestic cats, and pigeons were observed on the site during the visit. This point becomes significant in the control of disease, as discussed below under Disease Concerns. A perimeter fence is in place around the entire property. The elephants are kept in the barns if the temperature is below 5 C. In the winter months, the site is often near or below freezing at night. During the site visit on December 19, the temperature at night was 0 C. On December 20, the temperature was below freezing and the ground was covered in frost. The elephants did not go out until 9:30 a.m. when the temperature reached 5 C and they were brought in by 5:00 p.m. Occasionally, significant snowfall occurs at San Andreas. The San Andreas site can be very hot and dry in the summer, so adequate shade and the ability for the elephants to cool off in ponds or mud wallows is important. A pond in the African paddock was completely dry at the time of the December site visit, as the San Andreas area had not had the usual seasonal rainfall. Nutrition: Although the elephants have access to large paddocks, natural forage is limited by the season and type of grass. Much of the native vegetation at this time of year was dried up, and TZ did not see foraging by the elephants. Feed is provided with grass and oat hay, and commercial elephant pellets and a small amount of bran and other items. Staffing: All elephant keeping staff work only with elephants, no other species. Two full time elephant supervisors and the two directors, work in excess of 40 hours per week, observing elephants, working directly with the elephants in foot care and other Page 4 of 12

5 training, overseeing all elephant care. All four monitor behaviour, assist in veterinary care and develop protocols for care of new arrivals. Five senior keepers work regular shifts, supervising cleaning, feeding, shifting, and veterinary care. They are assisted by three senior assistant keepers and three apprentice keepers. This total of 15 caregivers is almost a ratio of 2 keepers to 1 elephant. One Director has over 40 years of experience working with elephants; the other has over 35 years of experience. One elephant supervisor has over 15 years working with elephants, including Asian bulls, with experience in protected contact training, transporting, foot care, blood draws, and all aspects of husbandry. A night keeper does check elephants on rounds, and TZ was told there is someone present onsite 24/7. TZ was told that no volunteers work directly with the elephants. Veterinary support is provided by a contract zoo/exotic animal veterinarian who is based approximately 150 km away, a distance that is of some concern to TZ. The veterinarian indicated she attends the facility approximately 2-3 days a week or as needed. Additional veterinary support is provided through the School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California at Davis, or other consultants arranged by the veterinarian. Education and Advocacy: PAWS is not routinely open to the public but has monthly seeing the elephant getaways and open houses several times a year for a fee. PAWS has run special sessions such as training programs for foot care and elephant training sessions in conjunction with Active Environments and the Detroit Zoo. PAWS hosts and participates in conferences such as the Summit for the Elephants, 2012 hosted at the Oakland Zoo from March with numerous attendees and participants. PAWS promotes education and conservation programs on their website and has partnerships with many field conservation experts in conservation. PAWS educates the entertainment industry, public officials, enforcement agencies, the media, and the general public on critical issues related to captive wildlife, performing animals and protection of wild species and habitat with newsletters, PAWS publications, PAWS in the media, conferences, and other affiliations. PAWS Wildlife Classrooms to the World serves as an educational and research centre. PAWS works in partnership with the University of California, Davis to collaborate on various humane studies relating to biological sciences, animal science, animal behaviour, zoology, animal welfare, and veterinary science. This cooperative program also provides opportunities for PAWS to participate in veterinary students training in the humane care of captive wild animals. Transportation: Under the TZ/PAWS legal agreement, PAWS is responsible to make all the arrangements for and cover all the costs relating to the safe and humane transport of the elephants. At the site visit, TZ mentioned a pros/cons list in regards to truck or air transport. A four to five day (or longer) journey by road was a concern expressed by TZ for the older Toronto Page 5 of 12

6 elephants. Discussions took place and PAWS said they would look into flight/truck options and availability. When PAWS visited the Toronto Zoo in March 2012, travel arrangements were discussed in detail. Concerns expressed by the TZ included the shipping distance, as the land travel of 4-5 days was again proposed by PAWS. In April 2012 PAWS proposed to move the elephants by an AN124 air carrier. Later, TZ and PAWS both agreed that this was not suitable because the cargo area was not sufficiently pressurized to ensure safe transport for the elephants. Also, there were additional concerns about noise and vibrations which could cause unacceptable stress to the elephants. TZ requested that PAWS obtain confirmation from the US Fish & Wildlife Service that their transportation plan meets the animal welfare requirements as required by the International Air Transportation Association worldwide standard for shipping live animals. At the time of writing, PAWS has been unable to organize transportation for the three elephants that would meet these animal welfare standards. Quarantine & Medical: At the site visit, TZ asked about the tuberculosis (TB) status of the PAWS elephants. It should be noted that the USDA and the US Public Health authorities require that all elephants in the United States be part of a tuberculosis control program that was developed in response to an increasing number of cases of tuberculosis in elephants and their handlers. In most cases the infection was traced back to circus animals but some animals were distributed in zoos and sanctuaries. All animals are tested with a trunk wash culture and a STAT-PAK blood test annually. Positive TB results on the trunk wash indicate that the animal is infected but negative results are not necessarily indicative of an uninfected animal. False positive reactions to the STAT-PAK may be seen occasionally. Animals reacting to the STAT-PAK are tested in the laboratory with the MAPIA and DPP confirmatory tests. Reactions to the latter tests strongly suggest that the animal is TB infected. PAWS staff indicated that the African elephants were negative on both trunk wash culture and blood tests (STAT-PAK) but that the existing (or some) Asian elephants were reactive on blood test(s) but negative on trunk wash cultures. However, they did not indicate the TB status of the elephants, how many, which animals or to which tests the animals were reactive. It should be noted that USDA procedures place elephant herds into categories depending on test results and the history of any previous exposure to a known infected animal. Each category carries a different requirement in regard to treatment and on-going monitoring. At the site visit, TZ was not given details on the quarantine status for the Asian elephants and not allowed to visit all of the Asian elephant barns. It is possible that some animals were being treated for tuberculosis but this was not disclosed. The fact that TZ was not invited to see the Asian elephants and that staff members caring for the barn containing elephant cows were wearing facemasks, strongly suggested that a quarantine was in operation as a result of either confirmed or suspicious cases of TB in a USDA quarantine. At the site visit, there was no mention of the Asian elephant Rebecca who TZ later found out had died on January 8, 2011 with significant TB lung lesions that cultured positive for Page 6 of 12

7 tuberculosis. Later TZ also found that Rebecca harboured two different strains of human tuberculosis (information obtained through the Freedom of Information Act FOIA). PAWS do not keep a separate quarantine barn at their facility to separate new animals on arrival. There is some ability to manage sick animals given the limitations of the species and protected contact, but no ability to quarantine disease-risk elephants separately on the site. USDA inspection reports under the auspices of the US Animal Welfare Act were shown for years 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2011, and indicated that the facility was in compliance under those guidelines. No details of interim reports or other recommendations were provided, nor was the 2010 report provided (it was not requested at the time of the site visit). There were no detailed USDA tuberculosis control reports provided. At the site visit, PAWS requested that the Toronto Zoo elephants be tested using the Stat Pak and trunk wash culture tests. (This was completed by March 2012 and all TZ elephants were negative for TB). As determined from the site visit, on February 16, 2012 TZ requested further medical information as follows: o Medical records of the three African elephants and six Asian elephants for the past 5 years. o Reports of other significant disease conditions e.g. Salmonella and elephant herpesvirus occurring in the past 5 years. o Necropsy reports of elephants that have died at the facility in the past 5 years, including culture and histology results for tuberculosis. o Results of USDA tuberculosis testing (trunk wash and blood test results) for all elephants. o A declaration of the USDA status of quarantine for the premises. o Clarification of the tuberculosis control program category for both species and all groups of elephants. o Reports of any tuberculosis treatment program instituted for animals. o TB status for the entire premises including deer, wildlife, and domestic cats and vermin. o Details of the health management program to prevent the spread of infectious disease from Asian to African elephants. o Reports of any staff cases or treatment for tuberculosis in humans at PAWS. When there was no response from PAWS on the above medical information, five more requests were sent by TZ staff or City Legal on the following dates: March 26, 2012; April 2, 2012; April 11, 2012; April 30, 2012; and May 23, Some of the records were eventually provided in June and July, however some of the key information was not up to date and additional information and clarification was requested. Review of the clinical and post-mortem records that were provided, as well as information obtained from other sources, confirmed the presence of tuberculosis to be a significant concern. More complete and updated records for 2012 were not received. PAWS legal advisors indicated in September that no more records would be made available Page 7 of 12

8 Tuberculosis and Disease Concerns: Six elephants have died at PAWS in the past five years (eight in the past nine years). The two most recent animals euthanized were: a female, Rebecca in January 2011 and a bull, Sabu in January 2012 and both were confirmed to be infected with tuberculosis (Attachment 2). Rebecca was known to have been infected when she went to PAWS and, in fact, was treated there (presumably unsuccessfully). Sabu was believed to be positive for tuberculosis upon arrival in 2010 and was euthanized in January 2012 due to arthritis, but he also had lesions of active tuberculosis. Recent reports received from third parties accessed through the Freedom of Information Act have shown some positive tests for TB in the joint fluids of Sabu. Of the three living Asian cows, one is an active case of TB by a positive trunk culture, and the two in-contact animals must be considered at high risk of infection. Results of an initial screening blood test for TB (Stat-Pak) indicated that two of these three females and one bull at PAWS were reactive even in June 2011, and those same three animals were also reactive on the confirmatory test (MAPIA) which has been shown to have a high degree of accuracy. In the opinion of the Toronto Zoo s veterinary staff, and that of other elephant disease experts, those animals would likely become active cases at some stage in the future. One of those three elephants, Annie, did indeed become culture-positive in June 2012, and Sabu was shown to be infected on post-mortem early this year. Records and testing results of the other Asian elephants were suggestive of exposure to the disease and at this stage were considered to be latently infected (Attachment 2). In the opinion of the Toronto Zoo's veterinary staff, the prevalence of active and latent TB in the Asian elephants at PAWS is many times higher than that in the overall North American zoo elephant population. This is not at all surprising since many of the animals were acquired from herds known to be infected. The presence of infected and potentially infected Asian elephants is of serious concern for Toronto Zoo s disease-free animals. The opportunity for direct or indirect contact is present. This could occur from infected personnel, food or water, or vectors such as other animals. The presence of deer, stray cats and other wildlife and rodents moving freely through the elephant paddocks is a concern both for the potential transmission from one group to the other as well as for the potential spread into the native deer population. Cats were present around the barns and staff moved freely from the Asian barn into the African barn. Several staff members who left the Asian elephant quarantine were carrying a face mask and using a foot bath, but without appearing to take any other specific precautions. For at least a five-year period, prior to the construction of the African barn, PAWS African elephants were housed in the same barn and in adjacent paddocks to Asian elephants that developed tuberculosis. The incubation period of TB in elephants is prolonged, from 2 to 20 years, so previously exposed African elephants may develop infection later in life. Treatment of TB in elephants is a long (1-2 years), difficult and expensive process. For multiple-drug resistant cases, the costs for one animal may exceed $100,000, and even then it may not be effective. Clearly, prevention of exposure to the disease is a preferable option. As noted in the Quarantine section above, TZ's veterinary staff did not receive the additional information to demonstrate that the disease has been contained. As well, TZ Page 8 of 12

9 veterinary staff did not receive sufficient assurance that the many aspects of the biosecurity program at PAWS were adequate to prevent possible spread to our own animals. In three recently published reports of cases in zoological facilities around the world, unrelated animals up to 100 m away became infected with the same strain of TB found in the elephants. In a similar situation at another elephant facility in 2012, a TB-infected animal originating from the same source as two of PAWS elephants was considered by disease experts to have transmitted that same strain of bacterium to another elephant nearly 300 m away. At PAWS, the same staff appears to care for and train both the African elephants and the infected Asian elephants, and the facilities are adjacent. TZ has consulted with experts in bacteriology, epidemiology, TB in elephants and veterinary science. Dr. Michele Miller, DVM, PhD, and Veterinary Advisor to the Elephant Advisory Group of AZA, has indicated that "relocation to a facility where there is no history of tuberculosis presents a better option when considering risk for disease transmission" (Attachment 3). She further states "there is a risk of transmission from culture-positive and even seropositive elephants that have a strong probability of becoming culture positive, to other animals that are in contact, and even those that are not in direct contract but on the same premise as these animals." Dr. Ramiro Isaza, DVM and Associate Professor of Zoological Medicine at the University of Florida states "If these elephants were under my care, I would make the clinical and managerial decision to not send them into a situation where they might be infected with tuberculosis" (Attachment 4). Dr. Ian Duncan, retired Chair in Animal Welfare at the University Guelph, provided his opinion regarding disease and transportation concerns and writes "Tuberculosis is a debilitating illness that causes suffering and really reduces welfare. No animal should be exposed to it if alternative arrangements can be made" (Attachment 5). Dr. Dale Smith, a Professor in the Department of Pathology at the University of Guelph, advises it is "unethical" to mix elephants that are TB-free with those infected with TB (Attachment 6). TZ staff were able to meet with senior USDA/APHIS officials to review the TB situation. TZ asked USDA about meeting with their vet, who is familiar with the PAWS situation and TB treatment on site. USDA replied that PAWS, as a private facility, would need to give permission. TZ asked PAWS, but this request was denied by the USDA vet involved with the PAWS site. Once TB information was received from PAWS, TZ intended to consult with a veterinary epidemiologist to properly assess risk. However, almost one year later, this information to complete a thorough review has not been provided. In the event that PAWS ceases operations, or otherwise is unable to provide for the continued care of the TZ's elephants, the ownership of the elephants reverts to the Toronto Zoo Board of Management. If the elephants are exposed to TB at PAWS, it is unlikely that another suitable home could be found in an uninfected herd. The elephants could also be quarantined at PAWS and not be able to be removed from quarantine Page 9 of 12

10 Summary of Major Points and Conclusions: The Performing Animal Welfare Society has many positive attributes including the size of the outdoor paddocks, a modern indoor barn, professional and compassionate animal and veterinary care, and a healthy financial situation. However, there are several significant concerns that lead the Toronto Zoo to conclude that PAWS is not an acceptable or suitable facility for the Toronto Zoo s elephants. The following summarizes the Toronto Zoo's findings: 1. Six elephants have died in the last five years and at least two have had active tuberculosis that cultured positive. There is a reasonable concern of a tuberculosis outbreak at the PAWS sanctuary at this time that is affecting the Asian elephants. 2. The PAWS sanctuary has not provided all required information. TB testing and culture results were requested repeatedly since February 2012, to be able to complete the medical due diligence. 3. Based on old test results provided by PAWS, the three PAWS African elephants were testing negative to tuberculosis in However, these animals have had significant direct or indirect exposure to TB in the past and there is a risk of TB infections showing up in this herd in the future. 4. The Toronto Zoo elephants have tested negative for TB and the overall site history for tuberculosis at Toronto Zoo is clean. 5. The Toronto Zoo elephants will need to share the same barn and paddocks with the existing three African elephants. 6. There appears to be inadequate separation and quarantine practices in place with the Asian elephants to ensure that African elephants are not exposed. 7. PAWS is responsible for all transportation arrangements. PAWS has been unable to organize suitable transportation that meets International Air Transport Association and welfare standards to transport Toronto Zoo s elephants. 8. Much of the information on the TB status of elephants at PAWS came through the Freedom of Information Act by the public. In AZA or CAZA accredited zoos, information sharing is transparent and free flowing, resulting in a timely and simple decision making process Page 10 of 12

11 Toronto Zoo Staff Involved in Due Diligence Review: Dr. William Rapley Executive Director of Conservation, Education & Wildlife Dr. Graham Crawshaw Senior Veterinarian Maria Franke Curator of Mammals Robin Hale Chief Operating Officer Sue Gunton Director of Corporate Planning Paul Whittam Manager of Financial Services Dr. Dave Barney Acting Director of Wildlife Chris Dulong Supervisor of African Savanna Vernon Presley Senior Elephant Keeper Experts Consulted or Contacted in Completing the Due Diligence Process: Dr. Chester Gipson USDA, APHIS Dr. Barbara Kohn USDA, APHIS Dr. John Prescott University of Guelph Dr. Dale Smith University of Guelph Dr. Ian Duncan University of Guelph Dr. Yvonne Nadler Lincoln Park Zoo Emeritus Dr. Kay Mehren - retired Former Toronto Zoo Senior Veterinarian Martha Fischer AZA Elephant SSP Charlie Gray AZA/CAZA Elephant SSP Dr. Michele Miller Veterinary Advisory to AZA Elephant Group Dr. Ramiro Isaza University of Florida Page 11 of 12

12 List of Attachments: 1. PAWS Aerial Site 2. USDA Reports for Rebecca and Sabu and PAWS' other elephants 3. Letter from Dr. Michele Miller, DVM, PhD, Veterinary Advisory to the AZA Elephant Advisory Group 4. Letter from Dr. Ramiro Isaza, DVM, MS, MPH, DACZM, Associate Professor of Zoological Medicine, University of Florida 5. Letter from Dr. Ian Duncan, Professor Emeritus, Emeritus Chair in Animal Welfare, University of Guelph 6. Letter from Dr. Dale Smith, DVM, DVSc, Professor, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph Publications Used For Due Diligence Review: FINE, A.E The Role of Indirect Transmission in the Epidemiology of Bovine Tuberculosis in Cattle and White-Tailed Deer in Michigan. Michigan Bovine Tuberculosis Bibliography and Database, Paper 33: GREENWALD, R., Lyashchenko, O., Esfandiari, J., Miller, M., Mikota, S., OLSEN., J.H., BALL, R., Dumonceaux, G., Schmitt, D., MOLLER, T., PAYEUR, J.B., HARRIS, B., SOFRANKO, D., WATERS, W. R., and LYASHCHENKO, K. P Highly Accurate Antibody Assays for Early and Rapid Detection of Tuberculosis in African and Asian Elephant. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology. Vol. 16. No HIGGINS, J Genotyping of Mycobacterium tuberculosis cultured from elephants. Tuberculosis in Elephants: Science, Myth, and Beyond. APHIS Center for Animal Welfare, Kansas City, Missouri, USA. MIKOTA, S. K Current and Future Technologies to Manage TB in Elephants. Elephant Care International. MIKOTA, S.K., LARSEN, R. S., and MONTALI, R. J Tuberculosis in Elephants in North America. Zoo Biology 19: ORLOSKI, K Epidemiology of Tuberculosis in Elephants, , United States. TB Eradication Program. USDA, APHIS, Veterinary Services. PALMER, M. V., WATERS, W.R., and WHIPPLE, D. L Shared Feed as a Means of Deer-to-Deer Transmission of Mycobacterium bovis. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 40: RAPLEY, W. A., KELTON, O. W., SCOLLARD, N. D., MEHREN, K.G., and TRILLO, L.A Diagnosis and Control of Tuberculosis During the Establishment of a Modern Zoo. Progress in Mycobacterium Infections in Zoo Animals, MONTALI, R.J. (ed). Symposia of the National Zoological Park. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D. C Page 12 of 12