FlockMaster Monitor-diagnose-act

Transcription

1 Farmer Workshop Manual Includes: Principles of Flock Efficiency FlockMaster Software Manual Individual Action Plan Sheep Calendar

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3 Contents Foreword from Meat & Wool New Zealand 1 Introduction 2 The FlockMaster Process 3 Principles of Flock Efficiency 4 Key Management Period 1: Pre-mating to scanning (Tupping) Cycling (Fertility) Ovulation rate (Fecundity) The mating weight effect on ovulation rate The flushing effect on ovulation rate Seasonality Major genes Vaccines The ram effect Variations in scanning percentage at the same mating weight Ram fitness Ewe and ram behaviour Stress effects Post-mating nutrition Trace elements Toxins Abortion diseases (see 2.4 for more detail) 10 Key Management Period 2: Scanning to Pre-lambing (Winter) Nutrition Shearing Colostrum Animal health Clostridial diseases Toxoplasmosis Campylobacter Salmonella Brandenburg 14 Key Management Period 3: Pre-lambing to tailing (Lambing) Ewe survival Optimising ewe fitness Lamb survival Climate Lamb fitness Ewe ability to provide for the lamb 18 Key Management Period 4: Tailing to weaning (Lactation) Lactation Pasture quantity and quality Weaning Ewe condition/weight and time of weaning Feed supply Lamb growth Parasites 23 i

4 Key Management Period 5: Weaning to pre-mating (Summer) Ewes Hoggets Vaccinations Liveweight Summer shearing Rams 28 Monitoring Liveweight Body condition scoring Pasture quality Indicator mobs 31 Taking Action 32 Taking Action Worksheet 33 Checklist 34 Productivity Worksheet 35 Priority Worksheet 36 Glossary 37 Decision Support Tool Manual 44 Introduction 45 Getting Started 46 Inputs 50 Reports 57 Calendar 64 Sheep Planning Calendar 65 Index 66 ii FlockMaster 2007

5 Foreword from Meat & Wool New Zealand Mark Jeffries, CEO Meat & Wool New Zealand In late 2004 Meat & Wool New Zealand surveyed 3000 farmers to determine their business needs, and find out how we could best help them. Sheep farmers indicated they wanted to improve productivity and sheep flock performance levels. FlockMaster resulted from this farmer identified need and comprises a series of discussion-based interactive workshops and an associated farm-management computer programme. For maximum benefit we hope you use both. Please give us your feedback. Robert Carter, Taumarunui Sheep farmer and chairman of the Sheep Council says FlockMaster will help farmers and their advisers solve problems and fine tune their ewe flock performance. There is something for every operator in FlockMaster. Ross Richards, King Country Sheep farmer says With the current shock to sheep profitability, farmers need to take stock of the situation and decide where to from here? FlockMaster will provide an excellent opportunity to analyse flock performance, identify opportunities for improvement, design and implement a plan to capture those opportunities. These few hours could earn you thousands. James Parsons, Far North Sheep farmer says If I could have had FlockMaster when I started sheep farming I would be three years ahead of where I am now. Instead I had to learn the hard way. Trial and error is a great tutor but it tends to be slow and costly. Errol Holgate, Balclutha Sheep farmer says FlockMaster offers farmers another opportunity to tweak their farming operations. Farmers can enter information about what s happening on their farm, such as lambing percentages and weaning weights, and ask the computer - how am I going, what s the potential and how can I achieve it? It s for farmers who want to know if what they re doing year after year is the right thing or if there s another option that could make it easier or less expensive. February

6 Introduction The FlockMaster decision support tool and workshops were developed and tested through a collaborative process involving farmer groups from throughout New Zealand. Their involvement and critique has helped ensure the end product meets the requirements of the majority of New Zealand sheep farmers. In addition M&WNZ staff and Sheep Council members have provided input, assistance and testing. This manual summarises the material presented at FlockMaster workshops. FlockMaster Is a structured approach to monitoring and reviewing flock efficiency and productivity Assists sheep farmers to consider their own lambing and sheep flock performance and compare that against potential best practice Enables farmers to consider options to improve flock performance and production and build on what is currently working well in their own flock Is a technical resource about sheep reproduction and growth. FlockMaster is not: A whole farm management programme like StockPol or FarmMax A feed budget About getting all flocks lambing higher than 150% A single recipe for lamb production. 2

7 The FlockMaster Process FlockMaster has been designed to assist farmers to assess actual performance on their own farms and then decide on actions to more closely approach potential performance by: Monitoring - Is there something else you should measure? Diagnosing - Where should I focus my effort? Acting - What is needed and when? What is flock efficiency? Flock efficiency can be defined in many ways. Definitions give you an approach to monitoring and reviewing the performance of your flock. The challenge is to choose a range of indicators you can control and improve. FlockMaster indicators of efficiency The FlockMaster programme uses the following indicators: kg of lamb weaned per kg of ewes mated Number of lambs weaned as a percentage of ewes mated Lamb growth rate Proportion of ewes successfully rearing lambs Income from lambs weaned per ewe mated kg of lamb weaned per mob. These indicators have been chosen to represent a system-wide view of a flock. These are all presented in the FlockMaster software so they can be compared and appropriate indicators chosen to help improve the efficiency of your flock. 3

8 Principles of Flock Efficiency Taking control of flock efficiency requires appropriate management practices, identification of critical periods, diagnosis of issues and the implementation of timely actions. The first step in taking control of flock efficiency is monitoring to identify critical periods and practices. Once these have been selected monitoring leads to a diagnosis, which then leads to actions. Taking control is essential to making a difference. Even the effect of the weather can be managed in some ways. It is a matter of understanding how. Critical Drivers of Flock Efficiency There are four factors which directly, and in combination, determine the efficiency of the flock in producing lambs through to weaning. Changes in the level of performance of any of these factors will have a significant effect on flock productivity and profitability. These factors are: 1. Scanning % 2. Ewe wastage (poor performance as well as deaths and missing) 3. Lamb losses 4. Lamb growth rate (birth to weaning). FlockMaster will help you identify which of these drivers provide opportunity to improve efficiency in your flock. Key Management Periods There are 5 periods which are critical to taking control of flock efficiency. 1. Pre-mating to scanning (Tupping) 2. Scanning to pre-lambing (Winter) 3. Pre-lambing to tailing (Lambing) 4. Tailing to weaning (Lactation) 5. Weaning to pre-mating (Summer). These five periods represent significant management periods that coincide with specific outcomes for flock efficiency. The management periods also coincide with the optimum times for collecting accurate data. For each period we outline the key drivers of flock efficiency which can be influenced, and the key indicators to help you diagnose any issues. These indicators usually lead on to monitoring that may be required. Flock efficiency is affected most by scanning percentage, lamb losses, ewe wastage and lamb growth to weaning. These are key drivers. There are management changes which will influence all of these. The table below illustrates the key management periods where you can change these key drivers. The number of ewes or lambs in a cell represents the relative importance of that key management period to key drivers. For example the weaning to premating period provides the most opportunities to change scan % although there are some opportunities in premating to scanning period. Scan% Ewe Wastage Lamb Losses Lamb Growth Rate Pre-mating to scanning Scanning to prelamb Prelamb to tailing Tailing to weaning Weaning to pre-mating 4 FlockMaster 2007

9 Key Management Period 1: Pre-mating to scanning (Tupping) The Biology behind the Measurements This section introduces the biology which is important to the key drivers of scanning percentage, lamb losses, ewe wastage and lamb growth to weaning. The important biology of each management period and how you can influence it is discussed. Key Management Period 1: Pre-mating to scanning (Tupping) This is the period from about 6 weeks before mating (tupping, rams out) through until scanning or about day 90 of pregnancy. In this period, scanning percentage and therefore flock efficiency will be directly influenced by any management which affects: Cycling (Fertility) Ovulation rate (Fecundity) Conception (Fertility) Embryo survival. Fertility is the ability of the ewe (and ram) to breed. Fertility in a flock is often measured as number of ewes in lamb. Fecundity is the number of lambs that might be born to a ewe. 5

10 1.1 Cycling (Fertility) Both fertility and fecundity have a direct relationship to ewe body weight. If ewes are not cycling, this will be seen as dry ewes at scanning time. In particular, the percentage of dry ewes increase markedly when ewe weight is below kg for crossbred ewes and below kg for Merinos. The following is the typical distribution and range of weights within a flock, so even though flock average may be sufficiently heavy there may be light individuals Proportion Ewe liveweight (kg) Figure 1: The variation in ewe weights for a flock with an average weight of 60 kg For example in the flock represented by Figure 1, 66% or two-thirds of the ewes fall within 7 kg of the mean with weights in the range of kg, but 2-3% of the flock are at risk of being too light to ovulate because their liveweight is in the kg weight range. 1.2 Ovulation rate (Fecundity) The ovulation rate is the number of eggs released by the ewe in a cycle. A high ovulation rate is the first step to achieving high lambing percentage. A 10% increase in ovulation rate typically results in 6.9% more lambs born per ewe lambing and 5.7% more lambs tailed per ewe mated. Increases in lambing above 170% are mainly due to more triplets and fewer singles being born The mating weight effect on ovulation rate Both liveweight and genotype affect the ovulation rate of a flock. In most New Zealand standard sheep breeds, scanning percentage increases by approximately two percentage points for every kg of extra ewe liveweight. Figure 2 shows how scanning percentage increases as liveweight at mating increases Scanniing percent Ewe mating weight Figure 2: The effect of liveweight on scanning percentage Potential Actual 6 FlockMaster 2007

11 1.2.2 The flushing effect on ovulation rate Flushing is a liveweight increase up to and during the mating period. Although many farmers believe flushing to be essential to increase scanning percentage, the final liveweight of the ewe at mating is the main driver of scanning percentage. Increasing liveweight is less important than final liveweight, but you should avoid ewes losing liveweight over mating. Liveweight loss can have a negative effect. A recent Meat & Wool New Zealand study showed that farmers who said they were flushing had a response in the ewe flock equivalent to gaining approximately 3 kg over the mating period. Each kg of gain requires approximately 6 kg DM. During winter this 6 kg DM would prevent a 3 kg liveweight loss. It is important to consider if you can flush the ewes. By flushing will you create a feed shortage at critical times of year i.e. winter? Reference: M&WNZ R&D Brief # 103 Effect of Flushing on Ovulation Rate Seasonality Seasonality, or the responsiveness of ewes to changing day length, influences both cycling and ovulation rate. Both the number of ewes ovulating and number of multiple ovulations follow the seasonal pattern as demonstrated in Figure 3. Ewes ovulating (%) Romney Polled Dorset 0 December February April June August October Decemeber Figure 3: An example of the difference in the length of ovulation season depending on breed Sheep breed can also have an effect (Figure 3). Some breeds such as Polled Dorset, Dorset Horn and Merinos are less seasonal and can ovulate for most months of the year as a result. With selection, some flocks have achieved a 98% mating in November and December, for autumn lambing. These factors are particularly important when mating times are restricted. These can also be important in drought-prone regions Major genes Introducing sheep carrying prolificacy genes into a flock can increase ovulation rates. For example, the Inverdale gene increases ovulation by about one egg per ovulation and litter size by 0.6 (60 more lambs per 100 ewes). The Booroola gene has an additive effect on ovulation rate. Introducing ewes with one copy of the gene will shed 2.5 eggs while ewes with two copies will shed about 4.0 eggs above base flock ewes producing one egg per ovulation. When these major genes are introduced into flocks, intensive management is required. References: M&WNZ R&D Brief # 20 Application of Inverdale and Booroola Major Genes # 21 The Genetics of Prolificacy Ovulation Rate and Litter Size # 94 Measuring the Reproductive Genetic Merit of Your Flock # 95 Improving the Success Rate of Artificial Insemination in Sheep R&D briefs can be accessed on For copies of these publications contact publications@meatandwoolnz.com 7

12 1.2.5 Vaccines Using vaccines, such as Androvax (AgVax) and Ovastim (Virbac Australia), can improve ovulation rate. These vaccines immunise the ewe to produce antibodies against the ovarian steroid androstenedione, which alters the feedback of ovarian hormones, therefore altering ovarian activity. These vaccines can increase scanning percentage by an average of 18%. However individual responses can vary from nil to 30 + % The ram effect Rams can advance the onset of ovulation (teasing) though this may vary from ram to ram and breed to breed. This effect depends on the ewes having been isolated from the rams for a significant period of time (minimum 3 months) before they are reunited. Farmers wanting to mate early are best to use a teaser ram to ensure a high proportion of multiple ovulations. Without teasing, the percentage of ewes having multiple ovulations at the first oestrus may be as low as 5 to 10%, while after teasing this can be up to 50%. Recent research (Kenyon et al., 2006) found teasing hoggets for 17 days increased the number pregnant to the first cycle of mating and also increased the overall scanning percentage. Speak to your veterinarian, at least 3 months before mating, about preparation of vasectomised rams. Reference: Kenyon, P.R., Morel, P.C.H., Morris, S.T., Burnham, D.L., & D.M. West (2006). The effect of length of use of teaser rams prior to mating and individual liveweight on the reproductive performance of ewe hoggets. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 54 (2), Variations in scanning percentage at the same mating weight Scanning percent can vary between years and mobs despite the similarities in mating weight. Anything that affects fertility or fecundity could be the cause for this Ram fitness Shearing in the fortnight before or during the mating period is not recommended as it may disrupt the fertility of the ram. Shearing a month before mating can help improve semen quality by reducing the temperature of the testes. Infections just prior to mating will elevate the body temperature of the ram, resulting in temporary infertility for between 2-3 weeks after the ram s temperature decreases, even though he will continue to service ewes. Brucellosis is the most common disease causing ram infertility. Rams should be examined by a veterinarian at least a month before mating. New rams should be checked before entering the flock. Rams have a huge capacity to service ewes, but the number of multiple births increases with increased services per ewe, so a ratio of one ram to 100 ewes is recommended. If ewe or ram hoggets are being used then increase the ratio of rams to ewes. This also means that highly active ram breeds may have an influence on the number of multiples through an increase in the number of services per ewe Ewe and ram behaviour Both ewe and ram behaviour are important for scanning percentage, because both ewes and rams increase their activity with age, and rams increase their capacity to serve. Ewe hoggets or naïve two-tooths will not actively seek out the ram the way older ewes do. This means that active rams must be present. It also means that if topography or paddock shape leads to seclusion of ewes or rams, then more rams may be needed. Reference: M&WNZ R&D Brief # 92 Finding out More about Hogget Oestrus Stress effects Some embryo loss is inevitable. These inevitable losses are due to chromosomal abnormalities or maternal factors. Embryo losses can be minimised by the following: Avoid shearing pre-mating Avoid shearing in the first month of pregnancy Keep ewe yarding to a minimum Provide shade, shelter and plentiful potable water to minimise the impact of weather extremes. 8 FlockMaster 2007

13 In the pre-mating period, shearing can stop ewes ovulating. In the post-mating period 15% of embryos may be lost when ewes are severely or repeatedly stressed Post-mating nutrition Nutrition after mating can have some impacts on embryo loss. Avoiding extremes after mating is the best course of action to ensure the maximum number of embryos implant and go on to be live and well grown lambs. Severe underfeeding with liveweight loss of 15% to scanning or over-feeding (2x maintenance) after mating can affect embryo survival, although the impact of over-feeding is often offset by higher ovulation rates Trace elements Trace elements can be vital for good reproduction. The most important in New Zealand are Selenium and Iodine. Discuss appropriate testing for these minerals with your animal health advisor. Impacts of and treatment for Selenium Embryonic losses may occur when blood selenium level is below 10mg/ml Check blood levels Treat using oral drench or fertiliser prills on pasture. Impacts of and treatment for Iodine Diagnosis of iodine deficiency before mating is unreliable Responses have varied from 0 to 23% more lambs born Treat with a pre-mating oral drench (potassium iodide) or intra-muscular injection (Flexidine) Toxins Toxins can also have an effect on reproduction in sheep. Of importance are facial eczema, oestrogenic compounds and ryegrass endophytes. Facial eczema can cause significant reductions in reproduction. For each 100 i.u. increase in GGT (measured in a blood test) the number of dry ewes can increase by 2-3% and 5-7% fewer ewes will have multiple births. When exposed as a hogget to facial eczema, subsequent performance as a two-tooth and four-tooth can be reduced. A number of management practices can reduce the effects of facial eczema on production. These include: Use spore counts as an indicator Lax grazing (high pasture residual) is a strategy which can reduce ingestion of spores Provide crops such as brassicas or chicory Dose with zinc Use FE resistant rams. References: M&WNZ R&D Brief #3 Development of a Slow Release Bolus for Facial Eczema #42 Facial Eczema Control -The Role of Pasture Species. #74 Protecting Stock from Facial Eczema: The Role of Pasture Species Oestrogenic compounds Compounds that mimic the hormone oestrogen can reduce fertility and fecundity. These include zearalenone, which occurs on the dead material in pastures, and the phyto-oestrogens that may occur in some clovers and lucerne. Zearalenone is a toxin that is produced by a free living fungus in the pasture and is found throughout New Zealand. Its presence, like facial eczema, can vary from paddock to paddock and farm to farm. Its effect can linger after pastures have been cleaned up, so early clean-up of dead material is important. The presence of zearalenone can increase the number of dry ewes and decrease the number of multiples. Reference: M&WNZ R&D Brief # 38 Management Systems for Preventing Zearalenone Infertility 9

14 Diagnosis of the presence of zearalenone is conducted on urine samples from ewes. The widespread distribution of the Fusarium species which produce zearalenone on New Zealand pastures means that control is difficult. Removing dead matter from pastures early in summer will improve pasture quality and may be beneficial. Phyto-oestrogens are naturally occurring compounds in red and sub clover and lucerne, sometimes at high levels. Phyto-oestrogens can decrease ovulation rate by up to 30% and increase the number of dry ewes. Some cultivars of red clover and sub clover have low phyto-oestrogen levels (for example G27 red clover) and can be used without problems. Lucerne becomes oestrogenic only when it gets leaf diseases. The use of lucerne varieties that are resistant to leaf disease will remove the problem. However, if lucerne is disease free when harvested or grazed then no problems should arise with its use. Generally when these plants are made into hay the oestrogenic effects are much reduced, but not when made into silage. To control the effects of phyto-oestrogens Avoid continuous long-term use of these plants by ewes or hoggets Use low phyto-oestrogen red clovers Remove ewes from these feeds 14 days before mating Do not graze diseased lucerne crops with ewes in the pre-mating-scanning period Avoid flushing with lucerne or red clover silage Assess risk versus liveweight change. The benefits of flushing on high quality pastures provided by these plants may outweigh the negative effects of the phyto-oestrogens. Endophytes The association between the ryegrass plant and some ryegrass endophytes can produce toxins that may affect reproduction. Ryegrass endophyte and the associated health issues such as staggers and over-heating, can have a significant effect on performance around mating. Much of the effect appears likely to be due to poor liveweight gains. Suggested ways to overcome these effects include: Use ryegrasses with improved endophytes such as AR1 Avoid high/wild type endophyte pastures around mating Lax grazing Use crops such as brassicas or chicory, Reference: M&WNZ R&D Brief # 119 Endophyte Update- AR Abortion diseases (see 2.4 for more detail) Abortion diseases can have a significant effect on early embryo death and scanning percentage, with losses due to abortion in the New Zealand flock. These diseases include Campylobacter, Toxoplasmosis and Salmonella Brandenburg in southern areas. Less common causes include Hairy Shaker disease (HSD), Listeria, Yersinia and Bacillus. Once ewes have been exposed to campylobacter and toxoplasmosis diseases, they are immune for life. Therefore, ewes that have been diagnosed as aborting due to this disease should be kept. Old practices such as running hoggets with older ewes to pass on immunity by infection before they are pregnant, provides a passive but incomplete means of immunisation. This approach has been shown to be ineffective with toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasmosis commonly causes abortions in early pregnancy but is easily controlled by a single vaccination which will last the ewe for life. The national average response to vaccination has been 3% increase in lambs at tailing and 13.5% less dry ewes (Wilkins & O Connell, 1983, 1992; Wilkins et al., 1988) References: Wilkins, M. F., & O Connell, E. (1983). Effect on lambing percentage of vaccinating ewes with Toxoplasma gondii. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 31, Wilkins, M. F., O Connell, E., & Te Punga, W. A. (1988). Toxoplasmosis in sheep III. Further evaluation of the ability of a live Toxoplasma gondii vaccine to prevent lamb losses and reduce congenital infection following experimental challenge. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 36, Wilkins, M. F., & O Connell, E. (1992) Vaccination of sheep against Toxoplasma abortion. Surveillance, 19 (4). 10 FlockMaster 2007

15 Key Management Period 2: Scanning to pre-lambing (Winter) This period from scanning to set stocking/spreading out of ewes for lambing is the mid-late pregnancy phase when the foetal lamb is well established. Spreading out provides potential for accurate counts of ewe numbers before lambing. In this period, any management which affects any of the following will directly affect lambing percentage and weaning weight, therefore affecting flock efficiency: Embryo survival Foetal survival Ewe survival Lamb survival at birth Lactation potential. Risk factors which may affect these during this period are associated with nutrition, animal health and management practices described below. Also described are opportunities to optimise performance in subsequent management periods. 2.1 Nutrition Feeding of ewes is aimed at optimising the birth weight of healthy lambs. Good pregnancy feeding is essential for encouraging good udder development, the onset of colostrum production at lambing and good lactation. Maintaining ewe condition is a priority for late pregnancy, particularly in ewes with multiples. A 60 kg ewe at mating needs to be about 73 kg a week before lambing to maintain the same condition. Severe underfeeding in late pregnancy, often the result of severe weather events (snow) causing a lack of feed or poor utilisation (wet soil conditions), can lead to low birth weights, especially if conditions persist for greater than 10 days. Effects are greatest after day 80 in triplets, day 95 in twins and day 110 in singles. Optimising lamb size at birth will improve lamb survival. The major factors affecting foetal growth (and hence, lamb birth weight) are ewe nutrition and size of the placenta-and these act simultaneously. Trial results on mid pregnancy feeding are contradictory. Some trials show no strong evidence of reduced lamb birth weight or lamb survival following under nutrition (Orleans Pobee & Beatson, 1989; Hawker & Thompson, 1987). Other trials show that severe underfeeding in mid pregnancy can reduce the number of lambs born (Smeaton et al., 1985). Lambs born to ewes that are fed well in late pregnancy, have more energy stored as fat reserves, are better equipped to survive starvation and windy, wet conditions and are also more able to mobilise their brown fat. Brown fat is a reserve that is only used for heat production to keep the lamb warm in cold conditions. This lets them keep warm for longer and thus helps keep up their drive to drink. Lambs born to ewes with good iodine and selenium levels will be better able to survive at birth. Both of these trace elements are important in energy utilisation of the new-born lamb. 11

16 Interactions between ewe condition and responses to feeding level are part of the problem in establishing the existence (or otherwise) of a relationship between pregnancy feeding and lamb birth weight. Feeding in mid pregnancy to maintain good body weight and condition will promote good placental growth, satisfactory lamb birth weights and survival with multiples. Some animal health effects can be due to underfeeding especially in late pregnancy. When pregnancy toxaemia (sleepy sickness) occurs, it is usually in ewes carrying multiples and due to underfeeding or stress. Metabolism of body fat produces ketones which cause ewes to become drowsy. Treatment is with an oral sugary solution or products like ketol. References: M&WNZ R&D Brief Effect of Early Pregnancy Nutrition on Lamb Production. Hawker, H., & Thompson, K.F. (1987). Effects of pasture allowance in winter on liveweight, wool growth and wool characteristics of Romney ewes. New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture 15, Orleans-Pobee, J., & Beatson, P.R. (1989). Effects of nutrition and shearing during pregnancy on birth weight in highly fecund Booroola-cross sheep. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 49, Smeaton, D.C., Wadams, T.K., & Hockey, H.U.P. (1985). Effects of very low nutrition during pregnancy on liveweight and survival of ewes and lambs. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 45, Shearing Irrespective of whether the ewe is shorn once or twice a year, and quite apart from the effects on wool quality, there can be a positive effect of shearing prior to lambing on lamb survival. Pre-lamb shearing close to the date of lambing has been shown to improve lamb survival but carries greater risks in late pregnant ewes held off feed for extended periods and bad weather at this time of year. It is thought that the improved lamb survival is brought about by the increased stimulus of ewes exposed to the cold to eat and to seek shelter more suitable for lambing. This research was carried out some years ago, before pregnancy scanning facilitated selected feeding of singles and multiples. Mid-pregnancy shearing of ewes (50 to 100 days post-mating) is a technique for increasing survival rates of multipleborn lambs. All this research has been carried out on ewes shorn twice a year, but the effects can be similar to those reported for annual pre-lamb shearing above. The increase in survival rate observed in multiples is driven by an increase in lamb birth weight. A heavier lamb has more body reserves, more vigour and does not lose as much heat to the environment because it has a smaller surface area to body mass ratio. It is easier to visually determine condition score of recently shorn livestock and react appropriately, whereas long fleeces at this time tend to disguise ewe condition. Additional benefits from mid-pregnancy shearing include, reduced casting of heavily pregnant ewes and on occasion up to 1 kg increase in lamb weaning weight. The gains in weaning weight are dependent on ewes having good body condition with good pasture during lactation. Not all ewes respond to mid-pregnancy shearing. Mid-pregnancy shearing has not been reported to cause increased dystocia rates or improve survival in singleton lambs. Ewes in poor condition (score less than 2) will not give birth to heavier lambs if shorn mid-pregnancy. Therefore mid-pregnancy shearing may not yield an economic return every year, but has been reported to improve survival of multiples by a maximum of 5.5%. Reference: M&WNZ R&D Brief # 69 Effect of Shearing Date on Lamb Birth Weight and Survival. 12 FlockMaster 2007

17 2.3 Colostrum Production of colostrum is directly linked to ewe condition; ewes in better condition produce colostrum for longer. Research has found colostrum production from ewes in condition score 3.5 lasted for 15 to 24 hours while ewes of condition score 2.5 produced colostrum for 8 to 12 hours. Ewes provided with high energy and high protein diets or supplements during the 10 days before lambing have more colostrum. This may be important in triplet-bearing ewes especially if pasture quality or mass is limiting. 2.4 Animal health We can control the impacts of many diseases by vaccination. The following diseases are most commonly encountered during this period Clostridial diseases Clostridial diseases are of major importance to farm animals in New Zealand, the eradiation of these diseases is not possible and prevention relies on vaccination of susceptible sheep. The main clostridial diseases in New Zealand are enterotoxaemia, tetanus, blackleg, malignant oedema and black disease hence the use of 5-in-1 vaccines, administered as a sensitizer dose followed at least 4 weeks later by a booster dose. Booster doses to mixed age ewes 2-6 weeks prior to lambing ensures passive protection to sucking lambs which lasts up to 16 weeks in the lambs Toxoplasmosis The disease is caused by Toxoplasma gondii, which infects all warm-blooded animals but an essential stage of its life cycle occurs only in cats. The time that a ewe is infected makes a difference to what the farmers see: Early Pregnancy: Early embryonic death. No abortion or visible signs Mid Pregnancy: Foetal death and abortion. Dead lambs may be found on the ground Late pregnancy: Still-born lambs or weak lambs that fail to thrive. If early pregnancy infection has occurred then the problems caused by toxoplasmosis may be hidden. Such embryonic death will only show up when there are more barren ewe hoggets or two tooths than expected. If non-pregnant ewes contract toxoplasmosis, they will develop immunity within 4 weeks and are unlikely to abort due to toxoplasmosis in the future. Trial results throughout New Zealand show that toxoplasmosis abortions early in pregnancy are much more common than previously thought. The effects are just as damaging to farmers, but are hidden, being evidenced only in the numbers of apparently barren ewes. Unlike other abortion agents (e.g. campylobacter), toxoplasmosis does not spread directly between sheep, from one ewe to another. There is, therefore, no advantage in either isolating ewes from those thought to be infected in the hope of avoiding cross infection, or in placing non pregnant ewe hoggets or two-tooths where toxoplasmosis abortions have occurred in the hope of inoculating them. Controlling feral cats, particularly around fodder reserves is useful. Vaccinations to prevent toxoplasmosis Toxovax (AgVax): one dose gives lifetime protection Non-pregnant ewes (including ewe lambs) can be vaccinated any time from five months of age but NOT LESS THAN 4 weeks before mating Toxovax is a live vaccine which must be ordered several weeks before use and stored/handled carefully Do not vaccinate rams. 13

18 2.4.3 Campylobacter Infection with Campylobacter fetus (formerly Vibrio fetus) subspecies fetus causes enzootic abortion in sheep. Surveys of sheep abortions at different times and locations have isolated campylobacter species from 35-57% of abortions. Infection is established in ewes eating pasture, which may be contaminated from various sources, especially from infected ewes and the products of parturition. Other sources of infection include the mechanical transfer of C. fetus fetus by birds and contaminated water supplies. A common sequence of events in affected flocks is for one or two ewes to abort in the third or fourth month, followed in 2-3 weeks by a sharply increased rate of abortion (or storm ). Ewes of any breed or age can be affected, and abortions have been commonly reported in the last three months of pregnancy. The disease has been reported from most areas of the world where sheep are bred. Vaccinations Several commercial products are available, check for coverage against Campylobacter fetus and C. jejunii Salmonella Brandenburg Salmonella Brandenburg causes abortions and enteritis in ewes in southern New Zealand. Farms that use intensive grazing systems appear to be worst affected by S. Brandenburg abortions. Treatment with a long-acting antibiotic can prevent ewe death but not abortion if an outbreak occurs. There is a single salmonellosis vaccine (Salvexin + B: Schering-Plough Animal Health) which protects against S. Brandenburg and enteric salmonellosis, To protect against S. Brandenburg abortion, all ewes should receive a sensitizer dose, a booster 4-6 weeks later and then an annual booster dose. Timing is important and ewes should be vaccinated in early pregnancy e.g. when rams go out, then when rams have been removed or at scanning. The vaccine does not give complete protection especially when ewes face a heavy challenge. 14 FlockMaster 2007

19 Key Management Period 3: Pre-lambing to tailing (Lambing) This period commences when ewes are spread out for lambing and covers the period through to tailing/docking when lambs are approximately 3 weeks of age. The key drivers of flock efficiency that can be influenced in this period are: Ewe survival Lamb survival Colostrum/Lactation. The key indicators of potential we can measure to gauge our progress are: Ewe liveweight pre-lamb Ewe body condition score pre-lamb Indicator mobs to determine causes of lamb loss and monitor flock performance. 3.1 Ewe survival Significant ewe deaths or wastage can occur during the period from late pregnancy to lambing. Monitoring the causes of ewe wastage is a critical first step to diagnosing important factors in ewe wastage on your farm. Average ewe losses are between 2 and 15% and vary between farms and years. The cost of ewe wastage is high. For example for a 1000 ewe flock, 1 % wastage means an extra 20 ewe equivalents need to be wintered and 25 lambs tailed to replace the losses. The major causes of ewe wastage are abortion, metabolic disorders, bearings and misadventure. We can control a number of these: Abortion: vaccination programmes discussed earlier can reduce dry ewes due to abortion and ewe deaths due to Salmonella Brandenburg or clostridial infections Metabolic diseases: these most commonly occur due to poor nutrition especially at key times during pregnancy and lactation. Prevention is more effective than treatment of these diseases. Pregnancy toxaemia (sleepy sickness, twin lamb disease) is seen most commonly in multiple bearing ewes in late pregnancy. Underfeeding or stress, particularly in multiple bearing ewes, results in metabolism of body fat which produces ketones. The ketones cause the classic drowsy behaviour. Treat orally with a sugary solution or products such as ketol. Hypocalcaemia (milk fever): Occurs mainly in older ewes, especially when sudden changes in feed cause short-term starvation. Prevention depends on avoiding stressful conditions in late pregnancy or early lactation. Treatment with calcium borogluconate is ideally combined with magnesium sulphate and glucose solutions. Vaginal prolapse ( bearings ) are a major cause of ewe losses on some farms in some years. Reference: MWNZ R&D Brief # 120 Coping with Bearings for latest information 15

20 3.1.1 Optimising ewe fitness It is possible to optimise ewe fitness by avoiding over and underfeeding animals and by including the correct priorities for feed e.g. separating singles, twins and triplets. In addition, separating mobs according to body condition score and expected lambing date, will optimise feeding levels and assist in achieving target pasture covers at lambing. 3.2 Lamb survival Lamb survival is a key driver of flock efficiency and there are a number of factors which can be controlled to improve lamb survival. Some lamb losses will be inevitable and accounting for lamb losses is important to finding opportunities for improving lamb survival. Missing or dead lambs can result from dead ewes, dead lambs, mismothering and missing lambs. Average lamb losses are between 5 and 25%. Losses for twins are often 3-10% higher, and for triplets have been reported between 18% and 40% (Rohloff et al., 1982; Kenyon et al.,2002). Causes of these lamb losses are likely to vary between farms and years and will include: Lambing environment, including weather Disease Trace elements Genetics Birth trauma Mothering ability Ewe condition. Aspects of each of these causes can be controlled. With good ewe nutrition and preventative measures we can minimise lamb losses by ensuring management practices result in: Birth weight near optimum for breed: lamb birth weight is the dominant factor in survival of singles and multiples. Optimum birth weights have been estimated at kg for singles and multiples. Birthweights below this range increase the risk of starvation/exposure and above this range dystocia (mainly singles) (see section 2). Easy birth: fit ewes in good condition, delivering lambs within optimal weight range will maximise likelihood of an easy birth (see section 2). Protection from cold for ewe and new lambs: shelter and freely drained paddocks are ideal. If options are limited, ewes bearing multiples should lamb in the best paddocks. Maximum contact between ewe and lamb: Undisturbed time at the lambing site is essential for ewes and lambs to bond. Ewes may select a lambing site many hours before lambing. The site is fixed when the foetal fluids release. Most ewes leave the lambing site within 24 hours but some remain for up to 72 hours after birth. First time lambers tend to stay longer than older, experienced ewes. Low pasture cover (less than 1000 kg DM/ha) often results in mismothering as ewes are forced to wander further to graze immediately after lambing. Good supply of colostrum: lamb survival and growth to weaning are heavily dependent on ewe milk production. The onset of lactation and colostrum production are affected by ewe nutrition in late pregnancy (see section 2.) Disease control: Vaccination programmes provide disease protection for ewes and lambs. Ewe vaccination with 5- in-1 in late pregnancy protects lambs against deaths between lambing and weaning caused by clostridial diseases and blood poisoning. Adequate colostrum production is essential to protect lambs against diseases which we cannot vaccinate against, including diseases such as naval ill and watery mouth (see section 2). References: Kenyon, P.R., Morris, S.T., & McCutcheon, S.N. (2002). Does an increase in lamb birth weight through mid-pregnancy shearing necessarily mean an increase in lamb survival rates to weaning? Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 62, Rohloff, R.M., Davis, G.H., & Hinch, G.N. (1982) Characteristics of high performance flocks in Otago and Southland. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 42, FlockMaster 2007

21 3.2.1 Climate Climate variability is an important feature of New Zealand s lambing environment and is probably responsible for 10% of lamb deaths. It is important to understand the effects of various parts of climatic challenge, as many of these challenges can be managed. The most important of these are rain, wet soils and wind. Cold temperatures alone are less of a problem, until combined with one of the other factors like lack of shelter or wet soil. Direct contact with saturated soil can have a greater impact on lamb survival than the prevailing weather. Therefore, it is imperative that soils are drained where possible to prevent exposure deaths due to heat loss to the ground. Direct wind chill can be managed by planting good shelter belts. These need to provide good shelter over a significant area of the paddock to prevent ewes from congregating in stock camping areas that may harbour disease. Shelter can reduce weather-related losses to near zero except in the most severe of storms. Other climate management issues that should be considered to minimise lamb loss include choosing a lambing date when conditions are usually dry and calm. If shepherding is intensive then lamb covers are cost effective in storm events or when the soil is saturated Lamb fitness Lamb fitness can have a positive impact on the ability of the lamb to counter the effects of climate. The lambs ability to weather the storm is important in many parts of New Zealand. Optimising lamb size at birth will reduce losses from exposure (see section 2.1). Severe underfeeding in late pregnancy, can lead to low birth weights and is often the result of severe weather events that lead to lack of feed (snow) or poor utilisation (wet soil conditions). Underfeeding for more than 10 days can have a negative impact on lamb birth weight. These effects are greatest after day 80 in triplets, day 95 in twins and day 110 in singles. Lambs born to well fed ewes are also more able to mobilise their brown fat. Brown fat is a reserve that is only used for heat production to keep the lamb warm in cold conditions. This lets them keep warm for longer and thus helps keep up their drive to drink. Lambs born to ewes with good iodine and selenium levels will be better able to survive at birth. Both of these trace elements are important in energy utilisation of the new-born lamb. Generally, lamb survival is not strongly inherited. However, some traits such as mothering ability have been selected for and are related to improved lamb survival. Larger lambs that are a result of cross breeding often have higher survival rates. Sire effects in lamb survival have also been noted. High survival rams leave smaller single lambs with fewer deaths from dystocia but sometimes with higher deaths from multiple births. Low survival rams leave progeny requiring more assisted births and increased dystocia from higher birth weight (Knight et al. 1979). Future progress in genetic selection for lamb survival is likely to bring improvements. The most important decision is choosing a ram breeder that has the same objectives as you. Reference: M&WNZ R&D Brief # 94 Measuring the Reproductive Genetic Merit of Your Flock Knight, T.W., Hight. G.K., & Winn, G.W. (1979). The influence of sires on lamb survival. Proceedings of New Zealand Society of Animal Production 39,

22 3.2.3 Ewe ability to provide for the lamb Ewe feeding and condition are two factors that farmers can change. Ewe condition is important as colostrum production is directly linked to ewe condition, and more colostrum means greater lamb survival in cold conditions. Ewes in body condition score (BCS) 3.5 produce colostrum for 15 to 24 hours while ewes with BCS 2.5 produce colostrum for 8 to12 hours. Ewes provided with high energy diets in the 10 days before lambing will also have more colostrum. This becomes especially important in triplet-bearing ewes. Ewe condition is also important in mothering ability as a well-fed ewe will not wander off, will clean and dry the lamb better and make sure that the lamb feeds. Ewes fed to maintain foetus free weight in late pregnancy had ewe lambs that produced 11% more lambs as adults than ewes that lost weight in late pregnancy. Ewes weighing 60 kg at mating need to weigh 73 kg immediately before lambing to have maintained body condition score. The ewe s ability to provide for the lamb can be affected by genotype. Some breeds are easy to shepherd while others are not. Indicators of flightiness can be useful for within breed selection for mothering ability, but are not good indicators between breeds. The age of a ewe and the birth environment also affect the ability of ewes to provide for their lambs. Lamb survival increases with ewe age, peaking at 4 to 5 years. A multiple born lamb from a five year old ewe has a better chance of survival than a single born to a two-tooth. Therefore, flock structure can have a significant effect on lamb losses. Topography has a direct effect on lamb survival as lambs born in steep conditions may roll away and get lost. Lamb losses increase markedly once slope is over 24 degrees, and lamb loss can be up to 50% in twins when the slope is over 30 degrees. However, lambs can handle steep slopes after a couple of days. 18 FlockMaster 2007

23 Key Management Period 4: Tailing to weaning (Lactation) The lactation period, from tailing to weaning, will vary in duration between years and farms. Counts of both ewes and lambs present at tailing provide important information for determining the timing of both ewe wastage and lamb survival. This period is important to flock efficiency because weaning weight is a critical driver of efficiency. The key indicators of potential ewe efficiency which can be measured and controlled are: Tailing percentage Ewe body condition score at tailing Pasture covers Dead material Liveweight gain Parasites. Nutrient intake by the lamb will determine its growth rate. Nutrient intake is a combination of milk and pasture intake in this period. The factors which determine nutrient intake by lambs are milk produced in lactation, pasture quantity and pasture quality. 4.1 Lactation Ewes must eat well to milk well. Late pregnancy feeding determines the onset of lactation and colostrum production. The total milk production is determined by feeding during lactation. Daily milk production peaks about 3 weeks into lactation and ewes rearing multiples produce more milk than similarly fed ewes with singles. Ewes with twins produce 30-50% more milk than those with singles so each twin receives twothirds as much milk as singles. Both genotype and lamb vigour can increase milk production. Twin lambs are forced to start eating pasture at an earlier age than singles and as a consequence pasture quality and quantity is most important to multiple bearing mobs. Ewes in very good condition (BCS=3) are able to maintain milk production when feed allowances are low while ewes in good condition (BCS=2) can only partially compensate (see Figure 4). If this body condition is not available at the start of lactation then adverse feeding conditions can lead to poor milk production and poor lamb growth. This is much more important in multiple-bearing ewes as they need to produce up to 50% more milk, and this may be compromised if ewe body condition is low. Furthermore ewes will be in poor condition at weaning, needing significant amounts of feed (65MJME/kg lost) to regain the weight lost during lactation. 19

24 Milking yield (kg/d) BCS 4 BCS 3 BCS 2 BCS Intake (MJME/d) Figure 4: Effect of body condition score and energy intake on milk yield 4.2 Pasture quantity and quality Pasture cover at lambing of 1200 kgdm/ha and increasing to kgdm/ha in early lactation will maximise lactation success. The impact of pasture cover on intake in late lactation is shown in the graph below. An on-farm study showed that weaning weight improved by 2 kg/lamb for each 100 kg of pasture cover at set stocking in early lambing flocks (Litherland & Lambert, 2000). The advantage to improving pasture cover for lambing flocks is 3 and 3.3 kg greater weaning weight for singles and twins respectively. The issues in achieving appropriate pasture quantity and quality are: Transition between winter rotations and spring set-stocking Actual timing of lambing date to coincide with the onset of spring pasture growth Retaining a flexible management policy to ensure that pasture quality is maintained throughout the lactation period. The timing of the transition from the winter rotational grazing system to the spring continuous grazing system can affect lamb growth from birth to weaning. Lower weaning weights were seen in lambs born to ewes that were moved to set stocking 4 weeks prior to lambing than those set stocked one week before lambing. This was a result of feed reserves being used before lactation. The timing of the transition and the amount of pasture cover at that point, both relate to matching pasture growth with feed demand. The common perception within the farming community is that earlier lambing will produce heavier lamb weaning weights. Scientific evidence contradicts this belief. Weaning weight of lambs was the same from ewes lambing in early, mid or late September in Southland (McEwan et al.,1983). Pasture supply was more readily matched by the later lambing and ewe liveweight at weaning was improved as lambing date got later. Feed Intake (kgdm/day) Twin Single Triplet Lamb cm Herbage Mass Figure 5: Effect of pasture cover (herbage mass) on ewe intake in late lactation 20 FlockMaster 2007

25 Many current pasture management systems rely on a small mismatch in pasture supply and feed demand to ensure there is sufficient grazing pressure to control seed head development (especially in mid to late spring). This will enhance clover development and subsequent summer clover growth. Pasture quality declines as spring temperatures rise above 15 C, and as seed head begins to appear. These factors vary with region. Pasture quality also declines as the leaves age (Figure 6), which typically occurs as feed covers build up over 1800 kg DM/ha. Pasture quality becomes the major determinant of lamb growth from about 5 weeks of age onwards as pasture becomes the major part of the diet, especially for twins and triplets. It becomes important to keep the feed short, green and leafy. In systems where pasture control cannot be maintained in late spring (e.g. North Island hill country) earlier lambing can improve weaning weight. Later lambing will enhance both lamb and ewe growth where pasture control can be maintained in late spring through cattle grazing or mechanical topping. The difference between leaf and stem of ryegrass plant in digestibility over time is shown in graph below. Digestibility (%) Ryegrass stem Ryegrass leaf Metabolisable energy (MJ/kgDM) October November December Figure 6: Decline in digestibility of ryegrass leaf and stem through spring-summer period. The growth of white clover is an important feature for improving summer pasture quality. Continuous grazing from lambing to weaning is a reliable management tool to maximise summer white clover content. Continuous grazing increases clover growing point numbers, provides sufficient light and suppresses grass growth to maximise white clover development. This regime however, suppresses grass growth and spring animal production. References: M&WNZ R&D Brief # 40 Improving Forage / Pasture Systems and Management Practices # 57 Pastures for Meat informing farmers about pasture species and management # 63 Using Chemical Topping to Prevent Pasture Reversion # 82 Pasture Persistence for Profits Litherland, A.J., & Lambert, M.G. (2000). Herbage quality and growth rate of single and twin lambs at foot. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 60, McEwan, J.C., Mathieson, C., & Hawker, H. (1983). Date of lambing and sheep production in Southland. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 43,

26 4.3 Weaning Weaning strategies need to be evaluated each year using knowledge of ewe condition, feed supply, pre and post weaning lamb growth rate, weaning checks, lamb price schedules and animal health issues. It is important to understand the implications of these strategies on whole farm pasture supply. The time of weaning is a highly variable decision that can differ markedly in different years. The determinants of weaning date are covered below in priority order Ewe condition/weight and time of weaning Ewes must be able to be returned to mating weight, before weaning or over the summer period to ensure good ovulation rates. In a dry, hot environment it can be difficult to increase ewe liveweight over summer and autumn due to insufficient feed supplies. In warm, moist summers it can be difficult to regain ewe liveweight due to poor pasture quality. Ewes will require a diet ME in excess of 10 MJME/kgDM to grow 100g/d but will maintain liveweight at a diet quality of 9.0 MJME/kgDM (see Table 1). Single and twin-rearing ewes are often at markedly different liveweights in late lactation and so may be weaned at different dates. Hoggets often need to be weaned earlier so that they can grow to achieve target two-tooth weights. Hoggets should be offered high quality feed during lactation so they have the opportunity to grow while lactating. Weaning Weight LWG Feed Requirement Feed requirement (kg) (g/d) MJME/ewe/d kgdm/ewe 9.5MJME/kg 90 days* Ewes Hoggets * At 9.5 MJME/kgDM Table 1: Feed required to restore ewe liveweight to 60 kg mating weight or to bring ewe hoggets up to 55 kg mating weight as two-tooths Feed supply In a season when feed supplies are short and ewes are maintaining or losing weight, weaning can reduce total feed demand. Where pasture covers are high and ewes are gaining weight there is less need to wean, because ewes put on liveweight more efficiently when lactating than they do when dry. This can help to control feed surpluses and maintain feed quality. In late lactation ewes consume almost 1.5 times more than a dry ewe fed at maintenance. For example, on a diet with ME of 10.5, a 60 kg ewe producing 0.3 litres of milk and gaining 30 g/day requires 1.4 kgdm/ewe whereas after weaning, that ewe requires 1 kg DM/day. Ewes weaned in good condition (no need to gain weight) are more effective for generating high quality feed for lambs than lactating ewes, because they can graze pasture to lower residuals. 22 FlockMaster 2007

27 4.3.3 Lamb growth Lamb growth slows in late lactation, and growth is slower in twins compared to single lambs. Pasture quality is much more important to lamb growth than pasture quantity. Lamb growth slows in late lactation because lambs progressively consume less milk as ewe milk production drops. Single lambs Twin lambs Birth to tailing Tailing to 8 weeks weeks to weaning Average lamb LWG Table 2: Liveweight gain of lambs on farms in Southern North Island over the lactation period Lamb growth in late lactation declines as feed quality drops in association with rising temperatures and increasing dead matter in the sward. Pasture quality also poses a limit to the growth rate of the weaned lamb. The later the lamb is weaned, the lower its post-weaning liveweight gain is likely to be on permanent pasture in some parts of New Zealand. 4.4 Parasites The post-partum rise in faecal egg counts (FEC) occurs in lactating ewes in early lactation. The following information is available from Wormwise Extract from Wormwise Issue 1 (National Worm Management Strategy) May 2006 What do you know about worm management on your farm? Worms are a major cause of lost production in livestock. The variation across farms means that one management solution will not apply to all. However, industry experts have developed general principles that can be applied in each situation. This document lists the principles and outlines their application. It has been developed primarily with sheep in mind, but the principles apply equally to cattle. The industry agreed principles upon which this advice is based: All healthy animals have worms and always will eradication is not an option Worms have less effect on well fed animals than on animals under nutritional stress Mature animals are generally less susceptible to worms than younger ones. This means, at times, they can be used to reduce the number of infective larvae on pastures Some animals are more susceptible to worms than others (genetic variability) Selective breeding can select animals for resistance or resilience to worms When breeding for a characteristic, more intensive selection pressure will result in more rapid change being made (both to livestock and worms) Breeding for a single trait leads to more rapid change than breeding for a combination of traits Most of the year there are more worms, in the various life stages, on pasture than inside the animals There are no new drench families under development so farmers should use drench wisely to preserve future options The way in which you use drenches and manage parasites will change the rate at which worms develop resistance to drench Each farm is unique, and effective worm management depends on knowing whether resistant worms are present Some drench formulations are long-acting and using them may speed up the development of drench resistance Drench resistance is complex worms, livestock, climate, feeding, drench and management practices are all involved 23

28 Recommendations: Drenching You should know which drenches are effective on your farm. Do this by carrying out a full drench test every 2 3 years. Choose your drench on the basis of the results Good drenching practice is essential. Weigh animals and set the dose according to the heaviest Check hourly that your drenching gun is delivering the correct dose If drench resistance is present, seek professional advice Faecal egg counts from young stock indicate levels of adult worm infection and whether they are likely to be causing production losses Evidence suggests that combination drenches can slow the development of a drench resistance problem on a property, but only if used before resistance has developed. Drenching adult stock Routine drenching of adult stock is not recommended, but it may be necessary under certain circumstances (e.g. feed levels, age of ewes, number of lambs, parasite burdens) If worms are definitely causing a problem, drench once and monitor its effectiveness Discuss drenching programmes with your veterinarian or other parasite control advisor. Manage the level of larval challenge Lowering the levels of worm larvae on pasture will benefit production, particularly in young stock. Plan to create low levels of larval challenge e.g. use stock movement, grazing history, pasture species, weather, and stock type and classes to match nutritional needs Try to use farm paddocks for different purposes each year e.g. finish lambs on different paddocks from last year Use a paddock diary and stock class mapping as part of the planning process. This way you can see which paddocks will have most larvae and you can anticipate how to deal with it Discuss with your advisor how to achieve a balance between low worm larval levels on pasture for good growth rates and a reservoir of worm larvae that have not been exposed to drenching (i.e. refugia see below for discussion). Feeding Provide all classes of stock with sufficient feed to reach specified targets Monitor live-weights and condition routinely to enable forward planning. Quarantine for bought-in stock When introducing stock on farm, drench them with a triple combination drench and hold them off pasture for 24 hours. Provide water and some feed. Do not put them on clean pasture but on pasture that is likely to have large numbers of worm larvae from your own sheep on it 10 days after arrival of the stock, check (by faecal egg-counts) that the drenching was effective. Using resistant or resilient sires You may choose to buy-in or breed your own stock that are resistant to worms or are resilient, as a component of your parasite management plan. Animal health plan To get best animal production and minimise the risk of drench resistance, each farmer should follow a parasite management plan, specifically designed for that farm as part of an overall animal health plan 24 FlockMaster 2007

29 The drenching component of the plan should aim to minimise both the effect of worms on production and selection of worms for drench resistance The plan should consider all factors that affect parasite management and animal production as they are interrelated. What is meant by refugia? To reduce the chances of breeding resistant worms you need to make sure that they are outnumbered by drenchsusceptible worms on your farm (this is the concept of refugia) When susceptible worms breed with the resistant ones they slow the development of resistance by diluting the gene frequency for resistance. Think of a farmer breeding sheep for a particular trait, such as wool weight, and a mob of scrub rams invading the farm at tupping and upsetting his breeding programme. Genetic gain is easily lost in both worms and sheep The aim is to achieve a balance between maximising animal production and minimising selection pressure on the worm population. Here are six things you can do now to slow down the development of drench resistance on your farm: Do not drench lambs onto clean pasture grazing Do not drench more frequently than every 28 days Do not treat the whole flock pre-lambing with a long-acting drench Do not drench adult animals routinely Regularly check efficacy of the drench you are using Quarantine drench introduced stock. 25

30 For more information If you would like more information and would like to be kept up to date on worm management then please: phone: web: The most common internal parasites for New Zealand sheep are: Abomasum Small Intestine Haemonchus contortus Ostertagia circumcincta (Teladorsagia circumcincta) Trichostrongylus axei Trichostrongylus colubriformis Trichostrongylus vitrinus Cooperia curticei Nematodirus spathiger Nematodirus filicollis Check out the following websites for more information on parasites: References: Wormwise newsletters issues 1, 2 and 3. What do you know about Worm Management on your Farm? Industry Agreed Principles. NZ Farm Survey Results Drenching Decisions. M&WNZ R&D Briefs # 1 The Effect of Pasture Species on Lamb Parasitism # 6 Evaluation of an Organic Anthelmintic for Farmed Livestock # 33 Breeding for Reduced Worm Drench Requirements in Sheep # 34 Breeding Sheep with Resistance to Nematode Infection # 67 Sustainable Internal Parasite Control for Sheep # 76 The Effect of Drench Capsules on Selection for Drug Resistance # 77 Selecting Highly Profitable Sheep that require less Anthelmintic Treatment Monitoring at weaning The end of the tailing to weaning period is the next date where accurate counts of both ewes and lambs can be made. An accurate calculation of liveweight gain is a good starting point to assess your flock performance from birth to weaning. The date can vary widely and the FlockMaster software has the ability to adjust to common days from lambing if required. Lamb growth rate will need to be adjusted if lambs are sold off ewes before weaning. 26 FlockMaster 2007

31 Key Management Period 5: Weaning to pre-mating (Summer) The period between weaning and next mating is important for good reproductive efficiency in the coming season and also for good wool production. Mid summer indicators in particular can help prioritise resources between finishing lambs and setting up the next lamb crop. Key indicators of the potential of the flock are: Ewe weight at weaning Ewe body condition score at weaning Ewe weight mid summer Ewe lamb weight mid summer 5.1 Ewes Ewe feed demand over summer is determined by the amount needed to maintain or gain weight for condition score of 3 or greater at mating. The maintenance requirements for ewes are between kg of dry matter per day (average quality) to hold condition score between 2.5 and 3.5 over summer. Feed requirements are % above maintenance to achieve 50 g to 150 g/day liveweight gain. Body condition scoring can be useful for frequent checks on progress over summer. The late spring/summer period tends to be the time when feed is most plentiful. If ewes cannot reach a suitable pre-mating weight over summer, flushing becomes extremely important in achieving good ovulation rates and a high lambing percentage in the following season. Controlling feed quality over summer with breeding ewes may restrict their ability to regain weight before mating. Although responses to flushing appear greater in thin ewes than fat ewes (Rattray et al., 1980), deliberately restricting ewe weights over summer before flushing is not recommended. Ewes in good condition either pre-flushing or at mating have lower barrenness than those in poor condition. It is much more efficient to maintain ewe liveweight and condition score between weaning and mating because it takes a lot of extra feed to regain weight as opposed to maintain weight. For example, each kg of ewe liveweight lost is equivalent to 17 MJ ME while it takes 65 MJ ME to gain one kg of liveweight. Ewes should not lose weight between weaning and mating as that will reduce food conversion efficiency and penalise wool production. Reference: Rattray, P.V., Jagusch, K.T., Smith, J.F., Winn, G.W. & McLean, K. (1980). Flushing responses from heavy and light ewes. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of animal production 40,

32 5.2 Hoggets Careful pre-mating management is one of the keys to achieving a good hogget lambing result. Hogget mating weight is one of the major determinants of number of hoggets mated and their lambing performance. Ewe hogget lambing performance is often disappointing. Only 30% of all hoggets in New Zealand are presented for breeding, achieving on average a lambing percentage of just 60%, compared to 120% in mature ewes. Some hogget flocks are achieving above 120%, indicating the potential. To achieve high performance in ewe hoggets they firstly need to have achieved puberty (the ability to breed) prior to or during the breeding period and secondly, they must be successfully mated Vaccinations Prior to the mating period it is essential that hoggets be vaccinated for abortive diseases such as campylobacteriosis and toxoplasmosis (see section 2.4 for details) Liveweight Within a breed, the biggest factor controlling whether a ewe hogget has attained puberty is liveweight. Puberty occurs when the ewe hoggets are 40 60% of mature weight (therefore the absolute weight varies between breed types). Farmers should ensure their ewe hoggets are as heavy as possible before the mating period. Research has indicated that for every kg above 36 kg a ewe hogget is at mating, lambing percentage will increase by 2%. Some ewe hoggets will reach puberty at liveweights as low as 30 kg but mating these animals can result in problems in later pregnancy and lactation and in their performance as a two-tooth. Management practices should be in place to deliver good hogget growth, and to ensure potential health issues are not limiting growth Summer shearing Shearing at least one month prior to hogget mating has been associated with a small increase in hogget lambing percentage. This could be caused by the recently shorn ewe hoggets consuming more herbage and thus being heavier. It has been suggested that unshorn sheep in warm conditions have reduced herbage intakes and lower growth rates than their shorn counterparts, although this has not been proven. References: Gavigan, R. & Rattray, P. (Eds.) (1999). 100 More A Guide to Hogget Mating. A Meat New Zealand and Wool Board Joint Venture. 5.3 Rams Ram buying usually occurs in summer. When planning your ram purchases, it is worth assessing the health of existing rams and those considered for purchase. Early assessment allows time to treat any problems and to ensure the correct number of rams are purchased. Health Inspections Inspect your present rams before ram buying (to check the number of replacements needed) and again with your veterinarian 8 weeks before mating. Ensure any new rams are of the same health status as the resident rams before they are mixed (i.e. ensure that both ram classes have been examined by a vet and are free from brucellosis. When rams are examined by a veterinarian, the following will be identified: - genital lesions - chorioptic mange - Rams with abnormally small testicles that indicate reduced fertility. See pre-mating (section 1) for further information 28 FlockMaster 2007

33 Monitoring Monitoring is a critical component of decision making in the FlockMaster programme. Good decisions rely on having the appropriate information available, gathered from good measuring practice and having timely up to date information allowing prediction and showing trends. 6.1 Liveweight Liveweight of sheep will vary during the day due mainly to gut fill. Aim to weigh a flock at a similar time of day each time and adjust for wool weight if necessary/appropriate. Remember to weigh enough sheep to get a good indication of the mob. You need to weigh at least 50 animals or 5% of the flock (which ever is the larger number). Weigh a representative sample, not the first or last race through the yards. Scales must be checked regularly to ensure they return to zero between animals. Scales must also be calibrated. Calibration means the scales always weigh a known weight the same. Weigh yourself (if your weight is consistent) or something that weighs at least 20 kg. A 20 litre chemical drum filled with water is ideal. Scales should be set up for ease of use and stock flow. Recording weights in a simple histogram as shown below, where each cell represents one animal at that weight will give you an immediate view of the weight range in your mob. A histogram recording sheet for recording liveweights at weighing. Class of stock Date of weighing: 28/3/07 Average liveweight: 60.1 kg Number of animals Liveweight (kg) 29

34 6.2 Body condition scoring Condition scoring assesses the amount of muscle and fat on the sheep. If there is too much wool on the sheep it is difficult to score body condition accurately by eye. Place the palm of your hand on the lumbar spine (loin) and use fingers on one side and thumb on other side to feel transverse processes. Use 1-5 scale to score sheep using the following descriptors: Spine prominent and sharp No fat cover Horizontal process sharp Condition Score = 1 Fingers easily pass under Spine prominent and smooth Thin fat cover Muscles medium depth Horizontal process rounded Condition Score = 2 Fingers go under with pressure Spine smooth, rounded Moderate fat cover Muscles full Horizontal process smooth, rounded Condition Score = 3 Fingers go under with pressure Spine only detected as a line Fat cover thick Muscles full Condition Score = 4 Horizontal process cannot be felt Spine not detectable, fat dimpled over spine Fat cover dense Muscles very full Condition Score = 5 Horizontal process not detectable 30 FlockMaster 2007

35 6.3 Pasture quality Visual assessment of pasture quality is achieved by observing key pasture features. Pastures may be assessed at any time, but visual pasture quality assessment may be most effective during late spring-summer when feed quality is particularly important. The visual assessments are: 1. Pasture dry matter yield in kg DM/ha to ground level. 2. Dead matter as a % of the total dry weight. 3. Clover and herbs as a % of the total green dry weight. 4. Green grass leaf as a % of total green grass fractions. To make a visual assessment of a paddock walk across it to find an area of about 25m2 that represents the average pasture dry matter yield and quality. In hill country, more than one area may be required to represent different slope and aspect combinations. The final result may need to be adjusted for the balance of slope and aspect. Avoid gateways, troughs and camps. Laboratory analysis can be used to determine nutritive value of pasture. Further reading: AgResearch (2002). Pasture Quality Visual Assessment. Hamilton: A Meat New Zealand and AgResearch publication. AgResearch (2002). Pasture Quality Workshops: Principles, management and Q-Graze. Hamilton: A Meat New Zealand and AgResearch publication. 6.4 Indicator mobs Indicator mobs can be a powerful tool for diagnosing the causes of an identified problem (e.g. low lamb survival) or to monitor performance. The indicator mob is managed along the same lines as other mobs but measurements are taken. Samples are collected for analysis to diagnose potential causes of problems. Choose a paddock that is easily monitored and relatively representative of the farm. Check liveweight of ewes and lambs regularly. Decide on trigger points for decision making; these may include: Lamb weight gain and when to wean Lamb liveweight Ewe weight changes Pasture cover indicators. Plan additional monitoring with your advisor. These may include: Parasite challenge Mineral status Disease status Toxins in pasture. 31

36 Taking Action The FlockMaster approach to assessing flock performance focuses on: The four drivers of efficiency scanning %, ewe wastage, lamb losses and lamb growth rate The five periods which are critical to taking control and making a difference to flock efficiency mating, winter, lambing, lactation and summer. So to help you assess current performance, identify opportunities and consider what you might do differently, we have prepared the following four-page planner. How you choose to use this is up to you, but here are some suggestions. Page 1 List the important actions that will make a difference Use this page as your starting point based on what you currently know about your flock and each of the mobs/age groups in it. If you already have good data about liveweight at and around mating, scanning data or lamb survival information then you may not need to do any more monitoring. You can probably use this to diagnose what some issues might be. If you don t have the data, consider what you would gain by doing some specific monitoring. Once you have your ideas on what else you need to do and your tentative diagnosis of what is important, consider who else you might approach to discuss this further with. That could be another farmer, veterinarian, consultant, stock agent or ram breeder. If you have all the data that you need to enter into the FlockMaster tool, skip this page and go to page 2. Page 2 Checklist Once you have analysed data from several mobs you can complete the table in the middle of the page comparing actual performance with potential, and consider targets for the next season. Considering the difference between actual and potential performance, relate the opportunities to what you think is realistic for your flock and detail in the second table, specifically what you want to achieve. It is probably not realistic to have answers in each of the five production periods, so focus on what is most important to achieve. Page 3 & 4 Detail your priorities Use this page to detail what you will need to do to achieve the gains you have targeted on the previous page. Remember the only reason for writing down this plan is because you will be more likely to refer back to it throughout the course of the year, and you will be more inclined to do the things that will make a difference. Sheep Calendar The Sheep Calendar has been provided to ensure that what you set out to do to improve flock efficiency and productivity gets done at the most appropriate time. With different mobs, different mating dates and vaccination programmes depending on sheep age, its easy to end up doing things outside the optimal time. Use the calendar to prepare a schedule of target dates for key management for each mob of sheep and pin this up in a prominent place so that everybody in the management team knows what to expect and can ensure that appropriate actions happen at the right time. Obviously you will not need to do every thing that is on the schedule. It simply details when things need to be done, if you have to. What you need to do should be considered and developed in conjunction with your animal health and management advisor. Tip: Prepare a separate calendar for each mob based on their mating date. Put a black line through those events that are irrelevant, and use the right side of the form to add notes about what was done and when. You can then save this sheet in your animal heath quality assurance records. 32 FlockMaster 2007

37 TAKING ACTION worksheet List the important actions that will make a difference Monitor Diagnose Act Production Phase What do I know & What does that tell me? What I am going to do is what else do I need to find out? Pre-mating to scanning Scanning to spreading out Spreading out to tailing Tailing to weaning Weaning to pre-mating Who else do you need to discuss your analysis and action plan with? 33

38 Checklist Use this form to check the performance of your flock over the past season. Compare your data with the benchmarks and identify what s going well, and the opportunities for improving the total weight and value of lamb weaned and the efficiency with which this is achieved. Details on solutions for particular times of the year can be found in the Flockmaster Manual. You can also access more detailed technical information in the FlockMaster CD. These figures and solutions are guidelines only. For more information for specific situations contact your consultant or animal health advisor. How does your flock/mob productivity match with potential? You can analyse the performance of each mating mob or your whole flock by entering data into the FlockMaster Decision Support Tool. The more data you have about each mob, the more meaningful the analysis will be. Indicator Potential level Mob actual Next seasons target Scanning % No of lambs weaned Kg lamb weaned/kg ewe mated Lamb LW gain to weaning (g/day) % ewes rearing lambs to weaning Ewe wastage % of mated 34 FlockMaster 2007

39 FLOCK PRODUCTIVITY worksheet List the important opportunities that will lift flock productivity on your farm Production Phase Pre-mating to scanning Opportunities From Your Monitoring And Diagnosis Scanning to spreading out Spreading out to tailing Tailing to weaning Weaning to pre-mating 35

40 PRIORITY worksheet Detail your priorities Targets Feeding Actions Animal health Genetics Management 36 FlockMaster 2007

41 Glossary Abortion The premature loss of a pregnancy, usually where the dead foetus is expelled, from 60 days of pregnancy on. Common causes are, campylobacter or toxoplasmosis. Hairy shaker disease and several other diseases are sometimes implicated. ADF (Acid Detergent Fibre) This is a measure of the fibre components of cellulose and lignin. The normal range for pasture in an NIRS analysis is 15-25%DM. Alkaloids A chemical produced by plants which can cause adverse animal health problems, e.g. ryegrass staggers, heat stress, phalaris poisoning etc. They can also offer some benefit, e.g. peramine (produced by ryegrass endophytes) provides protection from insect damage. Androstenedione An ovarian steroid. Androvax and Ovastim vaccines immunise ewes against androstenedione. This alters the feedback of ovarian hormones on the pituitary gland, allowing it to secrete additional ovary-stimulating hormones, resulting in increased ovulation rate. Anoestrus The period when animals do not exhibit oestrus, usually the non-breeding period, or directly after parturition (giving birth). Antioxidant Antioxidants are chemical compounds that can bind to free radicals preventing these radicals from damaging healthy cells. Ash This is the mineral content of the pasture sample (the inorganic fraction). The normal range for ash in an NIRS report is 5-10%DM. Ataxia Loss of the ability to coordinate muscle movement, i.e. staggers. Barren Ewe that does not cycle. Sometimes termed Dry ewe. See also Dry/dry and Wet/dry ewe terms. BCS (Body Condition Score) Refer to Condition Score (CS). Bearings When the vagina or rectum is forced outside the animal s vaginal opening or anus, respectively. BHOB ( ß-hydroxybutyrate) Is a product of fat metabolism. Elevated blood serum levels indicate risk of metabolic disease. Bodyweight The mass (weight) of an animal less its fleece and the contents of its uterus, c.f. liveweight. Booroola gene A gene discovered in Romney and Merino sheep. It has a very large effect with ewes inheriting one copy averaging an extra one lamb born per ewe lambing. Ewes with two copies of the gene average an extra 1.5 lambs born per ewe lambing. Brown fat Brown fat is a reserve that is only used for heat production to keep the lamb warm in cold conditions. This lets them keep warm for longer and thus helps keep up their drive to drink. 37

42 Bypass protein pellets A feed source containing bypass protein potential sources include fish meal, soy meal, and cotton seed meal. The level of protection is dependent on the processing methods used to produce the product. By-pass protein Protein that escapes rumen degradation and is readily absorbed through the small intestine. Campylobacteriosis Previously called vibriosis, refers to Campylobacter fetus fetus and C.jejunii. Causes abortion usually during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy. Infection may cause early neonatal losses. Following abortion ewes usually remain fertile and immune to infection in subsequent years. CIDR (Controlled Internal Drug Release) A plastic device containing progesterone used to synchronise the oestrus of a flock. Clostridial diseases Clostridial bacteria cause severe diseases such as pulpy kidney, blackleg, malignant oedema, black disease and tetanus. They are easily prevented by vaccination of ewes or lambs. Crisis dosing Drenching with zinc salts when facial eczema spore counts become a problem, (or even worse) when symptoms start to appear. Note this method of FE protection is far less effective than long-term dosing. Crude Protein (CP) Crude protein in pasture is made up of many nitrogen containing components. The normal range for pasture is 10-25% of DM. Cryptorchids Also referred to as rigs. This term is given to males in which one or both testes fail to descend from the body cavity (where they develop during foetal growth throughout pregnancy). They can also be artificially produced by pushing the testes back into the body cavity of young males and removing the scrotum with a rubber ring (short scrotum ram). The ram is therefore infertile (unless the ram has one testicle descended into the scrotum), and not able to produce sperm. This is because the testes are exposed to body heat. Sexual behaviour body composition and growth rates are the same as an entire ram. See also: teaser rams, vasectomised, and short scrotum. CS Condition Score A value given to grade an animal s physical state. In sheep a CS of 0 is emaciated and 5 is over-fat or over-fed. DCAD (Dietary Cation Anion Difference) A measure of the potential availability of cations and anions from feed, which reflects minerals present in feed. The difference between cations and anions absorbed from feed into blood determines the ph of blood. Dairy cows fed acidogenic (high in anions) have less milk fever due to higher blood calcium levels. The normal range for pasture in an NIRS analysis is meq/kgdm (mill equivalents per kg dry matter). Dead material The product of leaf aging or sudden death. It is brown and is avoided by animals and has very low quality. Digestibility How much of the plant can be digested by the animal. It is expressed as a percentage of the dry matter, or in g/kg DM. Sometimes it is expressed in organic matter terms, which removes variation caused by changes in the mineral (ash) content of the plant. Diet ME The metabolisable energy of the feed that is selected and consumed (eaten by the animal) will be higher than the ME of the feed that is offered. Dry Matter The plant material left after all water has been removed. DM% can be used to compare different feed types, e.g. pasture, swedes, grain etc. Other plant nutritive values can also be used to compare quality, see also: NDF, ADF, MJME, CP. Dry/dry ewe A term used to describe a ewe that has failed to conceive after mating, i.e. a conception failure. The ewe may be barren. 38 FlockMaster 2007

43 Dynamic (liveweight gain or flushing ) effect Ewes that gain weight (0.5-1 kg per week) immediately prior to mating may have a higher ovulation rate than ewes that lose or maintain weight, although this does depend on their end liveweight. Dystocia Difficulties associated with lambing. Either due to the offspring being too large, and/or ewe s pelvis is too small, or the ewe s energy reserves are insufficient to successfully lamb (only in extreme circumstances of under-nutrition). Can be a combination of these factors. Embryo Embryo is the stage of pregnancy between 11 and 34 days after fertilization. After this time the organs and body systems develop and the body shape forms. Embryonic mortality Loss of embryos due to various reasons, i.e. difference between ovulation rate and scanning rate Ergot alkaloid Ergot alkaloids are produced by endophytes e.g. Ergovaline. They are vasoconstrictive (constricts blood vessels) compounds, i.e. they compromise blood flow to the extremities. Fecundity A component of fertility (see below for definition), it represents the potential reproductive rate as determined by the ovulation rate. It is sometimes referred to as prolificacy, meaning the ability to produce many offspring. Some breeds are more fecund than others. Fertility A measure of the ability of a ewe to conceive and produce live offspring. Or if male, to fertilise the female. It relates to the efficiency of the reproductive system. Flock mating Using several rams within a ewe flock, c.f. single sire mating. Foetus Stage of pregnancy from day 34 to full term. Genetic merit The positive traits introduced into your flock through genetic selection. GGT blood test Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) indicates an obstruction within the liver or in the larger bile channels outside the liver. It represents the amount of damage caused by Facial Eczema. Glutathione peroxidase Is a protein enzyme which suggests the level of selenium in the body, i.e. it indicates if a deficiency of selenium is present. Goitre A non-cancerous enlargement of the thyroid gland, visible as a swelling at the front of the neck, that is often associated with iodine deficiency. GR Used by meat industry to measure the level of fat depth. It is measured in mm over the 12th rib, 11cm from the carcass midline. It is the total tissue depth from the carcass surface to the rib. Hairy Shaker Disease Cause of abortions mainly in Otago/Southland region, caused by one or more pestiviruses. These viruses are closely related to those of bovine viral diarrhoea. Heritability The strength of inheritance of a particular trait, denoted by H2. Heterosis Sometimes termed hybrid vigour. It is the difference in performance of a cross-bred animal, from that of the 39

44 average of the two purebred parents (of different breeds). It may be positive or negative, but is usually positive, and can be better than the best of the parent breeds. Inverdale gene The Inverdale gene was discovered in Romney sheep in Ewes with one copy average an extra 0.6 lambs born per ewe lambing. Ketones Break down of body fat reserves of the ewe produces ketones which cause the ewe to become drowsy and move awkwardly. It can be treated orally with a sugary solution or ketol. Lipids Lipids consist of fats and oils. They are found in small amounts in most plants, with the exception of soybean and linseed which have high levels. The normal range for pasture on a NIRS report is between 3-5%DM. Lambing percentage Number of lambs tailed/number of ewes mated x 100. Liveweight The total mass of an animal including gut-fill, fleece and the contents of the uterus. Measured in kilograms. Long-term dosing Dosing of sheep with zinc over a long period of time to prevent FE from developing. Maiden ewe A female intended for breeding purposes that has not reproduced, often because they have not been mated yet. Maintenance The energy requirements of an animal to sustain body functions which are essential for life, but are not directly related to production, e.g. thermoregulation (maintaining body temperature), blood circulation, respiration, physical activity. Metabolic diseases These disorders are related to the physiological state of the sheep and the amount of energy supplied. Metabolic disease can occur when there is an extreme feed shortage in conjunction with a high energy demand and/or stressful conditions, e.g. Pregnancy toxaemia (Sleepy sickness or twin lamb disease) or milk fever. MJME/kg DM (Mega joules of Metabolisable Energy per Kilogram of Dry Matter) A quantitative measure of the amount of energy in a feed (measured as mega joules) of Metabolisable energy (derived from the digested fraction of food consumed by the animal) per kg of Dry Matter that an animal can use. Muscle tetany Muscle spasms, shown as staggering, twitching or an awkward gait. NDF (Neutral Detergent Fibre Is a measure of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin this is the structural or cell wall components of the feed. The normal range for pasture in a NIRS analysis is 25-35%DM. NIRS (Near Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy) NIR is an indirect way to estimate the composition of a feed. It involves a machine which sends a beam of light through a sample of feed, and measures the light pattern which is produced out the other side of it. By calibrating the machine with known samples of feed, it can estimate the composition of unknown samples. Common tests for pasture include Dry Matter, crude protein, lipid, ash, ADF, NDF, SSS, OMD, ME and DCAD. Additional tests for silage include: ph, lactic and volatile fatty acids, and ammonia concentrations. See each glossary term for definition. Oestrogenic The ability of a feed to mimic the oestrogen hormones of an animal. This is of greatest importance to sheep near the mating period of the year. Oestrus The regularly occurring interval of sexual receptivity ( Heat ) in the ewe, during which ovulation occurs and mating can take place. 40 FlockMaster 2007

45 OMD (Organic Matter Digestibility The proportion of the plant that can be digested by the animal, expressed in organic matter terms, which removes variation caused by changes in the mineral (ash) content of the plant. The normal range for pasture in an NIRS analysis is 65-75% DM. Ovary Sex gland of the female that produces eggs. There are two in each female. The process of releasing eggs is called ovulation. More than one egg can ovulate from one ovary at the same time. Eggs can ovulate from both ovaries at the same time. Pasture Mass Usually measured as kg DM/ha or with pasture height (centimetres). Phyto-oestrogens Some pasture legumes such as red clover, subterranean clover and lucerne contain compounds that mimic natural oestrogen. This can reduce fertility and fecundity. Low oestrogen cultivars of these legumes are now available. Physiological state The driving force behind the responses of an animal in any given situation. E.g. pregnant or dry. Pithomyces chartarum The Latin (genus species) name given to the Facial Eczema causing fungus. Placenta Is an organ of pregnancy inside the uterus that links the dam with the foetus. Provides the nutrients to the foetus and removes the wastes. Protein The building blocks of muscle, bone and enzymes. Certain physiological states require different amounts of protein in the diet. Proteins are made up of amino acids. Pyrexic Any condition that causes a fever (elevated body temperature), usually some form of infection. Ram effect The introduction of rams early in the breeding in the season stimulates ewes to ovulate within 3-6 days (without showing oestrus or heat if this is the first ovulation of the season silent heat ) and show oestrus about 17 days later. Rams used for synchronisation can be either entire or vasectomised. Reabsorption This refers to the process that occurs when an ovum, embryo or young foetus dies and is absorbed back into the ewe. This usually occurs in the first 60 days of pregnancy. Salmonella Brandenburg A salmonella serotype linked to abortions and ewe deaths in southern New Zealand. Scanning percentage Number of foetal lambs counted per 100 ewes scanned. Seasonality Most sheep breeds are seasonal breeders and fewer eggs are shed in the first cycles of the breeding season in the early autumn. Ewe breeding season is normally from early to late autumn (February to May) and starts with a silent cycle. Serum prolactin A circulating hormone which is reduced in sheep grazing ryegrass endophytes which contain ergovaline. Thought to be an important link in mediating some of the negative effects of ergopeptine alkaloids or ergovaline on animal responses. Semen Fluid produced by the male containing sperm and nutrients. It comes from the testes and the accessory sex glands. 41

46 Short scrotum male Where the testes are pushed up against the body wall, and the scrotum removed, c.f. cryptochid males where the testes are inside the body cavity. Same characteristics of infertility, behaviour, body composition and growth rates as for the cryptochid males. Silent Heat Ovulation without any signs of heat (oestrus). Slope Class The topography of the land can be classified by the following table. This method of classification was completed in 1979 by the Water and Soil Division, Ministry of Works and Development. The codes are used in the Land Use Capability maps. Code Degrees Description Examples A 0-3 Flat to gently undulating Arable Flats, terraces B 4-7 Undulating Arable Fans, gentle slopes C 8-15 Rolling Arable Down, steep fans D Strongly rolling Cultivatable with care Easy hill country E Moderately steep Cultivatable with extreme care Hill country & mountain lands G Steep Uncultivated Hill country & mountain lands F >35 Very steep Uncultivated Hill country & mountain lands Sperm The male reproductive cell produced by the testes. It takes over 50 days for a sperm to form and mature inside the testes. The sperm fertilizes the egg in the oviduct at the end of the uterus in the ewe. Sporidesmin The toxin contained in the spores of the Facial Eczema causing fungus Pithomyces chartarum. The sporidesmin is absorbed (by animals grazing toxic pastures) and enters the circulation where it affects a number of tissues; of greatest consequence is the liver. SSS (Soluble Sugars and Starches) Carbohydrate component of the plant which is contained within cell contents. This component is usually rapidly digested in the rumen. The normal range for pasture in an NIRS analysis is 4-12%DM. Static (liveweight) effect The mating liveweight of ewes due to long-term nutritional management, c.f. dynamic effect. Swayback Seen in newborn lambs suffering from copper deficiencies. The clinical signs are the loss of control of their hind legs. Sometimes termed enzootic or neonatal ataxia. Synchronised ewes A management technique to ensure that all ewes within a mob ovulate simultaneously. This decreases mating spread, so that peak feed demand occurs during peak feed supply (spring flush), facilitates AI (artificial insemination) or ET (embryo transfer), or to stimulate ewes to breed out of season. This is done either artificially with the use of hormones, or naturally the ram effect (the ram effect is less effective than the use of hormones). Teaser ram A vasectomised ram that behaves like an entire ram, but is not capable of fertilising the ewe, i.e. infertile. The teaser ram is used to detect and/or stimulate oestrous (heat) in ewes. Tillers New shoot on a grass plant, normally with only three green leaves. Toxoplasmosis Common cause of early abortion in sheep. Caused by a protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii which has a 2 stage 42 FlockMaster 2007

47 lifecycle which includes the cat. Infected sheep remain infected for life although abortion only occurs following the initial exposure to parasite Trait A characteristic of an animal that can be inherited into a subsequent generation. Tremorgenic toxins Tremor inducing toxins, e.g. ryegrass endophyte, paspalum fungus (Claviceps paspali). These toxins affect brain function and cause tremors and uncoordinated movement in effected animals. Vasectomised Cutting and tying of the vas deferens (the tubes which pass the sperm from the testes to the urethra) this renders the ram incapable of fertilising the ewe. The ram is still able to produce sperm, has normal amounts of male hormones, behaves and has growth rates of an entire ram. See also: teaser ram, cryptorchids (rigs), and short scrotum males. Vitamins Organic substances required in relatively small amounts in the diet of stock. Vitamin B12 A vitamin (cobalamin) containing cobalt, produced in the liver. Wastage Sheep deaths. Wet/dry ewe The term used to describe a ewe that has given birth but has failed to rear the offspring to tailing or weaning. The offspring may have been born dead or died before tailing or weaning. White muscle disease (WMD) Caused by Selenium deficiency. Lambs affected with congenital WMD are born dead or die suddenly from exertion within a few days of birth. Heart and occasionally skeletal muscles are affected. Delayed WMD usually affects lambs 3-6 weeks after birth. Affected lambs have a stiff gait, an arched back, are disinclined to move, and often die when being driven. Wishart gene The Wishart gene was discovered in Romney sheep in Ewes with one copy have an extra 0.5 lambs born per ewe lambing. Ewes with two copies are known to be fertile and research is in progress to determine whether their litter size is higher than those with one copy. Woodlands gene The Woodlands gene was discovered in Coopworth sheep in 2000 and is believed to be widely distributed among Coopworth sheep. Ewes with one expressing copy of the gene have an extra 0.25 lambs born per ewe lambing. Zearalenone Zearalenone is a toxin produced from a range of Fusarium fungi in pasture. Commonly associated with the dead component of the pasture in summer autumn period. Its effects are similar to oestrogen, reducing ewe fertility and fecundity. Zinc chelate A chelate is an organic compound that has a metal ion bound to an organic complex which makes it chemically neutral and stable. Chelates are stable during ph shifts in the rumen unlike inorganic sulphates. Chelates are utilised by the animals far better by having greater absorption and bio-availability. Zinc oxide Used to dose animals to prevent negative effects of facial eczema. Can also be spread or sprayed over pasture before grazing, so animals ingest zinc whilst they are grazing. Much cheaper form of zinc than zinc chelate (see above). Zinc sulphate A zinc salt used to treat foot rot, scald, and dermatitis ( lumpy wool ) in sheep. 43

48 Key Management Period 1: Pre-mating to scanning (Tupping) FlockMaster Decision Support Tool Manual 44

49 Introduction The purpose of this program is to support sheep farmers in assessing the performance, productivity and efficiency of breeding ewes and hoggets. The program compares actual performance with potential performance using the data on animal performance collected at key times during the year. Differences between actual and potential performance are highlighted, enabling opportunities for improving mob and flock efficiency to be identified. Where opportunities for improvement are identified, a checklist of management factors that may be relevant to the issue can be selected. These management factors can then be used to access and review current management and give recommendations for action. By providing a consistent method for collecting and recording data, the program enables mob and flock performance to be compared within and between years and farms. This comparison allows management and other changes and their impact to be evaluated objectively. The flock performance data that farmers enter into this program can be used in discussion with animal health and farm management advisers when evaluating opportunities for improvement. FlockMaster can be used to highlight key management decisions and actions that can be taken and enables the impact of these in improving animal performance to be monitored. FlockMaster provides an in-depth appraisal of mob and flock performance up to the stage of lamb weaning. It does not provide a whole-farm analysis or enable comparison of major livestock and land-use policies and management changes. Such analysis is more appropriately considered using tools such as Stockpol or FarmMax. Overview The program comprises three sections, each with a range of screens. Inputs Lamb production - the main data entry screen. Aggregate mobs - allows individual mobs to be combined within the season. Reports Potential & actual - detailed comparison of mob performance. Performance indicators - key performance indicators. Graphs and diagnostic information highlights and compares actual and potential performance and provides access to a range of management information and advice. Ewe wastage analysis of the extent and cost of ewe wastage. Benchmarking allows selection and comparison of different mobs, both within and between years as well as between farms. Calendar Calendar - based on mob mating date, produces a key management events list for different mating mobs. 45

50 Getting started Installing the program On the FlockMaster CD, there are files for: The FlockMaster decision support tool The FlockMaster Calendar Java which is needed to run the decision support tool The manual to operate the decision support tool and calendar programs which is a Microsoft Word document. When you insert the FlockMaster CD in your computer installation should start automatically. If it doesn t, use Windows Explorer or a similar program to display the contents of the CD and double-click the Install.exe file. IMPORTANT During installation, there may be times when nothing seems to be going on. BE PATIENT. Allow AT LEAST 3 minutes of apparent inactivity before trying to see what might have happened. When installing FlockMaster, Java runtime may need to be installed first. While this is happening, you will see the following on your screen. If the program finds Java 5 is already installed on your machine you will get this message Click OK 46 FlockMaster 2007

51 You will then get this message. Despite what the message says, click Finish The next step will install FlockMaster itself. Click Yes to any questions you may be asked. During the installation process, do not close any screens that may appear in the background, even though they may appear to be superfluous. These screens appear only during the installation process. When installation is complete, your screen should look like this. Double-click the FlockMaster.jar icon to start the program. 47

52 Running the program During installation an icon will be added to your desktop. You can start FlockMaster by double-clicking this icon. Alternatively, you can click Start, then All Programs, then FlockMaster, then FlockMaster. Your screen should now look like this. If you cannot see the entire Input Lamb Production screen, you will need to change the screen resolution of your computer. To do this close the FlockMaster tool, and then click Start, then Control, then Display then Settings, then Screen resolution (or Screen area). Select a screen resolution of at least 1024 x 768. Restart the FlockMaster tool. 48 FlockMaster 2007

53 File options Selecting File provides a range of options. Open opens the dialog box and enables previously saved files to be selected. The opened file name is displayed in the headline banner at the top of the screen. Save automatically replaces previous contents of this file with the current data. Previous data in this file will not be able to be recovered. Save As opens the dialogue box and enables data to be saved in a new file name. Tip: Naming files - it is recommended that the file name you use includes at least the mating year and age class. If you have more than one property, include this in the file name. It will make for easier file identification when you later wish to compare or combine mobs. For example T.flm; 2006 MAmain. flm; Ruanui T.flm; Ruanui 2005 Hogget.flm. Print Exit allows printing of the currently selected screen. exits FlockMaster. 49

54 Inputs Lamb Production - the main data entry screen. Tip: On-screen help - Notice the blue Help line just below the Lamb production tab. Move the mouse about the screen and see how the help line changes e.g. When the cursor is anywhere in the Mob Description box, the help line reads Enter basic information about this mob. Mob name will form the basis of file name to store user information for this mob. You can enter data for only one mob at a time. If you wish to record more than one mob, enter the data for mob 1, then save this file before entering the data for mob 2. The minimum information required is: Date mating starts. Number of ewes at mating. Ewe live weight at mating. Weaning date. These boxes are highlighted in yellow. However, if you record more information, the opportunity for improvement will be more clearly defined, and you will be able to make better-informed decisions about the important actions and their timing. Tip: When you have completed an entry in one of the boxes, press Enter, then the Tab key. The cursor will then move automatically to the next box and select its contents so that you can type the new entry over the top of the existing data. Description Mob Name Click and drag over the present entry and type the name by which you will recognise this mob e.g. Ruanui main; Ruanui terminal sire mob; CFA earlies. Mating Year Enter the year of mating. Mob Age Click on the and select from the drop down list. The choices are Hogget, Two-tooth, Mixed age or 5-year ewes. Ram breed = Ewe breed If the breed of ewe and ram used in this mob is the same, make sure the tick appears in the box. Click on the box to switch the tick on or off. If the ram breed is different to the ewe breed, leave the box unchecked and potential lamb growth rates will be increased by 5% and lamb survival rates at birth will be increased. High fecundity gene? Click on the box to switch the tick on or off. If a high fecundity gene is present in the ewes check the box. The potential scanning % will be 60% higher than if there is no high fecundity gene present. Examples of high fecundity genes include Inverdale and Booroola genes which may have been incorporated into any breed. 50 FlockMaster 2007

55 Wool weight kg/ewe Wool price $/kg Enter an indicative wool weight and price for wool production for this mob. This is used to calculate an economic index for mob productivity. Contour at lambing (%) This is the contour of the paddocks in which this mob will be grazing at lambing. For example, 100% of the block is steep contour; or 50% is steep and 50% is moderate slope. The information is used to set potential lamb survival rates for singles, twins, triplets and quads at birth. Enter your estimate of the proportions of each contour class for this mob with respect to lamb survival. The 3 numbers must add to 100%. If they do not, an error message will appear until the entries are corrected. Mating Date mating starts Compulsory Use the drop-down calendar to enter the day that rams were introduced with the ewes in this mob. Press the enter key No. mated Compulsory Enter the number of ewes in the mob at that time. Press the enter key Liveweight Compulsory If known, enter the average live weight. If you do not know the average ewe liveweight, you will need to enter an estimate. Press the enter key Androvax or Ovastim used this season? If you used either Androvax or Ovastim on this mob, turn on the tick by clicking the box. Press the enter key Scanning You can enter your scanning data in one of two ways: i) Either enter the numbers of ewes scanned as being dry or carrying singles, twins, triplets or quads, or ii) Enter the overall actual scanning % (e.g. 147) IMPORTANT After completing your entries press the Enter Key. 51

56 Scanning Data Full scan or Short scan The FlockMaster decision support tool is designed to use full scan data i.e. ewes are diagnosed as dry, singlebearing, twin-bearing, triplet-bearing or quad-bearing. A common practice is to do a short scan only i.e. ewes are diagnosed as dry, single-bearing or multiple-bearing. If only short scan data are entered into FlockMaster the reports can be quite misleading in cases where more than half the ewes are scanned as multiple-bearing. The reported figures for Actual performance will be low at scanning and any loss of performance relative to Potential subsequent to scanning will be underestimated. In cases of very high reproduction rates and low lamb deaths, it is possible that the error checks built into the Inputs screen will prevent you from proceeding to the reports because the number of lambs weaned exceeds the number apparently scanned. It is therefore important that where there are more than half the ewes carrying 2 or more lambs, the full scan data is always used. To enable this, the attached lookup table is provided. It shows the estimated full scan twin, triplet and quad data for short scan data above 50% multiple. Look up the percentage of multiple-bearing ewes that matches your scan results and then follow the line across to the best estimate of the percentages of twin-, triplet- and quad-bearing ewes. Convert the percentages to numbers of ewes for your mob, and use the actual scan data for dries and singles. Estimated full scan twin triplet and quad data for flocks scanning at least 50% multiples in short scanning. 52 FlockMaster 2007

57 Lambing/Tailing Ewes pre lambing Enter the number of ewes present in this mob pre-lambing. At tailing Enter the number of ewes present in this mob at tailing. Lambs tailed Enter the number of lambs tailed in this mob. Weaning Date Compulsory Either use the drop-down calendar to enter the weaning date, or type the date directly into the box as dd/mm/yy. The average age of lambs at weaning can be from 30 days to 150 days. If the mating date and weaning date mean the lamb age falls outside this range, you will get an error message when you attempt to view your reports. Correct the error before continuing. Avg. lamb lwt. Enter the average live weight of the lambs in this mob at weaning. Number of lambs weaned Enter the number of lambs weaned. Ewes weaning lambs Enter the number of ewes present with lambs at weaning. Wet-dries still on farm at weaning Enter the number of ewes present but not weaning lambs. Price $/kg Enter a value per kilogram for the lambs, and use the of live weight or carcass weight. drop-down to indicate whether the value is for each kilogram Ewe sales Enter numbers of ewes sold from this mob during each of the four indicated periods. 53

58 Ewe purchases It is possible to purchase ewes between mating and scanning only by entering the number of ewes purchased as a negative number. Trying to purchase ewes at any other time will not work, because it is then not possible to include the number of lambs they carry. Lamb sales Enter details for any lambs sold from this mob after lambs are 2 weeks old and before weaning. Date sold Either use the drop-down calendar to enter the sale date, or type the date directly into the box as dd/mm/yy. No. sold Enter the number sold. Weight (kg) The weights are the average live weight or carcass weight for the lambs in a draft. You can have one draft entered on a live weight basis and another draft entered on a carcass weight basis. Weight type Select the appropriate weight-type for each draft. KO% If you think your lambs will yield significantly more or less than 45% carcass weight for each kilogram of live weight at drafting, change the KO% (e.g. 42%). IMPORTANT If you enter lamb sales here, do not include them in the number of lambs weaned when completing the weaning data. Lamb sales will be added to the number of lambs weaned to make up the total number of lambs in the mob after tailing. 54 FlockMaster 2007

59 Data Integrity Checks IMPORTANT When you attempt to leave the Input screen to look at reports, the program will check that the numbers of ewes and lambs at each stage are feasible. For example, the number of ewes at tailing plus the number of ewes sold between lambing and tailing must not be greater than the number of ewes at pre-lambing. The program will also check that the age of lambs at weaning is sensible. Ages between 30 and 150 days are allowed. The most common cause for this check to fail is because the year entered for mating is different to the year entered for weaning. If any of the data integrity checks fails, the reason will be shown in the help line just below the Lamb production tab. The age of sale lambs is checked. They must be at least 2 weeks old and cannot be sold after weaning. Finally, ewes may be purchased (entered as negative sales ) only between mating and scanning. If any of the data integrity checks fail, the program will not let you view any reports until the data has been satisfactorily changed. An error message will be displayed just under the screen tabs. Notes You can type any notes you wish in the box. When you save the file, the notes will be saved automatically with the same file name as the main data file except it will have the extension.notes instead of.flm. If you enter copious notes they are best printed from the notes file using Microsoft Word to open them. Shorter notes will print with the print of the whole screen. Aggregate mobs It is possible to combine the data from two mobs part way between mating and weaning or at weaning time. For example, if you start off with a mob of two-tooths and a mob of mixed age ewes that are run separately until tailing, but are then boxed till weaning, you can combine the data from these mobs in FlockMaster. Ground rules IMPORTANT You can combine the data from only two mobs at a time. If you have more than 2 mobs to combine, aggregate the first two mobs and save the new file, then aggregate the new file with the third mob. Both mobs must have the same data fields recorded up to the point at which they are aggregated - i.e. If you recorded scanning details for the two-tooth mob, you must have also recorded scanning details for the mixed age mob. When you save the combined data, it must be named differently to each of the contributing mobs e.g. 2006aggregated2T&MAmobs.flm. Mating dates and lamb age at weaning for mobs that are combined should not be more than 15 days different for each of the contributing mobs. Otherwise the report and analysis could be of doubtful value. Click the Aggregate mobs tab 55

60 On the Aggregate mobs screen, click Selected files to aggregate The box on the right will appear. Hold down the CTRL button (on your computer keyboard) and click the boxes of the two file names of the mobs you wish to aggregate. Then click the Save aggregated files and enter a new name for the aggregated file. The most common use of the aggregate function will be to combine mobs at weaning time (i.e. after all details have been entered for each mob) in order to generate a whole-farm report. 56 FlockMaster 2007

61 Reports A range of reports is produced. Some present mob productivity as numbers and other reports present mob productivity as graphs. A range of performance indices is presented. These different formats and indices have been provided to allow users to choose the options that best suit their circumstances and preferred way of looking at information. Potential & actual The top half of the screen presents potential outcomes for the mob and the bottom half of the screen presents what actually happened on your farm. The potential shows: The scanning result that could be expected for ewes of high reproductive performance at the mob s mating liveweight The lambing performance where lamb deaths at birth are minimal based on the land contour on which the mob lambed Achievable high daily live weight gains to weaning for singles, twins, triplets and quads and the resulting total weight of lambs weaned for each of the rearing rank groups The weaning result estimated for the actual weaning date of the mob, showing the total weight of ewes mated, the total weight of lamb weaned, the average potential lamb weaning weight and daily liveweight gain. The actual shows the equivalent figures for what was achieved by this mob this season. By comparing the actual performance with the potential performance (eg Potential scanning 188%, Actual scanning 147%), opportunities for improvement can be identified. The data is presented in a graphical form in Graphs & diagnostic information. 57

62 Performance indicators A range of performance indicators is provided to users to identify and choose options that best suit their circumstances and needs. There are four groups of performance indicator shown: Total kg lamb weaned Total $ of lamb weaned Total number of lambs weaned Total $ (lamb weaned and wool) For 3 of the 4 indicators, the information is displayed for the total alone, and also per kg of ewe mated. (Total number of lambs weaned is shown per number of ewes mated.) The indicators are presented for both the potential and actual performance based on the mob weaning date. Adjusted values based on an average lamb age at weaning of 85 days are also provided. These adjusted values enable more effective comparisons between-year, between-farm or between-mobs. The average lamb age assumes the average lamb birth date is 10 days after the start of lambing. 58 FlockMaster 2007

63 Graphs & diagnostic information This is the main report page for the FlockMaster tool. A prominent feature is the graph display on which there are up to 4 graph lines To the right of the graph are options that allow you to re-size the display to more clearly view the graph or the diagnostics display. To the left of the graph display are two drop-down menus to allow you to change the performance indicator (vertical axis) for which the graphs will be presented and to change between actual weaning age and 85 day weaning age. The graph above has a vertical axis selected to show kg of lamb weaned/kg ewe mated at 85 days of lamb age. 59

64 Clicking the Graph box will enlarge the graphs. The graphs are displayed as follows: The Potential graph (solid blue with square plot points) shows the potential performance indicator for all stages The Actual scan only graph (dashed green with circle plot points) shows the performance indicator based on actual scanning data, and then what would happen if all subsequent performance was at the potential level The Actual scan + tail graph (dashed red with circle plot points) shows the performance indicators based on actual scanning and tailing data, and then what would happen if the lamb growth rates were at the potential level The Actual all graph (solid black with circle plot points) shows the performance indicators based on actual scanning, tailing and weaning data. The performance indicator by which the graphs are displayed can be changed by using the drop-down menu to the left of the vertical graph axis. Use the second drop-down menu to display the graphs at either 85 days or at the actual weaning age. 60 FlockMaster 2007

65 Differences in the slopes of the potential and actual performance lines indicate periods where there is opportunity to improve performance. Click on the corresponding period button below the graph to see the range of diagnostic information for the period. Select from any of the options by clicking on the topic. You may choose to discuss this with your animal health or management advisor. In the illustration on the previous page, the two major opportunities for improvement occur at scanning and from tailing to weaning. Click on one of the titles display an article in the space at the lower part of the screen. Clicking the Diagnostics box to the right of the graph display will expand the size of the diagnostic article. To print the article, with Adobe Acrobat Reader, click the print button. IMPORTANT Before returning to FlockMaster, close Adobe first by clicking on the X button in top right hand corner of screen 61

66 Ewe Wastage The ewe wastage report firstly accounts for all the ewes in the mob, reporting the number weaning lambs, those present at weaning but not weaning lambs, those sold and therefore the number of ewes that are dead and missing from mating to weaning. Each of these tallies is also displayed as a percentage of the ewes mated. The dead and missing ewes are then reported as numbers and as a % of all dead and missing ewes across the four time periods between mating and weaning. Finally, the impact of these dead and missing ewes on the potential number of lambs produced is reported by multiplying the number dead and missing by the average scanning percentage. 62 FlockMaster 2007

67 Benchmarking The program provides the ability to compare the actual performance of several mobs at the same time. You may choose to use this feature to compare the performance of your mobs over the last few years following the introduction of management changes. Alternatively, on a large property running several mobs of mixed age ewes, their performance within a season can be compared and reasons for differences considered. On the Benchmarking screen, click the Select files to benchmark, hold down the CTRL button (on your computer keyboard) and tick the boxes of the file names of the mobs you wish to compare. You will then get a display that looks like this. If you wish to view the comparison using a different performance indicator, tick the drop-down box in the top left corner and select a different indicator. If you had chosen Number of lambs weaned for the same mobs as above, the display would look like this. 63

68 Calendar This is a separate program. It provides a detailed summary of important flock or mob management events with their timing, to provide year-round planning of important sheep husbandry tasks. To open the program, double click the icon on your desktop. The only data required are the mating dates for the mobs. The input screen provides for entry for up to three classes or mobs of sheep. Enter the appropriate mating date and all key events will be automatically scheduled. Tip: Mating date can be entered in a range of formats e.g. 5/4= 5 April in the current year; 5/4/07. Use the Tab key to move to the next mob column. Click on one of the icons down the left of the screen to access other features. The file with entered data can not be saved. The opening screen and mating date entry General health key dates Timing of vaccination treatments Key management events Notes Prints a one-page list of key actions and management events. The list will include one, two or three mobs depending on the mating date entry. 64 FlockMaster 2007

69 SHEEP PLANNING calendar Mob MA Ewes 2-Tooths Hoggets Ram out 01 April April April st cycle ends: 18 April April May nd cycle ends: 05 May May May st trimester ends: 13 May May May rd trimester starts: 18 July July August 2007 Scanning starts: 25 June June July 2007 ends: 05 July July July 2007 Vaccinations Toxovax before: 04 March March March 2007 CampyVax 25 February February March 2007 booster before: 01 April April April 2007 Brandenburg 12 May May May 2007 booster before: 16 June June June 2007 Clostridials (multine) 28 July August 2007 booster before: 13 August August September 2007 Fecundity immunisations Androvax sensitiser between: 21 Jan 04 Feb booster between: 18 Feb 04 Mar 18 Feb 04 Mar Ovastim sensitiser between: 28 Jan 18 Feb booster between: 04 Mar 11 Mar 04 Mar 11 Mar General Health Selenium (Se) (only if not topdressing) pre-mating: 11 March March March 2007 pre-lambing: 18 August August September 2007 Iodine flexidine before: 18 March March April 2007 Potassium iodide before: 01 April April April 2007 before: 13 August August August 2007 also if grazing a lot of brassicas: 18 June June July 2007 Ram health test Brucellosis: 31 January January February 2007 check feet: 31 January January February 2007 General lambing starts: 27 August August September 2007 mean lambing date: 08 September September September 2007 peak milk production: 29 September September October 2007 Winter shearing between: 13 June June June 2007 and: 04 July July July 2007 Pre-lambing preferential feeding Separate single, twin and triplet bearers, at latest: 28 July August August 2007 Notes Toxovax before: only need 1 dose for life Campyvax: if mating hoggets otherwise double dose 2-tooths (then booster for MA next year) booster before: usually no need to do MA ewes if done as hoggets and 2-tooths Brandenburg if mating hoggets otherwise double dose 2-tooths (then booster for MA next year) booster before: if mating hoggets otherwise double dose 2-tooths Clostridials (multine): if mating hoggets otherwise double dose 2-tooths Teaser Rams: it is recommended to use a 17 day period of teasing before breeding of ewe hoggets 65

70 Index 85 days day weaning age 59 Actual 57 Actual all graph 60 Actual performance 57, 58 Actual scan only graph 60 Actual scan + tail graph 60 Actual weaning age 59, 60 Age of sale lambs 55 Aggregate mobs 45, 55, 56 Androvax or Ovastim 51 Avg lamb lwt 53 Benchmarking 45, 63 Calendar 45, 64, 65 Contour at lambing (%) 51 Data integrity checks 55 Date mating starts 51 Dead and missing ewes 62 Display resolution 48 Error Message 51 Ewe purchases 54 Ewe sales 53 Ewe wastage 45, 62 Ewes weaning lambs 53 Exit 49 File options 49 Full scan 52 Getting started 45 Graphs 60 Graph and diagnostic information 45, 59 Help line 55 High fecundity gene 50 Naming files 49 No. mated 51 Notes 55 Number of lambs weaned 53 Open 49 Overview 45 Performance indicators 45, 58, 60, 63 Potential 57, 58 Potential & actual 45, 57 Potential graph 60 Potential performance 57 Price $/kg 53 Print 49 Ram breed = Ewe breed 50 Reports 45 Running the program 48 Save 49 Save aggregated files 56 Save as 49 Scanning 51 Scanning data 52 Screen resolution 48 Sheep planning calendar 65 Short scan 52 Tailing 53 Total $ (lamb weaned and wool) 58 Total $ of lamb weaned 58 Total kg lamb weaned 58 Total number of lambs weaned 58 Weaning 53 Wet-dries still on farm at weaning 53 Wool price $/kg 51 Wool weight kg/ewe 51 Inputs 45, 50 Installing the program 46 Java 46 Lambing 53 Lamb production 45, 50 Lamb sales 54 Lambs weaned 53 Liveweight 51 Mating 51 Mating year 50 Minimum information 50 Mob name FlockMaster 2007

71 Meat & Wool New Zealand Limited FlockMaster Workshops Prepared by AgResearch Limited and PGG Wrightson Limited under contract to Meat & Wool New Zealand Limited Disclaimer: The information in this publication has been prepared with all reasonable attention and care. Nevertheless neither, Meat & Wool New Zealand Limited, AgResearch Limited and PGG Wrightson Limited, nor presenters of the FlockMaster Workshops, accept any liability, whether direct, indirect or consequential, arising out of the use and interpretation of the information in this publication. February

72 Meat & Wool New Zealand Limited PO Box 121 Wellington 6015 New Zealand Level 13, PWC Tower The Terrace Phone