Assessment of the conservation status of the leatherback turtle in the Indian Ocean and South East Asia

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3 Indian Ocean South-East Asian Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding Assessment of the conservation status of the leatherback turtle in the Indian Ocean and South East Asia IOSEA Species Assessment: Volume I Compiled by: Mark Hamann, Colin Limpus, George Hughes, Jeanne Mortimer, and Nicolas Pilcher IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU Secretariat Bangkok, Thailand

4 Acknowledgements We would like to thank the following people for making substantial contributions to the final report. Jen Dryden conducted extensive literature searches for information on leatherback turtles in the region, prepared the maps and figures and compiled the references. Alana Grech assisted with map preparation. Members of the IOSEA Advisory Committee provided useful comments at all stages of the project. Irene Kinan from WPRFMC supplied project reports for Papua New Guinea. Jeff Miller assisted with the preparation of the reports from the Middle East Nations. Kartik Shanker supplied the cover photo of a leatherback turtle ashore for nesting in the Nicobar Islands. This assistance is gratefully acknowledged. iii

5 Contributing authors The assessments of leatherback turtles were written and prepared by the following country contributors. They have been edited and formatted for consistency with only minor changes to the writer s styles. In some cases information was added by the editors to incorporate additional information about the topic or include other references. For some countries reports were not received, and information was summarized by the editors based on extensive literature searches, and experience of in-country workers. Compilers Mark Hamann Research Fellow James Cook University TESAG, JCU, QLD 4811, Australia mark.hamann@jcu.edu.au George Hughes 4 Thorngate Road, Hayfields, Pietermaritzburg 3201, South Africa george.hughes@tiscali.co.za Colin J. Limpus Senior Principal Conservation Officer, Queensland Environmental Protection Agency P.O. Box 15155, City East (Brisbane), Qld 4002, Australia col.limpus@epa.qld.gov.au Jeanne Mortimer Consultant c/o P.O. Box 445, Victoria, Mahe, Seychelles mortimer@ufl.edu Nicolas Pilcher Executive Director, Marine Research Foundation 136 Lorong Pokok Seraya 2, Taman Khidmat, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia pilcher@tm.net.my Country contributors Bangladesh M. Zahirul Islam Wildlife Biodiversity Mgt. Specialist Coastal & Wetland Biodiversity Management Project Department of Environment Alam Mansion Baharchara, New Circuit House Road, Cox s Bazar 4700, Bangladesh marinelife_al@yahoo.com China I-Jiunn Cheng Professor, Institute of Marine Biology, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan, China B0107@ntou.edu.tw Comoros Abdallah Fatouma Director, Department of Environment BP 860, Moroni, Comores alfa@comorestelecom.km fatouma_ay@yahoo.fr Eritrea Sammy Mahmud ECMIB Project Scientific Coordinator Eritrea Coastal Marine and Island Biodiversity Project, Ministry of Fisheries, P.O. Box 58, Massawa, Eritrea Eritrea Johannes Tecklemariam Eritrea Coastal Marine and Island Biodiversity Project, Ministry of Fisheries, P.O. Box 58, Massawa, Eritrea French Territories of Indian Ocean Stephane CICCIONE Manager CEDTM (Sea turtles survey and discovery centre) BP 40, Saint Leu France stephane.ciccione@tortuemarine-reunion.org India BC Choudhury Senior Reader Endangered Species Management Dept., Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun Uttranchal , India bcc@wii.gov.in India Jack Frazier Research Associate - Smithsonian National Zoological Park Conservation & Research Center 1500 Remount Rd. Front Royal, VA 22630, USA kurma@shentel.net Indonesia Windia Adnyana Turtle Campaign Leader WWF Indonesia Jalan Tukad Saba 19 Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia wadnyana@wwf.or.id iv

6 Kenya Gladys Okemwa Research Scientist, KMFRI Chairperson, KESCOM Research Subcommittee KMFRI, P.O Box Mombasa Kenya Maldives Hussein Zahir Senior Research Officer Marine Research Centre H. Whiteaves, Moon light higun, Republic of Maldives Mozambique Cristina Maria Madureira Louro Mozambique Marine Turtle Working Group Secretariat and CTV Ecosystems and Biodiversity Assistant Grupo de Trabalho de Tartarugas Marinhas de Moçambique. Avenida Amílcar Cabral No 183 floor 1 Centro Terra Viva. Bairro da Coop. Rua D. No 27. Maputo. c_louro@ctv.org.mz Pakistan Dr. Fehmida Firdous Project Officer Sindh Wild Life Department, Maulana Din Mohammad Wafai Road Karachi fehmidafirdous01@yahoo.com sindhwildlife.com.pk Philippines Renato Cruz Pawikan Conservation Project Ninoy Aquino Parks and Wildlife Nature Center, Quezon Avenue, QUEZON CITY 1100 renatodalmaciocruz@yahoo.com.ph Seychelles Randolph. C. Bijoux Marine Ranger Conservation Section, Nature Conservation Division Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Botanical Gardens Mont Fleuri, Mahe, Seychelles r.bijoux@env.gov.sc Singapore Dr C H Diong Assoc Professor Division of Natural Sciences & Science Education NIE, Nanyang Technological University 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore chdiong@nie.edu.sg Somalia Rudy v.d Elst ORI Scientist P O Box 10712, Marine Parade, 4056 KwaZulu-Natal, South African South Africa Dr Ronel Nel Zoology Department Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University P.O. Box 77000, Port Elizabeth South Africa, 6031 Ronel.Nel@nmmu.ac.za Sri Lanka Thushan Kapurusinghe Project Leader Turtle Conservation Project (TCP) Sri Lanka 72/4, Galle Road, Walana, Panadura, Sri Lanka turtle@sltnet.lk Tanzania Catharine Muir Coordinator, Seasense P O Box , Dar Es Salaam seasense@cats-net.com Thailand Maitree Duangsawasdi Director general Department of Marine and Coastal Resources 92 Phahonyothin Rd.7, Phrayathai, Bangkok maitree@dmcr.go.th Viet Nam Mr. Phan Hong Dung Senior Marine Researcher Department of Marine Conservation Research Sciences Research Institute For Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries of Viet Nam 170 Le Lai St, HaiPhong City, Viet Nam phdung@rimf.org.vn Yemen Mohammed Saad Marine Sciences & Resources Research Station, Khore Maksar, P.O.B Tawahi Aden, Republic of Yemen v

7 Preface The IOSEA Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding ( puts in place a framework through which States of the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia region, as well as other concerned States, can work together to conserve and replenish depleted marine turtle populations for which they share responsibility. A seven-member Advisory Committee has been appointed by the Signatory States to provide advice in relation to the implementation of the IOSEA MoU s associated Conservation and Management Plan. During the Third Meeting of the Signatory States in March 2005, concern was raised about the impacts of the December 2004 tsunami on turtle populations and habitats, including leatherback turtles in the Indian Ocean. This species attracted particular attention in light of its restricted numbers and nesting areas, which are present in two of the most affected countries: India (Andaman and Nicobar Islands) and Sri Lanka. Accordingly, the Meeting requested that the Advisory Committee provide an assessment of the conservation status of leatherback turtles within the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia region. To undertake the assessment, marine turtle experts in each of the countries in the Indian Ocean and South-East Asia region (including non-signatory States to the MoU) were contacted and asked to complete a short survey regarding leatherback turtles in their country. The survey covered legislative aspects, nesting populations and foraging populations. Completed surveys were then edited for content by the compilers, and in some cases additional information was added. The final edited surveys on leatherback turtles are presented in this report. vi

8 Table of Contents Acknowledgements...iii Contributing authors...iv Preface...vi Table of Contents...vii Leatherback turtle synthesis... Leatherback turtle recommendations... Introduction... Status of leatherback turtles in Australia... Status of leatherback turtles in Bahrain...22 Status of leatherback turtles in Bangladesh...24 Status of leatherback turtles in Brunei Darussalam...30 Status of leatherback turtles in Cambodia...31 Status of leatherback turtles in China...32 Status of leatherback turtles in Comoros...37 Status of leatherback turtles in Djibouti...38 Status of leatherback turtles in Eritrea...40 Status of leatherback turtles in the French Territories of West Indian Ocean: Reunion Island, Mayotte and Iles Eparses...43 Status of leatherback turtles in India...45 Status of leatherback turtles in Indonesia...51 Status of leatherback turtles in Islamic Republic of Iran...64 Status of leatherback turtles in Iraq...66 Status of leatherback turtles in Japan...67 Status of leatherback turtles in Jordan...69 Status of leatherback turtles in Kenya...71 Status of leatherback turtles in Korea (Republic of)...74 Status of leatherback turtles in Kuwait...75 Status of leatherback turtles in Madagascar...77 Status of leatherback turtles in Malaysia...78 Status of leatherback turtles in Maldives...83 Status of leatherback turtles in Mauritius...86 Status of leatherback turtles in Mozambique...87 Status of leatherback turtles in Myanmar...94 Status of leatherback turtles in Oman...95 Status of leatherback turtles in Pakistan...98 Status of the leatherback turtle in Papua New Guinea Status of the leatherback turtle in the Philippines Status of leatherback turtles in Qatar Status of leatherback turtles in Saudi Arabia Status of leatherback turtles in Seychelles Status of the leatherback turtle in Singapore Status of leatherback turtles in Somalia Status of leatherback turtles in South Africa Status of leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka Status of leatherback turtles in Sudan Status of leatherback turtles in Thailand Status of leatherback turtles in Timor Leste Status of leatherback turtles in Tanzania (United Republic of) Status of leatherback turtles in United Arab Emirates Status of leatherback turtles in United Kingdom - British Indian Ocean Territory (B.I.O.T.) Status of leatherback turtles in Viet Nam Status of leatherback turtles in Yemen vii

9 Leatherback turtle synthesis Nesting areas This study has confirmed that there are four main areas of leatherback turtle nesting in the Indian Ocean and South East Asian region. These probably represent separate large-scale management units. 1. Southwest Indian Ocean - South Africa and Mozambique The population nesting in South Africa has rarely averaged more than 100 females nesting annually within the index beach (56km of the 200km beach). Data from the index beach shows a rise from 10 to 20 nesting females per year in the 1960s, and up to approximately 100 nesting females per year in the 1990s, but in the last four years it has declined to approximately 20 to 40 nesting females per year visiting the index beach per year. The study in South Africa is one of the longest, continuous studies of leatherback turtle nesting in the world. The numbers nesting in Mozambique are not well documented, but based on data presented in this report from 1994 to 2004 it is likely that approximately 10 females nest per year in southern Mozambique (see Mozambique and South Africa sections). In addition, there does not appear to be an increase in the number of leatherback turtles nesting per year in southern Mozambique to offset the decline in South Africa. 2. Bay of Bengal and north-eastern Indian Ocean - Sri Lanka, Andaman & Nicobar Islands (India), Thailand and Sumatra Jave and other islands of southern Indonesia and Arnhem Land (Australia) There are few continuous long term data sets at any of these locations. Data from recent years, presented in this report, indicate that the nesting population in Sri Lanka might be in the order of 100 to 200 females per year (based on one year of data), for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands it is approximately 400 to 600 females per year and in Thailand fewer than 10 nests (that is probably not more than 3 or 4 females) are laid per year. An interesting pattern is emerging from two geographically close rookeries in Java. At Meru Betiri the number of leatherback turtles nesting each year has declined from approximately 20 females per year in the early 1980s down to less than five females per year in the early 2000s. In contrast, at a neighbouring beach, Alas Perwo, the very small nesting population may have doubled over the same time period (from approximately 500 eggs laid per year (1 or 2 females) up to 1000 eggs laid per year). Sightings of nesting in Arnhem Land (northern Australia) are irregular but the area has been incompletely surveyed. 3. Southwestern South China Sea Malaysia, Viet Nam and other minor nesting out to Japan The Malaysian rookeries have undergone a well-documented decline from approximately 5000 nests per year in the 1960s down to less than 10 nests per year in the 2000s. This is one of the beststudied, most dramatic examples of decline in a nesting population of marine turtles. While there are no detailed data from Viet Nam, community surveys reveal that the population has declined from an estimated 500 females per year (equivalent to thousands of nests per year) prior to the 1960s down to less than 10 nests per year in recent years. 4. Western Pacific Indonesia (northwest Papua), Papua New Guinea, eastern Australia The leatherback turtles nesting along the north coast of New Guinea (Indonesia and Papua New Guinea) are from the same genetic population as females nesting in the Solomon Islands. There are few long term data for either location (see Indonesian and Papua New Guinea sections). Data from recent surveys at both locations indicates that the total nesting population is approximately 1000 females per year. Surveys along the Papua coast are incomplete. The small eastern Australian population identified in the 1970s is approaching extinction, no nests have been recorded in eastern Australia since 1996, and track sightings in northern Australia are irregular. Foraging grounds and migratory corridors (non breeding areas) This study has confirmed that there are few data on the foraging grounds and migratory corridors of leatherback turtles in the IOSEA region. The data presented in this report indicates that leatherback turtles have been reported from the waters of 32 of the 44 nations in the Indian Ocean and South East Asian region. However, in most of the countries that have no records of leatherback turtles, the main fisheries are shallow water artisanal fisheries, and in most cases there have been few efforts made to collect fisheries based bycatch information. 1

10 The use of satellite telemetry to track post-nesting leatherback turtles has revealed that turtles from nesting beaches within the IOSEA region use the southern Atlantic, Southern and Pacific Oceans (northern and southern). In particular, migration data from post nesting females in South Africa show that the leatherback turtles migrated south into the southern ocean, and in several cases over into the southern Atlantic Ocean. In addition, post nesting leatherback turtles tracked with satellite telemetry from West Papua swam northwards into the northern Pacific Ocean whereas those tracked from Papua New Guinea migrated into the southern Pacific Ocean. Aside from these data, and those collected from tag recoveries from peninisla Malaysia there is little known about the at sea components of leatherback turtle life history in the IOSEA region. Gaps in the basic biological information Population genetics (Assessments of marine turtle population genetics are used to determine distinct breeding populations). There are wide gaps in our understanding of leatherback turtle population genetic profiling within the IOSEA region. To address this gap, and determine the genetic structure of leatherback turtle populations the following rookeries need to be sampled and compared to each other, as well as to published genotypes from Malaysia, Indonesian West Papua and South Africa: o o o o o o o o Australia (northern and eastern) Andaman and Nicobar Islands Mozambique Sri Lanka Sumatra Java Thailand Viet Nam Knowledge of these genotypes will facilitate identification of the origin (by breeding area) of leatherback turtles being captured throughout their dispersed foraging and migratory distribution of the IOSEA region. Life history attributes A. Nesting populations There are substantial gaps in our knowledge of life history attributes for several of the leatherback turtle nesting sites in the IOSEA region. The specific gaps vary between locations, and details can be found by referring to sections on India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Thailand and Viet Nam. Data on life history attributes are necessary for the development of accurate population models. It is preferential that life history parameters be collected from at least one rookery per management unit. The gaps in life history attributes include: o o o o o The number of clutches per female per year/nesting season The number of years between breeding seasons The rate of recruitment into the breeding population Nest success and hatchling recruitment Internesting areas Of the 10 nations with current leatherback turtle nesting five have included some of the leatherback turtle rookeries within protected areas. B. Non-nesting beach aspects Within the IOSEA region there are substantial gaps in our knowledge of leatherback turtle foraging areas, habitat use (oceanic and coastal), internesting area habitats, diet, growth, age and survivorship. While there have been substantial tracking and foraging area studies in eastern Pacific and western Atlantic leatherback turtle populations, few data exist for the Indian Ocean region, with the exception of the South Africa and the Papua region. 2

11 Gaps in management Bycatch and fisheries mortality Leatherback turtle fisheries bycatch was reported to occur at varying levels of intensity in 25 of the 44 nations in the IOSEA region, not recorded in 13 nations and undetermined in 6. This bycatch has not been quantified in most countries, and fewer bycatch data exist for the high seas fisheries. There are also gaps in the ecological, social and economical aspects of marine turtle bycatch. Bycatch and fisheries based mortality needs to be addressed by Fisheries and/or Government organizations. This will take a coordinated international effort similar to those undertaken in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean fisheries. Egg take The direct take of leatherback turtle eggs occurs in each of the leatherback turtle breeding areas to varying degrees (encompasses both legal and illegal take). However in most cases the level of exploitation in relation to the size of the population and the socio-economic and cultural factors related to the use of eggs are unknown. Improved knowledge of these factors will enable the level of exploitation to be assessed for sustainability and managed accordingly. Every effort must be made not to repeat what has happened at Rantau Abang. Hatchling production Aside from data collected from the hatchery programme in Malaysia and South Africa, there have been no detailed assessments of the hatchling production at any of the rookeries in the IOSEA region. Without these data it is impossible to conduct meaningful population assessments and design management strategies. While natural (in situ) incubation is the preferred management option for egg incubation, hatcheries are used as a management tool in one nation (plus some of the commercial hatcheries in Sri Lanka occasionally incubate leatherback turtle eggs). Rising beach temperatures associated with climate change can be expected to negatively impact on population sex ratio and incubation success of leatherback turtle eggs. No adequate monitoring appears to be in place in any of the IOSEA countries to guide rookery management in response to climate change. Standard monitoring Monitoring of several of the rookeries in the IOSEA region has been initiated relatively recently. There is a need for managers in each location to develop standard monitoring protocols that remain consistent year to year, and complements existing projects. Mostly importantly, if whole season monitoring is not possible at all rookeries, index beaches and standard monitoring periods need to be determined and used annually. It is also preferable that tagging projects double tag turtles (PIT and flipper) to minimize problems of tag loss. The introduction of standard practices will substantially improve the ability to use the data effectively in the future. Additional issues for leatherback turtles in the IOSEA region Direct harvest of turtles A traditional harvest of leatherback turtles occurs in the Kei Islands of Indonesia. While research addressing social, economical and cultural aspects of this harvest are underway (see Indonesian section), gaps exist with regard to understanding biological aspects of the harvest (size, age class, sex and maturity). The combination of biological, social, economic and cultural data can be assessed to determine ecological sustainability and help to manage any trade-offs (social, economical, cultural or ecological) that may occur as a result of management. Predation of eggs Depredation of eggs by pigs and dogs presents a problem in at least several locations (Andman and Nicobar Islands Papua New Guinea and Indonesian West Papua). Turtle conservation groups in these regions would benefit from assistance in management of the problem e.g. by predator removal or nest protection programs. Leatherback turtles nesting in South Africa The leatherback turtle nesting population in South Africa and Mozambique was rising and has recently undergone a marked decline in annual nesting numbers (based on data from the South African index beach). In addition, an increase in the proportion of recruits (identified as first time nesting turtles) to 3

12 the nesting population has occured. Therefore, close attention should be paid to the assessment of current and future nesting leatherback turtle data so that management and remedial actions can be quickly taken if needed. Incomplete nesting distribution data There are gaps in our knowledge of the distribution and size of current and/or historical leatherback turtle rookeries along the Indian Ocean southern margin of Indonesian (Sumatra, Java and out to the east) and the islands on northern Indonesian Papua and southeastern Philippines. These data could be collected from a combination of ground based and aerial surveys in each of the respective areas. 4

13 Recommendations for leatherback turtle conservation These three tables of recommendations were developed through plenary and working group discussions held at the IOSEA Memorandum of Understanding s Fourth Meeting of the Signatory States (Muscat, Oman, March 2006). Gap Nations/agencies Project context/aim Expected outcomes Regional and national fisheries based projects High seas and within EEZ bycatch (pelagic fisheries) Nations of the IOSEA region and Nations (outside IOSEA) deploying foreign fishing fleets into the region. International fisheries management agencies Work within national and regional fisheries bodies to develop programs and activities such as onboard observer programs, and bycatch assessment/quantification and mitigation projects (including gear modification and improved fishing practices to reduce bycatch). Advocate for regional and national fisheries bodies policies to incorporate turtle bycatch assessment and mitigation strategies Investigate/ advocate for investigation of seasonal and spatial closures as a management tool for reducing bycatch. National bycatch observer, assessment and quantification programs established. National and/or regional bycatch mitigation projects established Coordinated regional approaches to bycatch management and illegal fishing established Reduced mortality of marine turtles Within territorial waters bycatch (coastal fisheries) States of the IOSEA region Determine the spatial and temporal variation in distribution and impact of fishing effort. There is a particular need for the development of gear modification and/or use to achieve reduction in turtle mortality in gill nets [c.f. achievements such as TEDs and work in progress with long line fisheries]. Assess the impact of fisheries to inter-nesting, migrating & foraging turtles Assess the impacts of ghost nets and plastics pollution Improved understanding of bycatch hotspots which will aid in fisheries bycatch management. National and/or regional bycatch mitigation projects established Improved understanding of the impacts that bycatch may have on turtle at particular life history stages Reduced mortality of leatherback turtles MPAs States of the IOSEA region Protection and adequate management of already identified critical habitats (nesting, internesting, feeding and migratory) Identification of further critical habitats especially inter-nesting, feeding and migratory) MPA networks (communitybased and/or formally gazetted) that provide adequate protection and management across critical leatherback habitats 5

14 Gap Relevant nations Project aim Expected outcomes Regional and national genetic based projects Population genetics - Leatherback turtle nesting down through the Andaman Sea, southern Indonesia to northern Australia and in Sri Lanka have not been genetically identified. Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia, Thailand, South Africa, Papua New Guinea, Australia and Mozambique Determine the genotype of leatherback turtles nesting in Sri Lanka, India Thailand and Indonesia [Sumatra] and compare these with published haplotypes Understanding of the genetic structure of leatherback turtles to be used as a base for monitoring and management Genetics of bycatch/strandings/direct take [development of an organized collection program] Countries with leatherback turtle bycatch programs and/or direct take [Australia, Eritrea, Sri Lanka, South Africa (shark nets) & Indonesia (Kei Is.)] Using genetic markers identified for nesting populations, determine population structure of marine turtle bycatch or stranded turtles Stock based threat analysis to be used as a base for monitoring and management Biological data Quantify key demographic parameters [reproductive output, clutches per season, remigration interval and annual survivorship] Each nation with nesting leatherback turtles Conduct annual saturation tagging census at an index rookery within each genetic management unit for a minimum of six consecutive breeding seasons Improved understanding of the biological structure of leatherback turtle populations to be used as a base for monitoring and management Incomplete mapping of the breeding distribution and census The priority areas are Sri Lanka, southern Indonesia to north western Australia and Philippines. Complete the mapping and develop a six year census project at index beaches. 6 year (& then ongoing) determination of size of nesting population Limited understanding of post nesting distribution of female leatherback turtles Sri Lanka, India, Indonesia (predominately southern) Satellite telemetry study to define geographical scale of migration pathways Improved understanding of the structure of leatherback turtle populations to be used as a base for monitoring and management Limited data on hatchling production including sex ratios and health and survivorship of hatchlings South Africa, Mozambique, India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea and Thailand Determine; (1) survivorship of eggs and hatchlings (inc. natural egg loss, predation and human use), (2) clutch size, (3) beach temperatures, (4) temporal and spatial patterns of nest distribution and survivorship (5) socioeconomic drivers that underlie egg take and (6) Implementing management options to maximize hatchling production Improved understanding of the biological structure of leatherback turtle populations, in particular aspects related to egg and hatchling mortality to be used as a base for monitoring and management 6

15 Issue Relevant nations Project aim Expected outcomes Pervasive egg depredation over multiple rookeries. India, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea Develop a cost effective method of managing predators to produce enough hatchlings to sustain a population such as threat removal, deterrents or barriers. Reduced mortality of leatherback turtle clutches from predation. The data can be used as a base for monitoring and management Egg take a) illegal take of eggs b) excessive legal take of eggs in some rookeries c) In most cases these egg takes have not been assessed for sustainability d) In most cases a lack of community based awareness or action exist to ensure adequate hatchling production Take of turtles Lack of real incentives (such as creation of alternative livelihoods) to encourage community support for conservation to ensure adequate hatchling production. A defined need for collaborative, community based projects to maintain adequate hatchling production and reduce or eliminate the direct take of turtles. Inadequate enforcement of existing legislation/ policy Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea Determine the enforcement, regulatory and socio/economic drivers that underlie legal or illegal egg or turtle take Design a targeted education approach (by Govt and/or NGO) to raise awareness about the level of hatchling production that is needed to ensure sustainable populations. Where necessary, strengthen policy, legislation and enforcement of egg and turtle protection measures Create and implement incentives (such as creation of alternative livelihoods) to encourage community support for conservation to ensure adequate hatchling production. Develop collaborative, community based projects to maintain adequate hatchling production and reduce or eliminate the direct take of turtles. Improved understanding of the social, economical and ecological aspects related to the management of leatherback turtle populations Decreased mortality of leatherback turtle eggs, or turtles. Improved social and cultural awareness about leatherback turtle conservation and management Improved socio-economic conditions of coastal communities that participate adjacent to rookeries Decreased mortality of leatherback turtle eggs, and improved hatchling production Hatcheries that are functioning with reduced hatch success and producing incorrectly imprinted & physically compromised hatchlings and manipulated sex ratios. Sri Lanka and southern Indonesia For Governments, regulatory agencies and NGO groups to develop a coordinated education and enforcement approach to change hatchery practice that results in high rates of hatching success of healthy and correctly imprinted hatchlings that are released on the night of emergence Decreased mortality of leatherback turtle eggs, and improved production of high quality hatchlings 7

16 Introduction The leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, is the only surviving species of the Family Dermochelyidae. This ancient turtle family probably had it origins more than 60 millions years ago in the early Cretaceous (Gaffney 1991). This is the largest living turtle (up to 916kg. Morgan 1989) and it has the greatest geographical distribution for any reptile. Its habitat range extends from tropical nesting beaches to marine foraging areas spread from the tropics to cool temperate waters, with some individuals even foraging in sub-polar waters (Goff and Lien 1988). It is the deepest diving turtle, having been record down to depths of 315m (possibly to depths exceeding 1000m) during dives up to 37minutes in duration (Eckert et al. 1989). While leatherback turtles share many features of their biology with the hard-shelled turtles, Family Cheloniidae, leatherback turtles also are characterised by a number of unique features. The leatherback turtle can be regarded as a warm-blooded reptile. They can maintain a core body temperature well above that of the surrounding waters (Frair et al. 1972, Standora et al. 1984). To maintain these elevated temperatures they must be able to generate endogenous heat via utilisation of thermogenic brown fat tissue (Eckert 1992). Additional heat would be derived from normal metabolism during muscular activity. Reduction in heat loss is facilitated by this turtle s thick insulating sub-epithelial fat deposits (blubber), its large body size and hence its low surface area to volume ratio and the counter-current heat exchange system utilising a bundle of veins and arteries at the base of each flipper to reduce heat loss via blood flow to the flippers (Greer et al. 1973). With these adaptations, the leatherback turtle is able to remain functional in the very cold waters that it encounters during deep dives and during migrations to high latitudes. This species also has a number of skeletal features within its limb bones that are unique among living reptiles but which it shares with other marine diving animals including cetaceans and sirenians and the extinct ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs (Rhodin et al. 1981, 1996). The diet of leatherback turtles consists primarily of large planktonic invertebrates such as jellyfish and tunicates. The Indian Ocean South-east Asian region can be regarded in many ways as a birth place for modern turtle biology and conservation management, particularly for the leatherback turtle. In the northern Indian Ocean during the early 1900s, Sri Lanka, then a British Colony known as Ceylon, was recognised as a significant area for leatherback turtles (Smith 1931). It was from Ceylon that Deraniyagala published numerous scientific papers commencing with his description of the nesting biology of leatherback turtles and his first paper on leatherback turtle embryology (Deraniyagala 1930, 1932). His detailed descriptions of marine turtle taxonomy, behaviour, embryology and morphology (Deraniyagala 1939) remain essential reading for any serious student of leatherback turtle biology. In his later career, Deraniyagala (1953) enhanced these studies with publication of his well illustrated Atlas of the reptiles of Ceylon. Although Smith (1931) reported declining occurrences for these turtles, no significant conservation actions for the Sri Lankan leatherback turtles appear to have been initiated as a consequence of the scientific studies of the 1930s. While various proposals have been made for improving leatherback turtle conservation in Sri Lanka (de Silva 1996), it was not until the late 1990s that concerted efforts to improve the conservation outlook for leatherback turtles under threat from egg harvest and coastal development in southern Sri Lanka were revitalised by the proactive involvement of community groups (Kapurusinghe 2000). Concerns regarding the long term survival of marine turtle populations subject to intense egg harvest in Sarawak (Harrison 1947) led to the invention of the stainless steel (monel metal) flipper tag (Harrison 1956a,b, 1958). This tag facilitated detailed studies of marine turtle reproductive biology and the formulation of hatchery -based management projects in Sarawak, now a State within Malaysia, for the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) (Harrison 1951, 1952, 1954, 1955, 1956a,b,c, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1962a,b; Hendrickson 1958). The discovery by the scientific community of the leatherback turtle nesting population at Terengganu in Peninsula Malaysia in the 1950s (Tweedie 1953), was closely followed by scientific investigations that parallelled those under way in Sarawak. These studies raised concerns for the sustainability of the existing intense egg harvest from this leatherback turtle population (Hendrickson and Albert 1957, 1961; Hendrickson 1961). A hatchery based conservation project was initiated (Wyatt-Smith 1960, Hendrickson 1962, Anon 1963, Balasingam 1965, 1969, Wycherley 1969, Tho 1974, Kiew 1975, Siow 1978, Leong and Siow 1980a,b, Siow and Moll 1982, Siow 1987) and investigation of leatherback 8

17 reproductive biology and ecology commenced (Hendrickson and Winterflood 1961, Hendrickson and Balasingham 1966, Balasingam 1967). Subsequent tagging studies provided the first detailed descriptions of the reproductive biology and breeding migrations for this species (Balasingam and Tho 1972, Chua 1988, Chua and Furtado 1988). The egg harvest was progressively reduced and an increasing proportion of eggs retained for hatchery incubation as the nesting population continued to decline during the 1980s and 1990s (Chan 1986a, Salleh et al. 1987, Chan 1988a, Aikanathan 1989, Chan and Liew 1989a, Aikanathan and Mortimer 1990, Limpus 1993). In response to the declining nesting population and corresponding decreasing incubation success of the eggs in the hatcheries, additional research addressing embryology, incubation success and hatchling biology was initiated (Chan 1985, 1986b, Chan et al Chan 1988b, 1989, Chan and Solomon 1989, Chan 1993). At the same time, increased emphasis was given to understanding leatherback turtle internesting biology (Eckert et al. 1991, Chan et al. 1988, Chan et al. 1991, Chan and Liew 1995) and to introducing conservation measures within the interesting habitat (Chan and Liew 1989b, 1995). Although Loveridge and Williams (1957), in their taxonomic review of African turtles, record leatherback turtles from Cape Province of South Africa, they make no reference to the Natal Mozambique breeding population. In response to local concerns for the depleted leatherback and loggerhead turtle nesting populations of north-eastern Natal, the Natal Parks Board commenced long term research and monitoring of these nesting populations in the early 1960s (Bass and McAllister 1964). The ongoing studies of this leatherback breeding population (Hughes et al. 1967, Hughes and Mentis 1967, Hughes 1969, 1971a,b, Hughes and Brent 1972, Hughes 1974a,b, 1989, Hughes and Bartholomew 1998) have provided leadership in increasing our understanding of leatherback turtle biology and conservation. In Indonesia, leatherback turtle distribution had been poorly documented (de Rooij 1915) but by the 1970s marine turtle specialists were aware of leatherback turtle nesting along the northern New Guinea coast (Pritchard 1979). As the conservation movement in Indonesia became more informed regarding marine turtles within their country, it became apparent that a very large leatherback turtle population was nesting in north-eastern New Guinea (Anon 1981). In addition, a nation wide survey by IUCN-WWF staff identified that leatherback turtle nesting was wide spread throughout Indonesia (Salm 1984): southern Sumatra, southern Java, many of the other islands bordering the Indian Ocean as well as the Vogelkop area of north-western Irian Jaya (now known as Papua). WWF Indonesia has had two decades of participation in developing and implementing conservation actions in the Vogelkop area, beginning with Bhaskar s intensive population surveys in This work has been complemented by additional studies by other Indonesian teams (Yamasaki 1991, Nababan and Jacob 1996) and visiting international teams (Starbird and Suarez 1994). Loss of eggs through pig predation, erosion and egg harvest were identified as significant issues for this population and conservation efforts have focused on nesting census and increasing hatchling production. Few additional studies (Maturbongs et al. 1993, Maturbongs 1995, 1996) of leatherback turtles within its more broadly dispersed nesting range within Indonesia have occurred since the country-wide survey in the early 1980s (Salm 1984). The localized traditional leatherback turtle harvest in the Kei Islands of eastern Indonesia has been highlighted (Starbird and Suarez 1994, Suarez and Starbird 1996, Suarez 2000) and offers some insights into the poorly understood oceanic life of the species. The significant leatherback nesting population of the Andaman Sea and eastern Bay of Bengal started to gain recognition during the latter part of the 1900s (Polunin 1975, Phasuk 1983). However, it was not until the surveys commenced by Baskar in the early 1990s that the significance of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands leatherback nesting population was appreciated (Bhaskar 1993, Tiwari 1994, Andrews 2000). This leatherback population is now identified as under threat (Andrews 2000) and plans were developed to address some of the conservation problems for the area (Choudhury et al. 2000). The 1990s also saw a breakdown of language barriers in the region. Actions by Thailand, Myanmar and Bangladesh agencies and NGO groups in conservation of the depleted and small nesting population along the Andaman coast of mainland Asia are now recognised (Chantraspornsyl 1996, 2000, Islam 2000). Egg harvest and egg depredation has been a significant threat to leatherback turtles along this coastal region. Except for localised egg harvests, the leatherback turtle has not had any prominent role in trade in marine turtle (Mack et al. 1979). In response to the recognised threat to the populations arising from 9

18 the over harvest of eggs for local consumption, South Africa and Malaysia developed two independent management regimes for leatherback turtles commencing in the 1960s: Natal, South Africa: The management responses included a long term moratorium on harvest of eggs by the indigenous community, protection of over 200km of nesting habitat as National Park and habitat protection in the immediately adjacent waters, maintenance of a darkness zone along these hundreds of kilometres of coast, and control of public access to the nesting habitat by night. Terengganu, Malaysia: The management response in the initial phases included the protection of a few percent of eggs in hatcheries while maintaining the traditional harvest of the majority of the eggs. No management was put in place to protect the nesting habitat from the encroachment of coastal development and associated change of light horizons. In the late 1970s, the majority of the Rantau Abang nesting beach was declared a turtle sanctuary but its role was primarily to minimise public disturbance of the turtles nesting in the area designated for egg harvest. Through the 1980s and into early 1990s, the percentage of eggs laid taken into protected incubation in hatcheries was progressively increased to 100% of leatherback turtle eggs laid throughout the State. Both these models were initially designed at a time when the global understanding of marine turtle biology and population dynamics was limited and both were designed on the basis of what was at the time to be considered good turtle conservation management practice. The results of these two long term management experiments are summarised in the population census graphs within the respective national reports (see Malaysia and South African sections of this report). The South African model with regional protection of the turtles, their eggs and breeding habitat over decades has worked. It halted the decline of the species in Natal, increased the size of the nesting population and ensured a controlled but financially viable tourist industry around these turtles. The Malaysian model with its initial emphasis on maintaining a large egg harvest has clearly failed in maintaining a viable leatherback turtle population as well as having failed to ensure a long term sustainable egg harvest. At the same time, the leatherback turtle tourist industry which had been a significant international dollar earner for the State also collapsed. As the 20 th Century drew to a close, the new genetic research tools were applied to the region s leatherback turtle breeding populations. The region was found to support several discrete breeding populations or stocks. The leatherbacks that breed in South Africa, peninsula Malaysia and northern New Guinea are genetically different to each other and to the leatherback turtle nesting populations from other ocean basins (Figure 1) (Dutton et al. 1999). Unfortunately, samples from the leatherbacks that breed in Sri Lanka, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and from the widely dispersed low density nesting that occurs along southern Indonesia (Sumatra, Java, Bali) and across to northern Australia were not available for inclusion in these genetic analyses. Figure 1. Nesting distribution of leatherback turtles in the Indian Ocean Australasian region showing identified independent genetic stocks for the species (After Dutton et al. 1999).? denotes that the nesting population has not been genetically identified. 10

19 As the scientific community was coming to the understanding that widely separated breeding assemblages of leatherback turtles around the world were independent stocks/management units, other studies were aggregating the long term census data from many of these stocks and identifying that leatherback turtles were under threat (Spotila et al. 1996). Pritchard (1996) advised some caution in too broad a generalization of the global conservation problem, particularly within the Indian Ocean. However, Pritchard (1996) clearly recognized the major population decline of the Malaysian leatherback turtle population and stressed that excessive egg harvest would be a significant threat for any population. These two studies collectively highlight the general paucity of data on the biology of leatherback turtles with respect to a number do key issues that are critical to developing sound conservation management for the species particularly in the IOSEA Turtle MoU region: Imprecise understanding of key population dynamics parameters including population age structure, age at first breeding, breeding life expectancy, annual survivorship values for any at-sea age class. Incomplete mapping of the nesting distribution throughout the Andaman Sea and across southern Indonesia, Timor Leste to northern Australia; across northern New Guinea and Southern Philippines and in Mozambique. Paucity of precise census data by which the population trends within the respective stocks can be assessed. Paucity of precise mortality data especially from the fisheries that catch leatherback turtles, especially the wide spread long-line, trawl and inshore gill-net fisheries. It is against this background that we have moved into the 21 st century and the IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU ( Signatory States take up the challenge to care for leatherback turtles for future generations within the region. This report aims to provide a current assessment of the distribution, abundance and threats to leatherback turtles in the IOSEA region; while a separate, related document reports on the impacts that the December 2004 tsunami had on regional marine turtles, their habitats, and conservation programs. To undertake the assessment, marine turtle experts in each of the countries in the IOSEA region (including non-signatory States) were contacted and asked to complete a short survey regarding leatherback turtles in their country. The survey covered legislative aspects, nesting populations, foraging populations and the tsunami impacts. Completed surveys were then edited for content, by the compilers, and in some cases additional information was added. The final edited surveys on leatherback turtles are presented in the document as country reports, and the tsunami results are presented in a companion document. References Aikanathan S (1989) 'Rantau Abang model Turtle Sanctuary: A management case-study of a leatherback rookery.' WWF Malaysia Unpublished Report. Aikanathan S, Mortimer JA (1990) 'Recommendations for the establishment and management of turtle sanctuaries and hatcheries in the state of Terengganu.' WWF Malaysia Unpublished Report. Andrews HV (2000) Current marine turtle situation in the Andaman and Nicobar islands - An urgent need for conservation action. Kachhapa 3, Anon (1963) Conservations programme of the giant leathery turtles. Malayan Nature Journal 18, 64. Anon (1981) Trengganu meets competition: does Irian Jaya harbour southeast Asia's densest leatherback nesting beaches. Conservation Indonesia 5, Balasingam E (1965) The giant leathery turtle conservation program Malayan Nature Journal 19, Balasingam E (1967) The ecology and conservation of the leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Linn.) in Malaya. Micronesica 3, Balasingam E (1969) 'Marine turtles in West Malaysia.' IUCN Publication New Series Supplementary Series 20. Balasingam E, Pong TY (1972) Preliminary observation on nesting returns of the leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea Linn.) in central Trengganu, Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal 25, 6-9. Bass AJ, McAllister HJ (1964) Turtle breeding on the Natal Coast. South African Journal of Science 60, Bhaskar S (1993) 'The status and ecology of sea turtles in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. ST 1/93.' Centre for herpetology, MCBT. India. Chan EH (1985) Twin embryos in an unhatched egg of Dermochelys coriacea. Marine Turtle Newsletter 32, 2-3. Chan EH (1986a) The giant leatherback turtles of Rantau Abang, Terengganu. Pelita 1, Chan EH (1986b) Development of the white spot on leatherback eggs. Marine Turtle Newsletter 39. Chan EH (1987) 'Status of the leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea.' Report of Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Management in Malaysia Tanjong Jara, Terengganu, December Chan EH (1988a) An update on the leatherback turtles of Rantau Abang, Terengganu, Malaysia. Marine Turtle Newsletter

20 Chan EH (1988b) A note on the feeding of leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) hatchlings. Pertanika 11, Chan EH (1989) White spot development, incubation and hatchling success of leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) eggs from Rantau Abang, Malaysia. Copeia 1989, Chan EH, Eckert S, Liew HC, Eckert K (1991) Locating the internesting habitats of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in Malaysian waters using radio telemetry. In 'Biotelemetry XI: Proceedings of the eleventh international symposium on biotelemetry'. Yokohama, Japan. (Eds A Uchiyama and C Amlaner) Chan EH, Liew HC (1989) 'The leatherback Turtle: a Malaysian Heritage. Malaysia.' (Tropical Press). Chan EH, Liew HC (1989) The offshore protection of Malaysian leatherback turtles. In 'Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Seminar of the Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences' pp Chan EH, Liew HC (1995) An offshore sanctuary for the leatherback turtles of Rantau Abang, Malaysia. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum National Marine Fisheries Service South East Fisheries Service Center. 361, Chan EH, Liew HC, Mazlan AG (1988) The incidental capture of sea turtles in fishing gear in Terengganu, Malaysia. Biological Conservation 43, 1-7. Chan, E. H., Salleh, H. U. & Liew, H. C Effects of handling on hatchability of eggs of the leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea (L.). Pertanika 8: Chan EH, Solomon S (1989) The structure and function of the eggshell of the leatherback turtle, (Dermochelys coriacea) from Malaysia, with notes on infective fungal forms. Animal Technology 40, Chantrapornsyl S (1996) The Status of Marine Turtles in Thailand. In 'SEAFDEC (1) Workshop on Marine Turtle Research and Conservation, January 15-18'. Malaysia pp. pp Chantrapornsyl S (2000) Status and conservation of sea turtles in Thailand. 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Ceylon.' (Ceylon Government Press.) de Rooij N (1915) 'The Reptiles of the Indo-Australian Archipelago.' (Brill, E. J. Ltd: Leiden.) de silva A (1996) 'Proposed Action Plan: Restoration and Management of the Testudines and their Habitats in Sri Lanka.' (University of Peradeniya: Sri Lanka) Dutton PH, Bowen BW, Owens DW, Barragan A, Davis S (1999) Global phylogeography of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Journal of Zoology 248, Eckert S (1992) Bound for deep water. Natural History. Natural History 3, Eckert SA, Eckert KL, Ponganis P, Kooyman GL (1989) Diving and foraging behavior of leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea). Canadian Journal Zoology 67. Eckert SA, Liew HC, Eckert KL, Chan EH (1991) Shallow water diving by gravid leatherbacks in the South China Sea. In 'Proceedings 10th Annual Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation, February 1990.' South Carolina, U.S.A Frair W, Ackman RG, Mrosovsky N (1972) Body temperature of Dermochelys coriacea: warm turtle in cold water. Science 177, Gaffney E (1991) The fossil turtles of Australia. In 'Vertebrate Palaeontology of Australia'. (Eds P Vickers-Rich, J Monaghan, R Baird and R TH) pp (Pioneer Design Studio: Lilydale) Goff GP, Lien J (1988) Atlantic leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, in cold water off Newfoundland and Labrador. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 102, 1-5. Greer AE, Lazell JD, Wright RM (1973) Anatomical evidence for a counter current heat exchanger in the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Nature 244, 181. Harrison T (1947) Turtles in tribulation. Sarawak Gazette November, Harrison T (1951) The edible turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Borneo. 1. Breeding season. Sarawak Museum Journal 5, Harrison T (1952) Breeding the edible turtle. Nature 169, 198. Harrison T (1954) The edible turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Borneo. 2. Copulation. 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21 Harrison T (1956c) The edible turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Borneo. 5. Tagging turtles (and why). Sarawak Museum Journal 7, Harrison T (1958) Notes on the edible green turtle (Chelonia mydas). 7. Long-term tagging returns, Sarawak Museum Journal 8, Harrison T (1959) Notes on the edible green turtle (Chelonia mydas). 8. First tag returns outside Sarawak. Sarawak Museum Journal 9, Harrison T (1961) Notes on the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). 9. Some new hatchling observations. Sarawak Museum Journal 10, Harrison T (1962) Notes on the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). 11. West Borneo numbers, the downward trend. Sarawak Museum Journal 10, Harrison T (1962) Notes on the green turtle (Chelonia mydas). 12. Monthly laying cycles. Sarawak Museum Journal 10, Hendrickson JR (1958) The Green Sea Turtle, Chelonia mydas (Linn. ) in Malaya and Sarawak. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 130, Hendrickson JR (1961) Conservation investigations on Malayan turtles. Malayan Nature Journal (21st Anniversary Special Issue) 214, 23. Hendrickson JR (1962) The program for conservation of the giant leathery turtle, Malayan Nature Journal 16, Hendrickson JR, Albert ER (1957) Nesting populations of sea turtles on the east coast of Malaya. Proceedings IX Pacific Science Congress 16, Hendrickson JR, Albert ER (1961) Nesting populations of sea turtles on the east coast of Malaya. Bulletin Raffles Museum Singapore 26, Hendrickson JR, Balasingham E (1966) Nesting beach preferences of Malayan sea turtles. Bulletin of the National Museum Singapore 33, Hendrickson JR, Winterflood JS (1961) Hatching leatherback turtle eggs. Bulletin Raffles Museum Singapore 26, Hughes GR (1969) 'Report to the survival service commission on marine turtles in Southern Africa..' I.U.C.N. Publication New Series: Supplementary Papers 20: Hughes GR (1971a) The marine turtles of Tongaland V. The Lammergeyer 13, Hughes GH (1971b) 'Sea turtle research and conservation in South east Africa.' IUCN Publications New Series Supplementary Paper 31: Hughes G (1974a 'The sea turtles of South-east Africa.I. Status, morphology and distributions.' Oceanographic Research Institute of South Africa, Durban, pp 35. Hughes G (1974b) 'The sea turtles of South-east Africa.II. Investigational Report.' Oceanographic Research Institute of South Africa. Durban, pp 36. Hughes GR (1989) Sea turtles. In 'Oceans of Life off South Africa'. (Eds AIL Payne and RJM Crawford) pp (Cape Town: Vlaeberg Publishers) Hughes GR, Bartholomew W (1998) 'The Tongaland sea turtle project 1 April March 1998.' Natal Parks Board Annual Research Report, May:1-12. Hughes GR, Bass AJ, Mentis MT (1967) Further studies on marine turtles in Tongaland I. The Lammergeyer 7, Hughes GR, Brent B (1972) The marine turtles of Tongaland 7. The Lammergeyer 17, Hughes GR, Mentis MT (1967) Further studies on marine turtles in Tongaland II. The Lammergeyer 7, Islam MZ (2002) Threats to sea turtles in St. Martin's Island, Bangladesh. Kachhapa 6, Kapurusinghe T (2000) Community participation in turtle conservation in Sri Lanka. In 'Sea Turtles of the Indo- Pacific: Research Management and Conservation'. (Eds N Pilcher and G Ismail) pp (London: ASEAN Academic Press) Kiew BH (1975) Report on the leathery turtle conservation program at Rantau Abang, Trengganu. Malayan Nature Journal 29, Leong T, Siow K (1980a) Sea turtles in the east coast of Peninsula Malaysia and their economic importance. In 'Coastal resources of east coas t Peninsula Malaysia'. (Eds T Chua and J Charles). (Universiti Sains, Malaysia). Leong TSS, K. T. (1980) Tourism in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. In 'Coastal Resources of East Coast Peninsular Malaysia'. (Eds TE Chua and JK Charles) pp (Universiti Sains Malaysia) Limpus CJ (1993) 'Recommendations for conservation of marine turtles in Peninsula Malaysia.' Report to Department of Fisheries, Minister of Agriculture, Malaysia. Liew HC, Chan EH (1995) Radio tracked leatherback turtle hatchlings during their swimming frenzy. In 'Proceedings of the 12th annual symposium on sea turtle biology and conservation'. (Eds J Richarson and T Richardson). (NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-361) Loveridge A, Williams EE (1957) Revision of the African Tortoises and Turtles of the Suborder Cryptodira. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology 115, Mack D, Duplaix N, Wells S (1979) 'The sea turtle: An animal of divisible parts.' World Wildlife Fund Special Report 1:1-86. Morgan JP (1989) 'The occurrence of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in the British Isles in 1988 with reference to a record specimen.' National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC 232:

22 Maturbongs JA (1995) Turtles nest on Wafor Beach, Biak Numfor Regency, Irian Jaya. Marine Turtle Newsletter 68, Maturbongs JA (1996) Sea turtles at Inggresau Beach, Irian Jaya. Marine Turtle Newsletter 74, Maturbongs JA, Rumaikewi H, Rumaropen J, Sangganafa A (1993) 'Report of population and egg laying place of turtles observation at Inggresau Beach Yapen Waropen Regency in Irian Jaya. Jayapura:.' WWF Project ID Nababan MG, Jacob B (1996) 'Kondisi penyu belimbing (Dermochelys coriacea) dan Suaka Margasatwa Pantai Jamursba Medi serta masa depan Pengelolaannya.' Workshop Marine Turtle Research and Management in Indonesia Di Jember November Pp Phasuk B (1983) ' Her Majesty the Queen supported sea turtle conservation project in Thailand.' Fact Sheet on Thailand. Polunin NVC (1975) 'Sea turtles: Reports on Thailand, West Malaysia and Indonesia with a synopsis of data on the 'conservation status' of sea turtles in the Indo-west Pacific Region..' Unpublished Report to IUCN. Pp Pritchard PCH (1979) 'Encyclopedia of Turtles.' (T.F.H. Publications, Inc.: Neptune, New Jersey) Pritchard PCH (1996) Are leatherbacks really threatened with extinction? Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2, Rhodin AGJ, Ogden, J. A. & Conlogue, G. J. (1981) Chondro-osseous morphology of Dermochelys coriacea, a marine reptile with mammalian skeletal features. Nature 290, Rhodin JAG, Rhodin, A. G. J. & Spotila, J. R. (1996) Electron microscopic analysis of vascular cartilage canals in the humeral epiphysis of hatchling leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea. 2(2): Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2, Salleh BB, Chan, E. & bin Kassim, A. R. (1987) 'An update on the population status and conservation of the leatherback turtle of Terengganu.' Proceedings 10th Annual Seminar of the Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences, pp Salm R (1984) 'Sea turtle trade.' (IUCN/WWF Report: Bogor). Pp Siow KT (1978) 'Leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) conservation program in Rantau Abang, the State of Terengganu, Malaysia.' Proceedings 1st Marine Science Conference, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, 5-6 August pp Siow KT (1987) 'Saving the Leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) in Terengganu, Malaysia.' Report of Workshop on Sea Turtle Conservation and Management in Malaysia, Tanjong Jara, Terengganu, December pp Siow K-T, Moll D (1982) Status and conservation of estuarine and sea turtles in west Malaysian waters. In 'Biology and conservation of sea turtles'. (Ed. KA Bjorndal) pp (Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington) Smith MA (1931) 'The fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma.' (Taylor and Francis: London) Spotila JR, Dunham AE, Leslie AJ, Steyermark AC, Plotkin PT, Paladino FV (1996) Worldwide decline of Dermochelys coriacea: are leatherback turtles going extinct? Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2, Standora EA, Spotila JR, Keinath JA, Shoop CR (1984) Body temperature, diving cycles, and movement of a subadult leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea. Herpetologica 40, Starbird CH, Suarez MH (1994) 'leatherback sea turtle nesting on the north Vogelkop coast of Irian Jaya and the discovery of a leatherback sea turtle fishery on Kei Kecil Island.' National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum National Marine Fisheries Service Southeast Fisheries Science Center 351: Suarez A (2000) The sea turtle harvest in the Kai Islands, Indonesia. In 'Sea Turtles of the Indo-Pacific: Research Management and Conservation'. (Eds N Pilcher and G Ismail) pp (London: ASEAN Academic Press) Suarez A, Starbird C (1996) Subsistence hunting of leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, in the Kei Islands, Indonesia. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Tho YP (1974) The management of the giant leathery turtle resource in Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal 27, Tiwari M (1994) 'A survey of sea turtles in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.' National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum National Marine Fisheries Service Southeast Fisheries Science Center 351: Tweedie MWF (1953) The breeding of the leatherback turtle. Proceedings Zoologica Society London 123, Wyatt-Smith J (1960) The conservation of the leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea. Malayan Nature Journal 14, Wycherley PR (1969) 'Conservation in Malaysia - a manual of the conservation of Malaysia's renewable natural resources.' IUCN Publications (New Series) Supplementary Paper 22: Yamasaki K (1991) 'A report on the nesting beach of the leatherback turtle at Vogelkop (Doberi Peninsula) and the present condition of sea turtles in Cenderwasih Marine National Park in Irian Jaya.' Report to PHPA, Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia. Pp

23 Status of leatherback turtles in Australia by Colin Limpus 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles In Australia, wildlife management is the responsibility of both the Federal and State and Territory Governments, each with their respective management agencies and associated legislation (Table 1). Leatherback turtles are protected species nationally as a vulnerable, migratory, marine species. They are also listed as protected species with each State and Territory with varying levels of concern from vulnerable to critically endangered, depending on the State (Table 1). Figure 1. Distribution of confirmed Dermochelys coriacea nesting records in Australia. 15

24 Table 1. Summary of the legally defined conservation status of Dermochelys coriacea for Australia and the Federal and State-Territory agencies responsible for the administration of this legislation. International obligations Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) Status Legal basis Management Agency Appendix I & II Australia is a signatory state. Department of the Environment & Heritage, John Gorton Building, King Edward Terrace Parkes ACT 2600, GPO Box 787, Canberra ACT 2601 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Appendix 1 Australia is a signatory state. Legislation Australia including Aust n Territories Vulnerable Migratory species Marine species Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 Departm ent of the Environment & Heritage (see above) Tasmania Vulnerable Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service, GPO Box 1751, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia. Victoria Critically endangered Advisory list of Threatened Verteb rate Fauna in Victoria 2003 Environment Protection Authority Victoria, GPO Box 439QQ, Melbourne, Victoria, 3001, Australia. New South Wales Vulnerable Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 Queensland Endangered Nature Conservation Act 1992 North ern Territory Vulnerable Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000 NSW Department of Environment and Conservation Incorporating Environment Protection Agency, PO Box A290, Sydney South, NSW 1232, Australia. Environmental Protection Agency, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, PO Box 15155, City East, QLD 4002, Australia. Environment Protection Agency Northern Territory, Office of Environment and Heritage, GPO Box 1680 Level 2, Darwin, NT 0801, Australia. Western Australia Rare or likely to become extinct Wildlife Conservation Act 1950 Department of Conservation and Land Management, Government of Western Australia, Locked Bag 104, Bentley Delivery Centre, WA 6983, Australia. South Australia Vulnerable National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972 Environm ent Protection Authority South Australia, GPO Box 2607, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia. 16

25 2. Nesting populations 2.1 Overview There is no historical evidence of a large nesting population of leatherback turtles in Australia. Nesting by the species here was first reported in 1974 (Limpus 1974). Nesting has been reported for low numbers of turtles annually from two areas of Australia (Figure 1). Eastern Australia: While there have been isolated reports of leatherback turtle nesting from Mackay in Central eastern Queensland south to Newcastle in central New South Wales, most nesting occurs on about 40km of coastline on the Wreck Rock and Rules Beaches in south Queensland (Limpus and McLachlan 1994). When discovered in the 1970s during systematic studies of other marine turtle species, about three female leatherback turtles nested annually in south Queensland. Of course people had been familiar with leatherback turtles visiting these beaches for decades before. Nesting numbers have declined. No leatherback nesting has been recorded in eastern Australia since Northern Arnhem Land: While there have been isolated reports of leatherback turtles from many beaches across northern Arnhem Land and the adjacent islands since the 1970s, most reports of their nesting have been from the Coburg Peninsula (Limpus and McLachlan 1994). There is no reliable estimate of the size of this presumably small nesting population but nesting here continues to be recorded (Rod Kennett pers. comm.). There have been no confirmed records of leatherback turtle nesting in Western Australia. 2.2 Genetic studies on nesting populations No population genetics studies for leatherback turtles from Australia have been reported. 2.3) Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting Nesting in southeast Queensland occurs during December-February. leatherback turtle tracks were recorded during December to January at Danger Point near Coburg Peninsula in the Northern Territory (Rod Kennett pers. comm.). 2.4) Biological parametres Biological data from the nesting turtles are only available from eastern Australia and has been summarised by Limpus and McLachlan (1994) and Limpus et al. (1984) for Queensland and Tarvey (1993) for New South Wales (see Table 2). Table 2. Summary of the biological data for leatherback turtles in Australia Category of data Average & Standard deviation Range Size of nesting females CCL = 162 ± Sample size Number of eggs per clutch Qld: 86.1 ± 15.7 NSW: Clutches per season - Up to 4 Re-nesting interval (days) 9.17 ± Number of years between breeding seasons (years) Not recorded Size of eggs (cm) 5.33 ± Size of hatchlings (cm) Qld: 5.88 ± 0.29 NSW: 6.10 Incubation success (%) Qld: 15.3 ± 17.6% NSW: ) Pivotal temperature studies There have been no studies of hatchling sex ratio reported and the pivotal temperature for the population has not been defined. 2.6) Migration records There are no reports of migration from the Australian rookeries. 17

26 2.7) Protection of nesting beaches Eastern Australia: None of the main nesting area occurs within a protected area. The adjacent internesting habitat occurs within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Northern Territory: None of the nesting sites are within designated protected areas, however they are in some of the most remote parts of coastal Australia; so they are pristine in nature and not likely to suffer any major degradation. It is not known whether any state agencies are planning to protect any of the leatherback turtle nesting sites. 2.8) Use of hatcheries to protect leatherback turtle nests Hatcheries are not used 2.9) Threats to leatherback turtles (foraging and nesting) Limpus (in press) has reviewed the impacts of human impacts on leatherback turtles in Australia. This review is summarised in Table ) Impacts of coastal development and/or sand mining on leatherback turtle nesting None 2.11) Major threats to leatherback turtles Entanglement in float lines used in lobster and crab fisheries. 2.12) Activities underway to improve the conservation of nesting populations of marine turtles Annual fox baiting is conducted along Wreck Rock beaches to reduce predation of turtle eggs. 2.13) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles The embryology of leatherback turtles has been described (Miller 1985). 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Overview Leatherback turtles are most frequently encountered in the waters of southern Australia (Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia) and along the mid-eastern Australian Coast (SE Queensland) (Figure 2). Inshore movements to feed on jellyfish in shallow coastal waters during midyear have been recorded from northwestern Queensland. There has been only one tag recovery reported from an Australian foraging area: A female tagged while nesting in Java, Indonesia was recaptured from north-western Western Australia. In eastern Australia, the bycatch of leatherback turtles that are entangled as they swim past the drumline hooks set within the Queensland Shark Control Program are released alive. These data provide an index of the occurrence of leatherback turtles in those waters. The most comprehensive dataset for this leatherback turtle bycatch was recorded at Point Lookout, south Queensland from 1984 to the present (Figure 3). These data are consistent with a decline of leatherback turtles in south Queensland waters in recent decades. 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles occurring in coastal or offshore waters leatherback turtles can be found foraging year round in Australian waters. 3.3) Size range of leatherback turtles foraging in Australian waters leatherbacks in Australian waters range in size from small immature turtles, CCL =30.5cm, up to large adults (Prince 2004). 18

27 Table 3. Review of threats to leatherback turtles in Australia (foraging and nesting) Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical records Exploitation of nesting fem. Nil known Rare; traditional use only Egg collection Nil known Rare; traditional use only Coastal development Nil Nil Artificial lighting Nil Nil Coastal erosion Nil Nil Trawl Fisheries: combined State and Federally managed trawl fisheries Longline Fisheries: Australian East Coast and West Coast Tuna and Billfish Longline Fisheries Rare; Negligible mortality (Robins and Mayer 1998) Catch and mortality is being quantified; ~60% of total turtle catch may be leatherbacks and mortality is believed to be low (Robins et al. 2002). Rarely caught, most released alive. <1 death per decade during 1970s -1990s. Gillnet Fisheries No known occurrence in recent years Taiwanese drift net fishing, , off Arnhem Land: catch & mortality not quantified Lobster fisheries: Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and southern Western Australia Crab fisheries: southern Queensland Turtles are entangled in the floatlines to the traps. Catch and mortality are not quantified; Many captures occur annually; estimated 75% of leatherbacks are released alive (Bone 1998). 0.14deaths/yr during Vehicles Nil Nil Sand mining Nil Nil - Northern Australian barramundi gillnet fishery: low catch rate, <1 leatherback death per year. Tuna drift net fisheries in southern Australia: unquantified effort, catch and mortality; probably appreciable No data No data Unregulated hatcheries Not applicable Not applicable Natural threats/predation Nil Fox predation of eggs on south Queensland beaches; possibly common during s. Boat strike: Queensland 0.07deaths/yr during No data Accidental deaths in Qld shark Control Program 0.25deaths/yr during Ingestion of marine debris 0.07deaths/yr during No data Catch and mortality unquantified in the early years of this program that commenced in 1960s. 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles leatherback turtles in Australian waters have been recorded feeding on large planktonic animals including jellyfish such as Catostylus spp. (Bone 1998, Cogger 1992, Limpus 1984, Limpus & McLachlan 1979) and Pyrosoma spp. (Prince 2004). Over the continental shelf they will feed at all levels of the water column from the surface to the bottom (Limpus 1984). 19

28 Figure 2. Distribution of foraging area records for Dermochelys coriacea in Australia (From Limpus (in press)). There are additional records from southern Western Australia not included in this figure FREQUENCY YEAR 1984 data from July-December only Figure 3. Declining annual capture of Dermochelys coriacea on Queensland Shark Control drumlines at Point Lookout as an index of abundance of the species in south Queensland waters. Data set supplied by Queensland Shark Control Program and commences with the employment of the current contractor in The fishing effort has been constant with 24 drum-lines deployed in approximately the same locations in each year. The turtles were tangled, not hooked, and almost all were released alive. 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in the foraging areas High levels of arsenic compounds were recorded in a leatherback from the Western Australian coast (Edmonds et al. 1994). 20

29 3.6) and 3.6 Threats to leatherback turtles See section 2.9 and Figures 2 and ) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations Large TED openings are used in prawn trawl fisheries in northern and eastern Australia. Training in dehooking, handling and resuscitation of turtles is provided to crews and observers on tuna and swordfish longline boats. 4. References Bone C (1998) 'Preliminary investigation into leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea (L.) distribution, abundance and interactions with fisheries in Tasmanian waters. Unpublished Report.' Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service. Cogger HG (1992) 'Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia.' (Reed Books: Sydney) Edmonds JS, Shibata Y, Prince RIT, Francesconi KA, Mortita M (1994) Arsenic compounds in tissues of the leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea. Journal of the Marine Biological Association 74, Limpus CJ (1984) A benthic feeding record from neritic waters for the leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Copeia 1984, Limpus CL (in press) 'A biological review of Australian marine turtles vi. Leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea (Vandelli).' Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane. Limpus CJ, McLachlan NC (1979) Observations on the leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea (L.), in Australia. Australian Wildlife Research 6, Limpus CJ, McLachlan N (1994) The conservation status of the leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, in Australia. In 'In 'Proceedings of the Marine Turtle Conservation Workshop''. (Ed. R James) pp (Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service; Canberra) Limpus CJ, McLachlan N, Miller JD (1984) Further observations on the breeding of Dermochelys coriacea in Queensland. Australian Wildlife Research 11, Miller JD (1985) Embryology of marine turtles. In 'Biology of the Reptilia Vol.14'. (Eds C Gans, F Billett and PFA Maderson) pp (Wiley Interscience: New York) Robins CM, Bache SJ, Kalish SR (2002) 'Bycatch of sea turtles in pelagic longline fisheries - Australia.' Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra. Robins JB, Mayer DG (1998) 'Monitoring the impact of trawling on sea turtle populations of the Queensland east coast.' Queensland Department of Primary Industries Project Report Series Q Tarvey L (1993) First nesting records for the leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea in northern New South Wales, Australia, and field management of nest sites. In 'In: Herpetology in Australia: A Diverse Discipline'. (Eds D Lunney and D Ayers) pp (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Chipping Norton). 21

30 Status of leatherback turtles in Bahrain 1. Introduction Bahrain consists of a group of 33 low- lying islands in the Gulf off Saudi Arabia. Notable habitats include salt marsh, seagrass beds and mangrove swamps, coral reefs and date groves. National designations of protected areas include wildlife park (Hema) and wildlife reserve. The Environmental Protection Committee has divided the protected area categories into three priorities: priority 1: full protected status; priority 2: conservation status; priority 3: seasonal management status. In addition, a degree of protection is given to the southern part of Bahrain Island and the smaller archipelagos, as well as the isolated Hawar Islands. In the case of the latter, the government has imposed access restrictions to all but fishermen and those with official permits. The maritime area of Bahrain falls within the Arabian (Persian) Gulf, between Saudi Arabia and Qatar. The average depth is about 35 m and maximum is 100 m. The Gulf is subject to wide climatic fluctuations, with surface water temperatures generally ranging from 12 o in the winter to > 35 o C in the summer and salinity from ppt. The narrow straits of Hormuz restrict water exchange with the Arabian Sea, causing the Gulf to become highly saline because of high evaporation and low inputs of fresh water. Marine ecosystems include mangrove swamps, seagrass beds, coral reefs and small offshore islands. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Bahrain has ratified the Kuwait Action Plan under Regional Organization for Protection of the Marine Environment, ROPME. Bahrain s commitment to the preservation of the Hawar Islands was formalized in 1995 with Royal Decree No. 2 (1995), to instigate the creation of a Wildlife Sanctuary around the Hawar Islands. The legislation to protect the islands was completed with Edict No. 16 (1996) issued by the Council of Ministers establishing the islands as a Protected Area. This Edict has since been further reinforced by the nomination of the Islands of Hawar as a Ramsar Site (the islands were nominated on ratification of the Ramsar agreement on 26 February 1997 through Royal decree No ), and by the Ministerial Order (MOHME) for the Protection of Wildlife in June Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation The government has used the following mechanisms and protocols for the protection of wildlife: the Establishment of Bahrain Wild Life Committee, now the National Commission for the Protection of Wildlife (NCWP); the formation of a National Biodiversity Committee, with the main objective to formulate a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP); the establishment of Marine Protected Areas (Mashtan Island was adopted in April 2002), membership in the Kuwait Action Plan for the Protection of Marine Environment drafted under the auspices of the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME) in 1978, ratification of the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1993 and of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance as Waterfowl Habitats (Ramsar) in The Directorate of Environmental Affairs of the Ministry of Health is responsible for marine and coastal environmental activities. It works with the Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO) on marine pollution and marine environmental affairs. The Directorate of Fisheries is concerned with environmental studies and the protection of breeding and nursery areas for fish and shrimp and the establishment of fishing bans in spawning seasons and the development of laws and regulations relating to the protection of the marine environment. Non-governmental bodies actively concerned with protected areas include the Bahrain Natural History Society (BNHS). 3. Nesting populations There are no historical or contemporary records of leatherbacks nesting in Bahrain. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview Bahrain lists the leatherback as present in its waters (SOMER, 2003), although no contemporary records of any sightings exist. While significant research and conservation action has been 22

31 implemented for hawksbill turtles, no research of any kind has been carried out on leatherback turtles in Bahrain. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles The most significant of the environmental problems include the extensive damage and destruction through massive urban development programmes and rapid land reclamation programmes and oil pollution. Land reclamation projects, have increased the northern and eastern coasts of Bahrain by 11 km 2 in less than 10 years, resulting in a direct loss of marine habitat. Potentially threats exist from major oil and chemical spillages such as the Iranian war spills of 1983 and the Gulf War and the discharge of sewage and industrial effluent as well as dredging has caused damage to the seabed and coral reefs. Commercial trawl fishing occurs in Bahrain and is unregulated. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas The Bahrain National Charter 3(5) proclaims the protection of Hawar Islands as a Nature Reserve and National Heritage. It also states that as a result of increasing pressure on the limited natural resources, the government seeks to create an ideal condition to exploit the natural resources without negatively affecting the environment or the health of the people. The marine environments around the islands embody a myriad of habitats and seascapes that are home to a remarkable array of marine fauna. The protected Area provides habitat for a diverse range of marine and terrestrial species. For example, the endangered Dugong (Dugong dugon) and the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) inhabit the nearshore waters, and over 150 species of birds use the islands as a flyway or as a wintering breeding/foraging area Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation A major gap for turtle conservation is the lack of dedicated marine protected areas. There is a general lack of funding for marine research activities, and most research is currently funded through volunteer projects. In particular, research needs to be carried out in order to update baseline environmental conditions, and follow-up monitoring should refer to these baselines to detect changes in foraging populations; direct use and indirect development activities that affect turtles and their habitats need to be carefully evaluated in the design stages, and be subject to continued monitoring through the implementation stages; there is a need to develop community education programmes that highlight the role of communities in turtle biology and ecology, particularly the at-sea stages with regard to Bahrain. The designation of marine protected areas need to become a priority issue within the country. Finally, a larger proportion of funds need to be allocated to protected areas and environmental research needs to be appropriated for marine conservation efforts. 5. References SOMER (2003) 'State of the Marine Environment Report. ROPME/GC-11/003.' Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment, Kuwait. 217 pp. 23

32 Status of leatherback turtles in Bangladesh By M. Zahirul Islam 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview The Forestry Department, under the Ministry of Environment and Forestry, is the sole authority for the protection, conservation and management of all wildlife in Bangladesh, however, although marine turtles are under the mandate of their protection, they are not included in the list of protected species, Schedule III of the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act 1974 (BWPA). The list of protected species is currently under review. Under this revision all wildlife species will be protected, and the government can through gazette notifications, indicate which species are liable for any form of exploitation or trade. Currently, the act is in the final stages of revision by the Forestry Department and marine turtles are included in the list of protected animals. In addition the MFRI under the aegis of the Department of Fisheries (DOF), Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock (MFL) also claim that they are responsible for the protection and management of marine and freshwater turtles, and marine resources like cetaceans and crustaceans. Considerable revenue is at stake and this might underlie conflict between the two government agencies. This issue needs to be discussed at the top Government level to strengthen inter-departmental co-operation and coordination to ensure the conservation of turtles and other aquatic resources. The 1999 government notification and declaration of Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA) were done on the basis of protecting the habitat of globally significant migratory species, including the nesting and coastal foraging habitat of marine turtles. There are three ECAs in Bangladesh that are important for marine turtle nesting; a) Sonadia Island, b) Cox s Bazar to Teknaf Peninsular coast and c) St. Martin Island. The Government of Bangladesh has signed several international or regional agreements, conventions, treaties and protocols related to marine environment and biological resources (Islam 1996), which directly or indirectly affect marine turtles (Table 1). However, there are several limitations or gaps in the existing laws. The first and foremost limitation is the non-inclusion of marine turtles in the Protected List of Animals (Schedule III) of the BWPA. Rashid (1986) suggested their inclusion in the protected list. They will be incorporated in the list in the latest revision of the Act. There is little protection of nesting or foraging habitats, which are critical to marine turtle survival. Beaches are already under intense pressure for development by the tourism industry. Immediate steps have to be taken to identify and protect significant beaches and foraging areas. Some NGOs and Government projects are working on conservation in some areas, but it is not enough and the government has competing sectors such as tourism and infrastructure development that threaten nesting turtle populations as human use increases. Coastal development is occurring without Environmental Impact Assessments being conducted regarding marine turtle nesting habitat and overall ecosystem function Specific legislation The following legislation is relevant to wildlife and marine turtles in Bangladesh: Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Amendment Act (1974) National Environmental conservation Act, 1995; New Fisheries Management Policy, Bangladesh (1986) Revised Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Amendment Act (1974) (not published) Declaration of Ecologically Critical Areas (ECA):19 APR 1999 REF # MOEF-4/7/87/99/245 The Government of Bangladesh has become convinced that unplanned activities severely hamper the ecosystem of certain coastal areas of the country. This degradation may continue and the natural system could face future dangers if immediate remediation measures are not taken. Therefore, to protect the natural environment by encouraging conservation, restoration and pollution prevention, and promote sustainable environmental management, the Government of Bangladesh, under the provision of Bangladesh Environmental Conservation ACT 1995(1st act of 1995) by its sub-section-1 of Section- 5 and Section-4, declared seven areas as Ecologically Critical Areas. 24

33 The following activities are banned in the ECA zone: Any type of plant and forest destruction or collection, All wildlife killing and hunting Shell, turtle, coral and other wildlife catching and collection Flora and fauna habitat destruction Industry and structure establishment that can pollute soil, water, air and create sound pollution, Any activities that threaten the natural state of land and water. All destructive activities that threaten fish and other aquatic flora and fauna. Out of seven ECAs the following areas have marine turtle nesting beaches; 1. Coastal Cox s Bazar - Teknaf peninsular beach area (area hectare); 2. St. Martin Island (590 hectare); and 3. Sonadia Island (4916 hectare). 1.3 International agreements affecting marine turtles Table 1 lists the international agreements, conventions, treaties and protocols signed, accessed, ratified by the Government of Bangladesh, which directly or indirectly affects marine turtles. Table 1. List of the international agreements that have been ratified by the Bangladesh Government Conventions/Treaties/Protocols Convention on the Control of Trans boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, Basel, Agreement on the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Convention on the Continental Shelf, Geneva, Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, RAMSAR, Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Paris, Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna, Washington, Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, London, International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties, Brussels, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Marine, Montego Bay, 1982 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, New York, Indian Ocean South-East Asian Marine Turtle MoU Year ratified (r), signed (s) or accessed (a) 1993 (a) 1990 (r) 1990 (r) 1992 (r) 1983 (r) 1982 (r) 1994 (r) 2000 (s) 1981 (r) 1990 (s) 1982 (r) 1982 (r) 1994 (r) 2004 (s) 1.2. Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation in Bangladesh Operational level National level State level Local level Name and type of agency Ministry of Environment & Forestry & Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock Relevant Government state offices. Local Government Departments such as forestry and fisheries, Local NGOs. 2. Nesting populations 2.1. Overview There are numerous beaches in Bangladesh that are used by nesting marine turtles, however, surveys have covered only a few of them. To date most records result from incidental and sporadic records by few researchers. 25

34 To date leatherback nesting has not been confirmed in Bangladesh, but the following evidence suggests it may occur (or at least have occurred in the past); 1. Suspected nesting two decades ago at the Badamgonia area in St. Martin Island. 2. Suspected nesting in 2000 at St. Martin Island; 3. Report by an old Sonadia Islander that leatherback still nest at Sonadia Island, this has not been confirmed as regular monitoring was not conducted by local watchers prior to 2005/06. Summary of surveys that have been conducted and nesting recorded in Bangladesh Marine turtle surveys have been regularly conducted on St. Martin Island since October Bangladesh is located on the northern side of the Bay of Bengal in mainland Asia. Bangladesh s territorial waters supports five species of marine turtles including the olive ridley turtle, green turtle, hawksbill turtle, loggerhead turtle and leatherback turtle (Smith 1931, Husain 1976, 1979, Khan 1982, 1987, Sarker and Sarker 1988, Das 1991, Rashid 1997). The total mainland coastline of Bangladesh measures approximately 710 kilometres (ICZM 2003). Not the entire mainland coastline is suitable for nesting. Apart from the mainland coast, there are numerous offshore islands whose sandy beaches are suitable for marine turtle nesting. Three species of marine turtles have been reported to nest in Bangladesh; olive ridley turtles (Ahmed et al 1986, Khan 1987, Rashid 1984, 1986, Rashid and Islam 1999, and in press, Islam 2002) and green turtles (Khan 1982, 1987, Rashid 1997, Rashid and Islam 1999) are common, while hawksbill turtles are rare (Rashid 1997, Islam 2002). Leatherback turtles are seldom encountered (Rashid and Islam 1999) and with no known records of nesting in Bangladesh. However, a recent crawl mark recorded in Cheradia, St. Martin s Island, in 2000 is suspected to have been made by a leatherback turtle. The historical information was in anecdotal notes, district gazetteers, forest department reports, and newspaper reports on marine turtles by fishermen. There were no scientific publications or systematic surveys on marine turtles until recently. Some information from sporadic surveys and observations first started to appear in the 1980s (Khan 1982, 1985, 1987, Rashid 1984, 1986) and provided the impetus to conduct surveys and update available information on the status of marine turtles in Bangladesh. Much of the information was gathered over a period of two decades from irregular surveys and interviews with elderly and young fisher folk, and communities living in remote coastal areas and offshore islands. In October 1996, CARINAM initiated a study and conservation program on marine turtles on St. Martin s Island. Table 2 (following page) describes the important nesting beaches that have been surveyed for marine turtle nesting in Bangladesh. 3. Foraging populations 3.1 Details of leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results such as tag recovery data There has been no tag recoveries from leatherback turtles tagged in other countries Seasonality of leatherback turtles caught or seen in foraging areas In May 2005 a live leatherback (personal observation (news in IOSEA in July 2005) was recorded in Cox s Bazar district inside a saltwater river (Islam 2005). Dead, or alive stranded leatherback turtles have been recorded in April, May, June and July (Zahirul Islam pers. Comm.). 26

35 Table 2. Marine turtle nesting beaches that have been surveyed in Bangladesh, and the species that use them note that no leatherback turtle nesting has been recorded. OR = olive ridley turtle, HB = hawksbill turtle and GT = green turtle. Location Coordinates Species Monitoring started Surveys St. Martin s Island 20º34' 20º38' N, & 92º18' 92º22' E OR/GT HB & to 1998 Shahporir Dwip 20 o 45.06N; 92 o E OR Khurer mukh 20 o N; 92 o E OR Teknaf 20 o N; 92 o E OR/GT 1987 Bordail 20 o N; 92 o E OR/GT 1986 & 1989 Kocchopia 20 o N; 92 o E OR/GT 1985 Monkhali 21 o N; 92 o E OR/GT 1984 & 1985 Inani 21 o N; 92 o E OR & 1999 Cox s Bazar 21º25.0N; 91º90.0 E OR/GT 1988 & 1989 Najirartek 21 o N; 91 o E OR 2005 Sonadia Island 21 o N; 91 o E 21 o N; 91 o E OR , 2000, 2001 Moheskhali Island 21º32.0N; 91º41.0E OR 1987 Kutubdia Island 21º47.0N; 91º35.0E OR Sandwip Island 22º23.0N; 91º30.0E GT 1985 Nijhum Dwip (is land) OR 2000 Egg Island, Sunderban 21º50.0N; 89º46.0E OR 1991 & 2003 Mandarbaria, Sunderban 21º41.0N; 89º15.0E OR 2003 Hiron point, Sunderban Dubla Island, Sunderban 21 o N; 89 o E OR 1994 Kotka beach, Sunderban OR 2002, 2003 Samchari 21 o N; 92 o E OR Hiron point 21 o N; 89 o E OR 2001, 2002, 2004 Pechar Dwip 21 o N; 92 o E OR Approximate size range of leatherback turtles caught or seen in foraging areas There was one leatherback turtle recorded alive trapped in Cox s Bazar (Islam 2005); Three swimming leatherbacks were recorded by Fishermen during (Islam 2004); 4 dead bodies recorded (Islam 2004) and two of these individuals were measured and CCLs between cm Information on diet of leatherback turtles There have been no studies on the diet of leatherback turtles in Bangladesh 3.5. Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No systematic marine turtle foraging habitat survey have been conducted in Bangladesh. During a survey for cetacean species in February 2004 a group of 14 international scientists observed 1,018 kilometres of water in the Bay of Bengal (Smith 2004). The team searched for cetaceans along track lines for 89.6 hours with a mean vessel speed of 11.4 km/hr). Additionally, the team spent 7.8 hours searching for cetaceans in the Swatch-of-No-Ground, a deep sea canyon that extends to within 42 km of the shore in the far western portion of the Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh. The study revealed the presence of dolphins and whales in the Bangladesh territorial waters. During the survey the observers recorded other species such as marine turtles and no leatherback turtles were sited. Short incidental offshore boat trips into the Bay of Bengal were made between 1997 and 2005 and the only marine turtle species observed were olive ridley or green turtles. However these incidental surveys lacked scientific rigour and were generally short in length. Naval personnel have not been interviewed. But fishermen in the Bay of Bengal recorded sighting live swimming leatherback turtles in 2002 and 2003 around 200 to 370 km offshore from the Cox s Bazar region (Islam 2004). 27

36 3.6. Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles No systematic studies have been conducted in Bangladesh on the threats to leatherback turtles in their foraging habitat. According to local fishermen the deep sea shrimp trawlers and drifting nets from large mechanised boats from Cox s Bazar and Chittagong are the major fishery sectors responsible for turtle by-catch (Rashid 1997). Entanglement of marine turtles during offshore fishing activity have been reported in the following fisheries sectors (Rashid 1997); Marine Set Bag Net, Drifting Gill Net, Long lines etc, Shrimp Trawling etc. Turtle Excluder Devices are not being used in Bangladesh trawlers. While a survey conducted during 1996 indicated that turtles are not vulnerable to shrimp trawling (Rashid 1997), trawling without TEDs is a potential threat that remains to be examined and its affects quantified in Bangladesh. All species of marine turtle are in great trouble in Bangladesh waters as shrimp trawlers are not using TEDs; gillnets, longlines and other fishing activity do not act to lessen the by catch of endangered species. Anecdotal evidence suggests that hundred to thousands of dead animals are seen every year in Bangladesh. These are likely to be a mixture of species. However the numbers or the threats have never been effectively investigated. A very short by by-catch study will be done in offshore areas with shark fisheries trawlers by the researchers of Marine Life Alliance (NGO) in Jan-Feb Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved No data available 3.8. Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations Areas of change Legislation changes Awareness raising programmes Research activities Physical interventions Fishery controls Managed turtle based tourism Annual nesting beach surveys Managed hatcheries Summary including report references ECA declaration MARINE RESERVE in Bay of Bengal Primary school education on environments and marine turtle (by GO and NGO projects) Tagging, low scale hatchery research - Offshore by-catch survey Planned in JAN-FEB Local community based conservation initiative to save nesting beach (in planning position). Marine reserve in Bay of Bengal 69,800 hectares, Gazette, October 2000 Not yet done, some initiative in planning stage Nesting beach survey, in St. Martin Island, Sonadia Island, part of Kutubdia Island, Cox s Bazar Teknaf peninsular area by GO and NGO Hatcheries at St. Martin, Sonadia, Cox s Bazar Teknaf peninsula Planned protected areas Marine reserve in Bay of Bengal 69,800 hectares, Gazette, October 2000 (ICZMP 2004) 4. References Ahmed B, Huda KMN, Asmat GSM (1986) The breeding of the olive ridley, Lepidochelys olivacea (Eschscholtz), at St. Martin's Island, Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 14, Das I (1991) 'Colour guide to the turtles and tortoises of the Indian subcontinent.' (R & A Publishing Ltd: UK). Husain KZ (1976) 'Wildlife management in Bangladesh.' Department of Films and Publications, Government of the Peoples' Republic of Bangladesh. ICZMP (2004) 'Areas with Special Status in the Coastal Zone. Working Paper.' Program Development Office for Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan (PDO-ICZMP) WP030, Dhaka. Islam MZ (2001) Notes on the trade in marine turtle products in Bangladesh. Marine Turtle Newsletter 94, Islam MZ (2002) Marine turtle nesting at St. Martin's Island, Bangladesh. Marine Turtle Newsletter 96, Islam MZ (2002) Impact of coastal development on sea turtle at St. Martin and Cox's Bazar coast. Threats to in Bangladesh; Technical Report. Marine Life Alliance. 25. Islam MZ (2003) 'Records of sea turtle in Cox's Bazar coast, Bangladesh, Marine Life Alliance. Technical Paper.' Islam MZ (2005) Live leatherback records in Bangladesh: News to IOSEA MoU secretariat Islam MZ (2005) Impact of coastal development on sea turtle at St. Martin & Cox's Bazar coast and Sonadia Island in Bangladesh; Technical Report. CWBMP. 28

37 Islam MZ (2005) 'Report on ECA delineation: coastal & wetland biodiversity management project, BGD/G31/99, MOEF/DOE/GOB 2005 July.' Islam MZ (2006) Wildlife Report (3rd & 4th Qtr 2005); Coastal & Wetland Biodiversity Management Project. DOE/MOEF Islam MZ, Islam MS, Rashid SMA (1999) Marine turtle conservation program in St. Martin's Island, Bangladesh by CARINAM: A brief review. Tiger Paper 26, Khan MAR (1982) Wildlife of Bangladesh: A checklist. (University of Dhaka, Dhaka). Khan MAR (1985) St. Martin's: A vanishing coral island of Bangladesh. Tiger Paper 12, Khan MAR (1987) 'Bangladesher banya prani.' Bangla Academy, Dhaka. Mitra SC (1914. Reprinted 2001) 'Jessore-Khulnar Itihas.' Rupantar, Khulna. Rashid SMA (1997) Country report on the marine turtles of Bangladesh. In 'IUCN/SSC MTSG Northern Indian Ocean Workshop'. Bhubaneswar, India Rashid SMA, Islam MZ (1999) Establishing a marine turtle hatchery on St. Martin's Island. In Proceedings of the 4th Asia-Pacific NGOs Environmental Conference. Singapore: National University of Singapore Rashid SMA, Zahirul Islam M (2005) Chapter 16 - Research and Conservation of Marine Turtles in Bangladesh. In 'Marine Turtles of India' pp ) Smith MA (1931) 'The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. 1.' (Taylor & Francis: Loricata, Testudines. London) Smith BD (2004 (unpublished)) Preliminary report on a survey for cetaceans in the near shore waters of Bangladesh. 29

38 Status of leatherback turtles in Brunei Darussalam No report on leatherback turtles was received from Brunei. However, Brunei beaches support rookeries for green, hawksbill and olive ridley turtles during November to July, and no leatherback turtle nesting has been recorded (Anon 2001 and 2002; Harrisson 1976; Borneo Bulletin, 31 January 2001). Although no leatherback turtles have been recorded in Brunei waters, it is likely that they pass through Brunei waters given that females tagged post nesting in Malaysia have migrated to the Philippines (Simpol 2002). The National Turtle Management and Conservation Programme, launched in April 2000, (Borneo Bulletin, 31 January 2001) was a public awareness campaign conducted by the Brunei Fisheries Department to boost turtle conservation (Brunei ASEAN News Exchange, 15 November 2001). It included volunteer nesting beach patrols, collection of turtle eggs for rearing in a hatchery and the release of juvenile olive ridley turtles into Bruneian waters (Brunei ASEAN News Exchange, 15 November 2001). As a signatory of the MOU on ASEAN Sea Turtle Conservation and Protection together with other ASEAN countries, Brunei hopes to further protect the populations of the turtles landing and nesting on its beaches. (Anon 2001 and 2002; Brunei ASEAN News Exchange, 15 November 2001). References Anon (2001) Conservationists seek help during turtle nesting season. Marine Turtle Newsletter 92, 29. Anon (2002) Endangered turtles get new lease of life in Brunei. Marine Turtle Newsletter 96, Harrisson T (1976) Green turtles in Borneo. Brunei Museum Journal 3, Simpol H (2002) National turtle management and conservation programme in Brunei Darussalam: Country status report. In 'Third workshop on southeast Asia sea turtle cooperative research'. Bangkok, Thailand. (SEASTAR 2000) 30

39 Status of leatherback turtles in Cambodia No report on the leatherback turtle was received from Cambodia. While there are historic references to the presence of leatherbacks in the waters off Cambodia (Tirant, 1885 in Bourret 1941), the only available contemporary record of a leatherback turtle sighting in Cambodian waters is from 2001 (Stuart and van Dijk 2002). The animal was captured in a fishing net in the Gulf of Thailand, 1.5km offshore of the southern point of Koh Sra Mauch Island in the Gulf of Thailand, near Sihanoukville (10º 36 N, 103º 31 E) Cambodia (Stuart and van Dijk 2002). The pink spot on the crown of the turtle suggested it was a mature female (Pritchard 1979) and it was 1.8 metres in length. Injuries sustained included superficial lacerations on the flippers from entanglement in the net or manhandling. Messages of good luck and blessings were also engraved into the carapace with stainless steel knives. (Stuart and van Dijk 2002). The turtle was released by the Cambodian Department of Fisheries on the same day of the stranding in 4 m of water near the eastern end of Koh Thmey Island (Stuart and van Dijk 2002). Although other species such as the green turtle inhabit Cambodian waters and nest on the islands such as Koh Rong (Try et al. 2002), the fishermen claimed never to have come across a leatherback turtle previously (Stuart and van Dijk 2002). Similarly, interviews of fishers from Vietnamese villages close to the Cambodian border could not recall seeing leatherback turtles (Hamann et al. 2005) In 2002 the Cambodian Department of Fisheries held a workshop on sea turtle research, biology and conservation in Cambodia for delegations from Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam (Try et al. 2002). Tag returns and satellite tracking have identified that marine turtles are shared by and migrate through the water of each of these countries (Chan 2003). A National Action Plan for the conservation of marine turtles and habitats was discussed for Cambodia. With training in tagging and collection of data on marine turtles and their eggs, as well as general beach survey methods, local scientists are now better prepared to gain information to enable Cambodia to meet its goals of long term legislative and physical protection and conservation of marine turtles in Cambodia (Try et al. 2002). Cambodia is a signatory state to the IOSEA MoU. References Bourret R (1941) 'Les tortues de l'indochine. Institut Oceanographique de l'iindochine.' (Station Maratime de Cauda, Nha Trang) Chan EH (2003) Status of marine turtle conservation and research in Southeast Asia. In 'Proceedings of Vietnam's First National Workshop on Marine Turtle Conservation, 2001'. Hanoi, Vietnam. (Eds C Schäuble and BTT Hien) p. 8 Hamann M, Chu The Cuong, Nguyen Duy Hong, Pham Thuoc, Bui Thi Thu Hien (2005) Distribution and abundance of marine turtles in the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. Biodiversity and Conservation DOI /s Pritchard PCH (1979) 'Encyclopedia of Turtles.' (T.F.H. Publications, Inc.: Neptune, New Jersey) Stuart BL, An D, van Dijk PP (2002) A record of the leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) from Cambodia. Marine Turtle Newsletter 96. Try I, Pilcher N, Miller J, Cox N (2002) First steps toward sea turtle conservation in Cambodia. Marine Turtle Newsletter

40 Status of leatherback turtles in China By I-Jiunn Cheng 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1) Overview In mainland China all species of marine turtles are classed as wildlife under Second Class State Protection. In Taiwan all species of marine turtles are classed as protected wildlife and in Hong Kong all species of marine turtles are classed as protected wild animals. 1.2) Summary of legislation which protects leatherback turtles Mainland China: Law of the People s Republic of China on the Protection of Wildlife There are five relevant Articles under Chapter II of the Law - Protection of Wildlife Article 8 The State shall protect wildlife and the environment for its survival, and shall prohibit illegal hunting, catching or destruction of wildlife by any unit or individual. Article 9 The State shall give special protection to the species of wildlife which are rare or near extinction. The wildlife under special state protection shall consist of two classes: wildlife under first class protection and wildlife under second class protection. Lists or revised lists of wildlife under special state protection shall be drawn up by the department of wildlife administration under the State Council and announced after being submitted to and approved by the State Council. The wildlife under special local protection, being different from the wildlife under special state protection, refers to the wildlife specially protected by provinces, autonomous regions or municipalities directly under the Central Government. Lists of wildlife under special local protection shall be drawn up and announced by the governments of provinces, autonomous regions or municipalities directly under the Central Government and shall be submitted to the State Council for the record. Lists or revised lists of terrestrial wildlife under state protection, which are beneficial or of important economic or scientific value, shall be drawn up and announced by the department of wildlife administration under the State Council. Article 16 The hunting, catching or killing of wildlife under special state protection shall be prohibited. Where the catching or fishing of wildlife under first class state protection is necessary for scientific research, domestication and breeding, exhibition or other special purposes, the unit concerned must apply to the department of wildlife administration under the State Council for a special hunting and catching license; where the catching or hunting of wildlife under second class state protection is intended, the unit concerned must apply to the relevant department of wildlife administration under the government of a province, an autonomous region or a municipality directly under the Central Government for a special hunting and catching license. Article 22 The sale and purchase of wildlife under special state protection or the products thereof shall be prohibited. Where the sale, purchase or use of wildlife under first class state protection or the products thereof is necessary for scientific research, domestication and breeding, exhibition or other special purposes, the unit concerned must apply for approval by the department of wildlife administration under the State Council or by a unit authorized by the same department. Where the sale, purchase or use of wildlife under second class state protection or the products thereof is necessary, the unit concerned must apply for approval by the department of wildlife administration under the government of the relevant province, autonomous region or municipality directly under the Central Government or by a unit authorized by the same department. Units and individuals that domesticate and breed wildlife under special state protection may, by presenting their domestication and breeding licenses, sell wildlife under special state protection or the products thereof, in accordance with the relevant regulations, to purchasing units designated by the government. The 32

41 administrative authorities for industry and commerce shall exercise supervision and control over wildlife or the products thereof that are placed on the market. Article 24 The export of wildlife under special state protection or the products thereof, and the import or export of wildlife or the products thereof, whose import or export is restricted by international conventions to which China is a party, must be approved by the department of wildlife administration under the State Council or by the State Council, and an import or export permit must be obtained from the state administrative organ in charge of the import and export of the species which are near extinction. The Customs shall clear the imports or exports after examining the import or export permit. The export of the species of wildlife involving scientific and technological secrets shall be dealt with in accordance with relevant provisions of the State Council. Taiwan: Wildlife Conservation Act Article16 Protected Wildlife shall not be disturbed, abused, hunted, killed, traded, exhibited, displayed, owned, imported, exported, raised or bred, unless under special circumstances recognized in this or related legislation. Protected Wildlife products shall not be traded, exhibited, displayed, owned, imported, exported or processed, unless under special circumstances recognized in this or related legislation. Article 18 Protected Wildlife should be conserved and shall not be disturbed, abused, hunted, killed or otherwise utilized, except in the following cases: 1.When population size exceeds the carrying capacity of the area; or 2.for academic research or educational purposes and with proper approval from the National Principal Authority (NPA). The first condition for utilization listed above shall be approved by the local authorities and the species, location and range, as well as utilization number, season and method shall be announced by the NPA. The application process, fee and other related matters for the second condition shall be set by the NPA. Article 24 No import or export of live wildlife or Protected Wildlife products is allowed without prior approval from the NPA. The import or export of live specimens of Protected Wildlife is limited to academic research institutes, colleges or universities, public or licensed private zoos for education or academic research and circus performances. Article 35 Protected Wildlife, Endangered Species or Rare and Valuable Species products shall not be traded or displayed or exhibited in public areas without the permission of the Authorities. Hong Kong: Chapter 170 Wild Animals Protection Ordinance Schedule 2 All chelonians (turtles, terrapins, tortoises etc.) are Protected Wild Animals. Section 4 Hunting, etc. of protected wild animals prohibited - No person shall, except in accordance with a special permit, hunt or willfully disturb any protected wild animal. Section 5 Protection of nests and eggs - No person shall, except in accordance with a special permit, take, remove, injure, destroy or willfully disturb a nest or egg of any protected wild animal. Section 8 Possession of protected wild animals (1) No person shall, except in accordance with a special permit, have in his possession or under his control- (a) any live protected wild animal taken in Hong Kong; (b) any dead protected wild animal, or part of a protected wild animal, killed or taken in Hong Kong; or (c) any nest or egg of any protected wild animal taken in Hong Kong. (2) For the purposes of subsection (1), where- (a) a person has in his possession or under his control a live protected wild animal, a dead protected wild animal, a part of a protected wild animal, or a nest or egg of a protected wild animal, in a nature 33

42 area; or (b) (i) a person has in his possession or under his control a live protected wild animal, a dead protected wild animal, a part of a protected wild animal, or a nest or egg of a protected wild animal, for a commercial purpose; and (ii) the person, on demand by an authorized officer, fails without lawful authority or reasonable excuse to produce documentary proof that- (A) in the case of a live protected wild animal, or a nest or egg of a protected wild animal, the same was not taken in Hong Kong; (B) in the case of a dead protected wild animal, or a part of a protected wild animal, the same was not killed or taken in Hong Kong, it shall be presumed, unless the contrary is proved, that- (i) in the case of a live protected wild animal, or a nest or egg of a protected wild animal- (A) the same was taken in Hong Kong; and (B) the person knows that the same was taken in Hong Kong; (ii) in the case of a dead protected wild animal, or a part of a protected wild animal- (A) the same was killed or taken in Hong Kong; and (B) the person knows that the same was killed or taken in Hong Kong. Section 9 Sale and export of protected wild animals (1) No person shall, except in accordance with a special permit, buy, sell, export or offer for sale or export - (a) any protected wild animal, or part of a protected wild animal, killed or taken in Hong Kong; or (b) any nest or egg of any protected wild animal taken in Hong Kong. (2) For the purposes of subsection (1), where- (a) a person buys, sells, exports or offers for sale or export a protected wild animal, a part of a protected wild animal, or a nest or egg of a protected wild animal, for a commercial purpose; and (b) the person, on demand by an authorized officer, fails without lawful authority or reasonable excuse to produce documentary proof that- (i) in the case of a protected wild animal, or a part of a protected wild animal, the same was not killed or taken in Hong Kong; (ii) in the case of a nest or egg of a protected wild animal, the same was not taken in Hong Kong, it shall be presumed, unless the contrary is proved, that- (i) in the case of a protected wild animal, or a part of a protected wild animal- (A) the same was killed or taken in Hong Kong; and (B) the person knows that the same was killed or taken in Hong Kong; (ii) in the case of a nest or egg of a protected wild animal- (A) the same was taken in Hong Kong; and (B) the person knows that the same was taken in Hong Kong. 1.3) Management agency responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level Name and type of agency National level o Bureau of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, People s Republic of China State level o Guangdong Provincial Oceanic and Fishery Administration, Guangdong Province o Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuen, Taiwan Local level o Gangkou Sea Turtle National Nature Reserve, Huidong County o Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government, Hong Kong 2. Nesting populations 2.1) Overview Leatherback turtles have not been recorded nesting in China. 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details of leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results. There have been confirmed captures, sightings or stranding events of leatherback turtles in China (see Figure 1). Leatherback turtles tagged while nesting at Terengganu in Peninsula Malaysia during the 1960s and 1970s have been recaptured in coastal waters of China, including off Hainan (see Malaysian report Figure 3). 34

43 Figure 1. The distribution of leatherback turtle sightings in China 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters In general most sightings of leatherback turtles in China occur from April to December. Specific records from the literature include the following seasonal trends: o Hong Kong waters, Guangdong Province from April to December (Simon Chan, pers. comm.) o Zhangjiang, Guangdong in December (Zhou Ting, pers. comm.) o Dongshan Island, Zhangpu, Xiamen, Pingtan Island, Changle and Luoyuan of Fujian Province in unknown months (Zheng 1985) o Xingcheng, Dalian, Zhanghai, Xinjin, Biliu estuary and Donggou of Liaoning Province from May to September (Huang and Zhu 1987). o Lianyungang, Lusi and Haimen of Jiangsu Province from August to October (Zhou 1983). o Biliu estuary and Dalian of Liaoning Province in May (Zhao and Huang 1982). o Coastal waters along the provinces of Guangdong, Guangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Shangdong, Hebei and Liaoning in unknown months (Huang 1979). o Waters between Dongshan Island and Lianjiang, Guangdong Province and Xisha Archipelago from May to October (Frazier et al. 1988) 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles In general, the carapace length of leatherback turtles found in China s waters range from 98 to 159cm. Specific records from the literature include the following sizes. o Body length 164cm; width 128cm specimen from Zhangjiang, Guangdong in December (Zhou Ting, personal communication) o Body length cm; width 65-90cm specimens from Lianyungang, Lusi and Haimen of Jiangsu Province (Zhou 1983). o Carapace length cm; width 52-86cm specimens from Biliu estuary and Dalian of Liaoning Province (Zhao and Huang 1982). 35

44 o CCL to 152.5cm specimens from the waters between Dongshan Island and Lianjiang, Guangdong Province and Xisha Archipelago (Frazier et al. 1988) 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles. There are no data on the diet of leatherback turtles that forage in China s waters. 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas. There is no information available about preferred foraging areas of leatherback turtles in China. 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles. Fisheries bycatch is main threat to leatherback turtles in China (Cheng and Chen 1997). No other threats have been identified in China. 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved There has been no quantitative study on the current threat level of the set net fishery. 4. Concluding remarks While an uncommon species in China, the leatherback is distributed throughout its waters. The leatherback is a pelagic species, spending most of its life in the offshore waters. Both adult and subadult specimens can be found in China. This information was obtained mainly from fishery bycatchments or beach stranding events. Leatherback turtles are not known to nest in China. A comprehensive assessment of marine turtles in China has been prepared by Chan et al. (submitted) 5. References Chan SKF, Cheng IJ, Zhou T, Wang HJ, Gu HX, Song XJ (submitted) A comprehensive overview on the population and conservation status of sea turtles in China. Chelonian Conservation and Biology. Cheng IJ, Chen TH (1997) The incidental capture of five species of sea turtle by coastal setnet fisheries in the eastern waters of Taiwan. Biological Conservation 82, Frazier SS, Frazier JG, Ding HB, Huang ZJ, Zheng J, Lu L (1988) Sea turtles in Fujian and Guangdong Provinces. Acta Herpetologica Sinica 7, Huang ZJ (1979) Marine amphibians and reptiles. Marine Science 4, Huang KC, Zhu ZX (1987) Investigation on the reptiles of the coastal sea of Liaoning. Acta Herpetologica Sinica 6, Zhao EM, Huang KC (1982) A survey of amphibians and reptiles in Liaoning Province. Acta Herpetologica Sinica 1, Zheng J (1985) Preliminary survey of the sea turtles of Fujian. Acta Herpetologica Sinica 4, Zhou KY (1983) Loggerhead, olive ridley and leatherback from the coastal waters of Jiangsu Province. Acta Herpetologica Sinica 2,

45 Status of leatherback turtles in Comoros By Abdallah Fatouma 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview All turtles are protected by law. The following legislation is relevant to wildlife and marine turtles: Decree N 92/015. Prohibits the fishing of, capture of, and commercialisation of certain marine species, as well as degradation of the coastline. o 1st Article: The fishing of shells and corals, the capture of turtles as well as their commercialization is prohibited within national territories in particular within marine reserves. Framework of Environmental Law Decree N 01/31/MPE/CAB. Protects wild species of fauna and flora of Comoros since 14/05/ Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level National level State level Local level Name and type of agency National Management for the Environment General Management for the Environment Marine Park of Moheli, & the community associations 2. Nesting populations 2.1. Overview Historical Evidence No historical evidence for leatherback nesting in Comoros has been reported. Current Situation The fieldwork conducted in Comoros shows the marine park of Moheli is frequented by marine turtles, some of which are marked, tagged, and followed. There have been no records of nesting leatherback turtles reported. All sites within the Comoros that have marine turtle nesting have been surveyed and there have never been any records of leatherback turtle nesting (data contained in the Action Plan for the Conservation of Marine Turtles of Comoros ( ). 3. Foraging populations 3.1. Details on any leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging studies There have been no recoveries of leatherback turtles in Comoros of turtles that were tagged in other countries. Nor have any leatherback turtles foraging in Comoros been tagged Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal or offshore waters There is no available data 3.3. Approximate size range of leatherback turtles There is no available data 3.4. Information on diet of leatherback turtles There has been no study of diet of leatherback turtles foraging in Comoros Threats to foraging populations, and fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles There is no available data 3.6. Other activities being undertaken to improve conservation of leatherback turtles Not applicable 37

46 Status of leatherback turtles in Djibouti 1. Introduction Djibouti has a coastline of 372 km which is often fringed by extensive reefs and limiting to leatherback turtle nesting. The north coast near Eritrea at Ras Bir which faces the Straits of Bab al-mandab is generally shallow and sandy. Djibouti is home to a unique assemblage of marine diversity, and ecologically, the confluence of warm-water tropical biota (from the Indian Ocean and Red Sea), with cold water up-welling habitats (from the Somali and Arabian regions) resembles marine conditions seen in only a few other parts of the world. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview The Republic of Djibouti is a signatory to the London Convention (modified 1954) which is applicable through National Law No. 64/83; the London Convention (1971) on international compensation funds; the London Convention (1973, modified 1978) and its four annexes; the Brussels Convention (1969) on the intervention at high sea; and the United Nations convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS 1982). The first three were approved by Law No. 94/AN/89 2º L in 1989, while the last one was approved by Law in The Republic of Djibouti is also a signatory to the CITES Convention. Decree 80-62/PR/MCTT of 25 May 1980 provides for the protection of the seabed and the marine fauna, whereby the capture of marine mammals and turtles is illegal, as well as the trade with or export of these animals. The present fisheries law was drafted before the countries independence, with the exception of some articles, and is part of the Code. Articles 148, 149 and 220 to 225 (enacted by law 212/AN/82), and Articles 16 to 19 of Law No. 52/AN/78 (1979) regulate the fishery. Certain fishing techniques, such as the use of explosives and poisons, are illegal. They determine the conditions for the exploitation of fishery resources including fishing zones and closed seasons. They also include sanctions in case of violation of these regulations by fishermen. The law in Djibouti punishes anyone who catches a turtle with a 50,000 Djibouti franc fine (~USD 300) and six months jail. 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation At present the number of environmental initiatives in Djibouti is limited. The most important one is a sub-regional contingency plan for the Gulf of Aden developed in Through this the rules for the management of marine protected areas and the exploitation of reef associated species were issued in 1992 by the Maritime Administration. A number of institutions in Djibouti are involved with coastal and marine area and resource management. These are the Ministry of Agriculture and Hydraulics through the Directorate of Stock-farming and Fisheries; the Ministry of Transport and Telecommunications through its Directorate of Maritime Affairs; the National Office for Tourism, Arts and Crafts; the Presidency of the Republic, through the Institute of Higher Studies, Scientific and Technical Research; the Service for Management and Environment, the Inter-ministerial Co-ordination Commission on the Protection of the Marine Fauna and the Seabed and the National Council of the Sea. 3. Nesting populations No reported or otherwise known records of leatherback turtle nesting exist for Djibouti. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview According to fishermen and shell collectors along the coast, who reportedly showed great knowledge about marine turtles, four species of marine turtles can be seen Djibouti s waters: the hawksbill, green, loggerhead and leatherback turtles (Al-Mansi et al. 2003). Thus the leatherback turtle, as would be expected from similar observations along other Red Sea bordering nations, spends at least some time in the waters off Djibouti, but it is unknown whether this is a permanent foraging area or simply a transit area. No research of any kind takes place on marine turtles at present. A short training session was provided to trainers in 2001 and a follow-up in-country training session for local researchers in 2003, but since that time no focused work has been implemented related to marine turtles. PERSGA sponsored conservation initiatives flourished and were effective for a five-year period during which 38

47 funding was on hand, but since the conclusion of the start-up phase, no funds are available to conduct research or conservation activities for marine turtles. Records exist for four tagged turtles (two from Sri Lanka, one from Oman and one from Socotra) being recovered in Djibouti but two of these were green turtles (Sri Lanka) and the other two were loggerhead turtles (Al-Mansi et al. 2003). 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles The main threats to turtles in the Republic of Djibouti come from the illegal harvest of marine turtles by fishermen and shell (carapace/scutes) collection despite the legal protection given to the turtles (Al- Mansi et al. 2003). Other current threats to marine life come from the tourism, shipping and coastal development sectors. At present, fisheries are a limited threat. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas Djibouti has two declared marine protected areas, which have been established for more than ten years: Moucha Territorial Park (1972) and South Mascali Islands Integral Reserve (1980), however these protect habitat that is not thought critical for leatherback turtles. There are two additional areas proposed for protected status, one of which is of regional importance: Godoriya, and Iles des Sept Frères and Ras Siyan, lying at the junction of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. This is a group of high-aspect islands and an adjacent coastal stretch with a mangrove-fringed bay Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation The two major requirements in Djibouti are staff with expertise in turtle biology and ecology, with an understanding of research and monitoring practices, and funding to undertake conservation work. The lack of trained staff stems largely from the lack of a higher education system and the funding avenues for post-graduate study by Djibouti nationals. Personnel for managing marine resources are lacking, although recently the PERSGA-funded field project and the National Biodiversity Project have initiated training of national counterparts in turtle survey techniques. At present there is no monitoring or conservation program for marine turtles. The Environment Department was created recently (1996) and finalised the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) in April 2000 and a National Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation with financial support from the GEF. These include a National Law which will require mandatory Environmental Impact Assessments for all projects concerning the marine environment. It is assumed that with the adoption of the NEAP and Biodiversity Strategy, the Environment Department will be involved in all development projects. There is a need for the managerial staff of the key national institutions to be trained in the basics of the biology and ecology, and conservation needs of marine turtles. Financial constraints are a major obstacle towards the conservation of marine turtles. There have been no funds for short surveys to assess the status of turtles in Djibouti, except for foreign-based research. The Environment Department has had to rely on GEF and PERSGA financial support to conduct the first assessments of turtles in The NEAP calls for the creation of an Environmental Fund which should be established in the near future. It is expected that this fund will be used for conservation of key ecosystems and species such as coral reefs and marine turtles. Finally, there is a general lack of experts at tertiary education levels with knowledge of coral reefs because Djibouti does not have a University. There has been a proposal for the development of a National University, but it will take 5 years or longer before it offers a degree in Marine Biology and Ecology of a post-graduate level. Additionally, there is a proposal to create a Marine Research Institute which will be in charge of conservation of marine ecosystems. References Al-Mansi A, Nasser NA, Aden A (2003) 'The marine turtles in the Republic of Djibouti: their biology and conservation.' PERSGA, Jeddah. 39

48 Status of leatherback turtles in Eritrea By Nicolas Pilcher, Sammy Mahmud and Johannes Tecklemariam 1. Introduction Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea. It is home to globally important coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses and other habitats, as well as numerous vulnerable or globally endangered species including leatherback turtles. Eritrea s coastal, marine and island shores front more than 2,200 km of the Red Sea. There are over 350 islands in Eritrean waters (a large proportion of which form the Dahlak Archipelago which spans some 15,000 km 2 ), but many are small and a full survey is still pending. Only fifteen of the islands have a land area >10 km 2. The mainland coast spans some 1150 km and another 1083 km of coastline are contributed by the islands. The long struggle for independence with Ethiopia, which ended in 1991, resulted in some 30 years of minimal levels of human impact on Eritrea s coastal and marine areas, and the marine resources and environment of Eritrea are therefore generally in very good condition. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Responsibility for the conservation of marine turtles in Eritrea lies with the Ministry of Fisheries and the Ministry of Agriculture. At a National level, marine turtles are addressed by the Coastal Zone Management Proclamation (although this is as yet unsigned) and the Ministry of Agriculture is including marine turtles in other upcoming laws. However, it is likely that in future the responsibility of implementing the National Action Plan and activities related to the IOSEA MoU (which Eritrea recently signed) will be borne by the Ministry of Fisheries after a transfer of authority from the Ministry of Agriculture. At a greater regional level, Eritrea is a signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), both of which address marine turtles due to their globally endangered status. Eritrea is also a signatory to the IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU. 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Responsibility for the conservation of marine turtles in Eritrea lies with the Ministry of Fisheries and the Ministry of Agriculture. In addition, Eritrea benefits significantly from a GEF-funded (US$5m) Eritrea Coastal, Marine and Island Biodiversity (ECMIB) project to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of the globally significant biodiversity of the coastal, marine and island (CMI) ecosystems. While there is still a substantial lack of data on direct harvests and distribution of marine turtles and their habitats in Eritrea, particularly foraging sites, and while many of the key population statistics such as nesting season and population sizes and trends are also lacking (due to the relatively recent commencement of research and monitoring activities), there are a number of known population parameters, key threats and knowledge and enforcement gaps. The development of the National Action Plan for Marine Turtles in Eritrea falls within the scope of the greater ECMIB project. It follows as a logical progression the development and implementation of in-situ training and oversight to develop capacity to design and implement marine turtle surveys, and subsequent monitoring and conservation of marine turtles within the scope of the ECMIB Project, in collaboration with the Ministry of Fisheries, the Ministry of Agriculture, and other key stakeholders. 3. Nesting populations Previous work in Eritrea (Hillman and Gebremariam 1995; Howe et al. 2003) and in the region (Frazier and Salas 1984; Gasparetti et al. 1993) have indicated the presence of the leatherback turtles in the Red Sea, but none suggest nesting had ever been documented, and no contemporary records suggest otherwise. No leatherback turtle nesting was recorded during extensive surveys by the Eritrea Coastal, Marine and Island Biodiversity (ECMIB) project staff in 2004 or

49 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview Bycatch records from the foreign trawl fleet, which carries 100% observer coverage, recorded 39 leatherback turtle catches between 1996 and 2005 (Eritrea Ministry of Fisheries, unpub. data) out of a total 2404 marine turtles that were caught (about 1.6%). This represents the single, largest confirmed record of leatherback turtles in the Red Sea to date, and while the records span a decade, and take rates per year are not high, they do suggest a significant population of leatherback turtles reside in the southern Red Sea, rather than just existing only as transients. The geographical distribution of these takes is illustrated in Figure 1a,b. While the reliability of the observer coverage is not high, it is believed for the most part that all records under-represent actual catch rates that is, if anything, these numbers are lower than actual take rates. In addition, while the identification accuracy among hard shelled turtles may be in question (a full 45% of all bycatch was classified as unidentified ), it is unlikely that the leatherback turtle s distinctive carapace would be as easily misidentified. There is currently no research conducted on leatherback turtles in Eritrea. However, with the advent of the ECMIB project, significant effort is being invested in marine turtle conservation, and leatherback turtles will benefit from project activities. For instance, the ECBMIB project has conducted several training sessions on the biology and conservation of marine turtles, and has conducted a baseline survey along the entire coastline, focused on beach monitoring and involving interviews and field site visits. Future plans include extensions of this work to the fisheries sector, with the possible introduction of Turtle Excluder Devices for all trawlers, trawl soak time limits, and time/area closures. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles Eritrea s coastal areas are now threatened by industrial development, tourism, fisheries and oil exploration, by natural and synthetic organic pollutants, and loss of infrastructure from civil warfare. Bycatch in artisanal and commercial fisheries (trawlers) is significant, and likely the largest source of mortality in the country after artisanal take. Coastal villagers take turtles both opportunistically and as directed take using home-made harpoons, but records suggest they prefer only green turtles, and no leatherback turtle carcasses or bones have ever been found during the beach surveys. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas There are no current MPAs in Eritrea, although plans exist to establish a small number of test sites through which public participation and acceptance will be gauged. Some plans include creating a multiple-use MPA which covers the entire maritime and coastal zone of Eritrea, others suggest zoning the Dahlak archipelago, off Massawa, while others propose a network of smaller sites. These are all currently under deliberation Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation At present there is little effort aimed at protecting foraging turtles of any species. While the ECMIB project has begun focused work on marine turtles, and their efforts are constantly expanding, the logistics of conducting foraging area studies, coupled with the wide and scattered distribution of leatherback turtle encounters with the fishery and vast coastal area, suggest this will be a continuing problem. Certainly there is a need for better trained observers, and better fishery practices, bycatch handling and release methods, along with more vigilant and effective enforcement. Finally, the ECMIB project will one day come to an end, and it is imperative that the skills that are being transferred to the relevant Ministries are not lost and that the valuable conservation efforts do not simply end at that time. 5. References Frazier J, Salas S (1984) The status of marine turtles in the Egyptian Red Sea. Biological Conservation 30, Gasparetti J, Stimson A, Miller J, Ross P, Gasparetti P (1993) Turtles of Arabia. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 13, Hillman JC, Gebremariam T (1995) 'The status of marine turtle conservation in Eritrea.' Resources and Environment Division. Ministry of Marine Resources, Massawa. Howe SA, Asfaha B, Kemp JM (2003) Turtle strandings along the Southern Eritrean Red Sea. Marine Turtle Newsletter 103,

50 Figure. 1 Turtle bycatch by trawlers in Eritrea ; a = northern region and b = southern region. Black dots equal leatherback turtle captures. Source: Ministry of Fisheries / ECMIB Project, Eritrea,

51 Status of leatherback turtles in the French Territories of West Indian Ocean: Reunion Island, Mayotte and Iles Eparses By Stephane Ciccione 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview Marine turtles including leatherback turtles are protected by a Ministry Text of November This is a legally binding text that protects marine turtles and their eggs from use, killing and/or direct capture in all French Territories. 1.2 Management agency responsible for marine turtle conservation in the French Territories of West Indian Ocean Name of agency: Ministry of Ecology and Sustainable Development (MoESD) * Type of agency: Governmental * The MoESD is one of the French Government ministries, not specifically for French territories of Indian Ocean but for all French territories. 2. Nesting populations 2.1 & 2.2) Overview and details of leatherback turtle nesting populations leatherback turtles have not been recorded nesting in any of the French Territories of the west Indian Ocean: La Reunion Island, Mayotte and Iles Eparses (Rolland and Boullet 2005 and Ciccione et al. in press). 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details of leatherback turtle foraging areas census or tagging results such as tag recovery data. From August 1996 to October 1999 logbooks were filled in by fishermen and then used by the Institut Français pour l Etude et l Exploitation des MERs (IFREMER - French institute for seas survey and exploitation for its scientific research which included an assessment of the accidental capture of marine turtles: leatherback represent 52% of marine turtles bycatch (40 turtles from august 1996 to October 1999), and 92% of these turtles were released alive Poisson (2001). These turtles were caught across the Economic Exclusive Zone of all Indian Ocean French Territories, however most captures came from the French ZEE in Mozambique Channel. 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles caught or seen in foraging areas No available data 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles caught or seen in foraging areas No available data 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles No available data 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No other biological studies have been conducted on leatherback turtles in any of the French Territories of the west Indian Ocean. 43

52 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence & year Exploitation of live animals at sea No accounts of it occurring Incidental capture in fisheries Less than 10 per year * 40 turtles from August 1996 to October Boat strikes Plastics (at sea) Industrial effluent Inshore oil pollution Natural threats/predation Other (type in): * = CTOI 2004 [data from 2003] and IFREMER (2005) + = Poisson (2001). No accounts of it occurring No accounts of it occurring No accounts of it occurring No accounts of it occurring No accounts of it occurring None 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved Type of fishery Season of operation Approx number of Impact low, boats/operators medium or high Long Line Fishing Not known 30 * LOW + * = CTOI 2004 [data from 2003] and IFREMER (2005) + = Poisson (2001). 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations o Fisheries bycatch monitoring and reduction efforts were carried out and a bycatch survey was conducted between August 1996 and October 1999 o Nesting beach surveys have been conducted since 1984 on Europa, Juan de Nova, Glorieuses and Tromelin, since 1986 on La Réunion, since 1994 on Mayotte. o Education programs: since 1985 in La Réunion and 1998 in Mayotte Also see section References Ciccione S, Rolland R, Quillard M (in press) 'Les tortues marines de Mayotte.' Bilan et perspectives. CTOI (2004) Scientific report of CTOI (Indian Ocean Tuna Commission) 2004, data IFREMER (2005) Data base 2005, IFREMER of La Reunion Island. Poisson F (2001) Knowledge and conservation of marine turtles in south-west of Indian Ocean. In 'Etudes et colloques du CEDTM N 1'. (Eds S Ciccione, D Roos and JY Legal) pp. 135). Rolland R, Boullet V (2005) 'Mayotte, Biodiversité et Evaluation Patrimoniale.' Contribution à la mise en oeuvre de l'inventaire ZNIEFF. 44

53 Status of leatherback turtles in India By BC Choudhury 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview leatherback turtles in India are fully protected in Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act (WLPA). Upadhyay and Upadhyay (2002) provide a detailed discussion of the national legislation and international instruments of India as they pertain to marine turtles in general. There is no specific legislation for leatherback turtles, but there are a wide variety of national and international instruments that are germane to protecting both the turtles and their habitats. For example; the National Biodiversity Bill, 2000; Habitat Protection: Territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Maritime Zones Act (MZA); Coast Guard Act (CGA); Environmental Protection Act (EPA); Coastal Regulation Zone Notification; Ocean Regulation Zone (ORZ); Regulation of the Use of Marine Areas: Marine Products Export Development Authority Act (MPEDA); Indian Fisheries Act (IFA); Indian Ports Act (IPA); Coast Guard Act (CGA); Maritime Zones of India (Regulation of Fishing by Foreign Vessels) Act, (See Upadhyay and Upadhyay 2002, for details) Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level National level State level Local level Name and type of agency Specifically: Ministry of Environment and Forests (including Chief Wildlife Wardens Offices in each state, and Wildlife Institute of India); Also: Coast Guard, Ministry of Transport, Department of Ocean Development, Ministry of Commerce (particularly Marine Products Export Development Authority), Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Shipping At least Fisheries and Wildlife Departments of the states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharastra, and Gujarat, as well as Union Territories of Andaman & Nicobars and Lakshadveep Islands Highly diverse from township to township and from state to state 2. Nesting populations 2.1. Evidence of leatherback turtle nesting Historical Evidence: The first documented record of leatherback nesting in India seems to be from 1923, off Quilon (now Kollam ), Kerala (Cameron 1923), with a second record 36 years later from near Calicut (now Kozhikode ), Kerala (Jones 1959). Pillai et al. (2003) reported 13 leatherback records from the Indian mainland bet ween 1923 and Of these, there were only two reports of nesting, just cited above. The only evidence of regular nesting outside of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is recounted in Cameron (1923), who was told by fishermen that some 40 turtles used to nest annually at Kollam in the early part of the 20 th century. Current Situation: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is a globally significant region for nesting marine turtles especially the leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in the Indian Ocean. Most rookeries were only found in 1979 and 1990; in 1997 two nesting beaches in the Andamans were discovered and in 2001 three nesting beaches were found on the east coast of Great Nicobar Island (Andrews et al. 2002). Three main islands have been identified (Bhaskar 1981; Bhaskar 1993), and more recently, for containing sites with intensive nesting of leatherback turtles (Andrews et al. 2001). These include: Andaman Archipelago. Little Andaman in the Andaman archipelago (South and West Bay beaches) and two islands; Nicobar Islands. 17 locations have been confirmed in the Nicobar archipelago (Little Nicobar and Great Nicobar Island) (Andrews et al. 2002; Choudhury 2005) Figure 1 45

54 o o o Little Nicobar Islands: Five nesting locations have been identified on the western shores (Andrews et al. 2002). Important nesting beaches identified in the Little Nicobar Islands were mainly on the west coast including Pulo Kiyang, Pulo Baha, and beaches on Kiyang and Akupa hamlets (see table 1). Great Nicobar Islands: Five nesting locations along the west and east coasts (Andrews et al. 2002) these contain two important nesting sites, one on the West Coast (beaches at the mouth of Alexandra and Dogma rivers) and other on the South east coast (Galathea bay) (in Choudhury (2005): See table 1). Other Islands: Other islands where the species has been observed to nest include, Teressa and Katchal (West bay) in the Central Nicobar Islands (in Andrews et al. 2002; Choudhury 2005): see table 1). Mainland. The paucity of records only 13 between 1923 and 2003 (Pillai et al., 2003) indicates that the species is rarely sighted along the coast of the Indian mainland, from both the waters of the Bay of Bengal as well as the Arabian Sea. Cameron s (1923) account indicates that the species was extirpated, at least from the coast of Kerala. Given the intensity of fishing activities along much of the mainland coast of India, it would not be surprising if human impacts had had strong negative impacts on leatherbacks, but with the lack of records, and systematic sampling efforts, great caution much be used when interpreting the little available information. While scattered data from the Andaman and Nicobars are available for the last decade, there is not sufficient data to provide an adequate historic baseline, or estimate trends. Data from the Indian mainland are too sparse to be able to interpret accurately, but all available evidence indicates that leatherbacks rarely nest on mainland beaches (Pillai et al. 2003). Figure 1. (a) Mainland India in relation to other nations and (b) the Andaman and Nicobar Islands 46

55 Table 1: Locations of leatherback turtle nesting beaches, and results of annual surveys Beach name Latitude of beach Longitude of beach Year of survey Annual number Type of data (e.g. turtles, nests, eggs) Reference Little Andaman All beaches 2000/ Turtles Ref 1 South Bay 10 o N 92 o E Nests Ref 3 West Bay 10 o N 92 o 24.8 E Little Nicobar (on west coast) 84 1 Nests 34 1 Nests All beaches 2000/ Turtles Ref 1 Great Nicobar West coast at Alexandra river West coast at of Dogma river South east coast at Galathea bay 7 o N 93 o E 1991/ /01 6 o N 93 o E 1991/ /01 6 o N 93 o E 1991/ / / / / / / Nests 866 * Nests 171 Nests 362 * Nests Turtles Nests Nests Nests Turtles Nests Turtles Nests Females Ref 3 Ref 6 Ref 6 Ref 6 Ref 6 Ref 4 Ref 5 Ref 6 Ref 6 Ref 6 All beaches 1991/ # Turtles Ref 2 Central Nicobar Islands Teressa Is. 2000/01 25 Turtles Ref 1 Katchal Is. (West bay) Ref 6 Ref 7 7 o N 93 o E 2000/01 25 Turtles Ref 1 * Survey results from March, April and July 2001 # Possible under estimated as only 8 of 9 sites were surveyed and many only surveyed at the end of the season (Andrews 2002). 1. Monitoring of less than a complete season at the location 2. Monitoring in March 1993 and April Forest Department records; December 1995 to February 1996 and December 1997 to February Andrews et al. (2002) state that during the 2000 and 2001 nesting season, data from tagging studies and nest counts the nesting population sizes for the Andaman Nicobar Island rookeries are: o Great Nicobar Island is 483 females o Little Andaman is 100 females o Katchal Island is 25 females o Teressa Island is 25 females o Little Nicobar is 100 females 47

56 References 1. = Andrews et al. (2002) 2. = Andrews (2000) 3. = Bhaskar (1993) 4. = Bhaskar and Tiwari (1992) 5. = Bhaskar (1994) 6. = Andrews et al. (in press) 7. = Andrews and Tripathy (2004) 2.2. Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands the nesting season starts in late September, peaks during the month of December and spreads to April with scattered nesting occurring until July (Andrews et al. (in press) Genetic studies on nesting populations of leatherback turtles Unknown 2.4. Biological parameters See Table 2. Table 2. Summary of biological data collected from leatherback turtles from India Category of data Average Standard deviation Size of nesting females Number of eggs per clutch Clutches per season Re-nesting interval (days) Number of years between breeding seasons (years) Size of eggs (cm) Size of hatchlings (cm) Incubation success (%) 190&212cm 155.7cm No data available Range Sample size References Pillai et al. (2003) Andrews et al. (in press) Andrews et al. (2002) Bhaskar (1993) Bhaskar (1993) Andrews et al. (in press) Andrews et al. (in press) No data available No data available No data available Various measurements of 13 leatherbacks recorded from mainland beaches are reported by Pillai et al., (2003). These include curved carapace lengths (CCL) that varied from 93 to 212 cm and body weights that ranged from 110 to 350 kg. The two nesting females were reported to be 190 and 212 cm CCL, and the larger to weigh 272 kg (Pillai et al., 2003) Pivotal Temperatures studies Unknown 2.6. Migration records of nesting leatherback turtles Unknown, however Andrews (2000) mentions that Australian tagged leatherback turtles have been observed nesting on Galathea Beach (Great Nicobar Island). However, given that tags with an Australian return address had been previously supplied for use in that study area and no tag recoveries were reported to the projects that have tagged leatherback turtles in Australia, it is highly likely that these turtles, supposedly from Australia, had in fact been tagged and recaptured in the Nicobar Islands (Col Limpus Pers. Comm.). 48

57 2.7. Protection of nesting beaches (e.g. National Parks) Protected area status is conferred on the Nicobar Islands, for access is strictly controlled; even Indian citizens (not including residents of the Islands) must have permission to visit. In the Andaman Group 69% of the land is comprised of reserves and protected areas (36% as tribal reserves) and the entire Nicobar Group is designated as a tribal reserve, and there are four wildlife sanctuaries Hatcheries used to protect leatherback turtle nests Unknown 2.9. Threats to nesting leatherback turtles Potential threats on mainland beaches include intentional predation of nesting females and/or their eggs, egg predation by feral dogs and other predatory mammals, and entanglement in gear, such as nets on beaches (see also section 3.7 on bycatch). However, the numbers of leatherback turtles nesting on the mainland is so small that these are not likely to be substantive issues, at least for this species. Depredation of eggs, turtles and hatchlings by feral dogs is a major problem for beaches in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands. Indeed it has been estimated that feral dogs may predate 70% of eggs at some locations. On the west coast of Great Nicobar between December 2000 and March 2001 feral dogs and domestic pigs predated 60 and 10% respectively of the 866 nests recorded (Andrews et al in press). Incidental capture and consumption of meat and eggs are also threats to the nesting populations of leatherback turtles. However, these have not been quantified specifically for leatherback turtles (Andrews et al. in press) Coastal development & sand mining Beach armouring is a significant problem at least in Kerala (Dileepkumar and Jayakumar in press). However, the numbers of leatherbacks nesting on the mainland is so small that this is not likely to be a substantive issue, at least for this species. On the Andaman-Nicobar Islands the main threat for all species of nesting turtles is sand mining for construction (Andrews et al. in press). 3. Foraging populations 3.1. Details of any leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results. Unknown 3.2. Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters Unknown 3.3. Approximate size range of leatherback turtles caught or seen in foraging areas Unknown 3.4. Information on diet of leatherback turtles No specific studies are known 3.5. Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas Unknown 3.6. Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles See section 3.7 on bycatch 3.7. Fisheries bycatch of leatherback Turtles leatherback turtles are reported to be caught accidentally in a variety of fishing gear: gillnets (Tamil Nadu and Kerala); trawl nets (Tamil Nadu); and beach seines (Kerala) (Pillai et al., 2003). It is not know if these sorts of fishing present specific threats to females that are approaching or leaving nesting beaches, or simply general threats to the species. As only eleven leatherbacks have been reported captured in diverse fisheries over the eighty-year period from 1923 to 2003, it appears that incidental catch is not a common problem. Andrews et al. in (press) indicate that incidental capture of turtles is a threat to nesting and foraging populations in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands, however the numbers per species are not stated (Andrews et al. in press). 49

58 2. Conservation Actions Areas of change Awareness raising programmes Fishery controls Summary including report references Various and diverse initiatives on the mainland, but of limited direct relevance to leatherbacks Various and diverse initiatives on the mainland, but of limited direct relevance to leatherbacks 5. References Andrews HV (2000) Current marine turtle situation in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands - An urgent need for conservation action. Kachhapa 3, Andrews HV, Krishnan S, Biswas P (2001) 'The status and distribution of marine turtles around the Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago.' GOI-UNDP Sea Turtle Project. Andrews HV, Krishnan S, Biswas P (2002) leatherback nesting in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Kachhapa 6, Andrews HV, Krishnan S, Biswas P (in press) Distribution and status of marine turtles in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In 'Marine Turtles of India.' (Eds K Shanker and BC Choudhury). (Universities Press; Hyderabad, India). Bhaskar S (1981) 'Sea turtle survey of Great Nicobar and Little Andaman Islands.' WWF-India. Bhaskar S (1993) 'The status and ecology of sea turtles in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. ST 1/93.' Centre for herpetology, MCBT. India. Bhaskar S (1994) 'Andaman and Nicobar sea turtle project. Phase V.' Unpublished report for the Centre for Herpetology Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Tamil Nadu, India. Bhaskar S, Tiwari M (1992) 'Andaman and Nicobar sea turtle project. Phase 1: Great Nicobar Island.' Unpublished report for the Centre for Herpetology Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Tamil Nadu, India. Cameron TH (1923) Notes on turtles. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 29, Choudhury BC (2005) 'Compiled report on the Impact of tsunami on the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting beaches in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India.' IOSEA Advisory Committee. Unpublished report prepared for the IOSEA Advisory Committee. 9 pages. Dileepkumar N, Jayakumar C (In press) Sea turtles of Kerala. In 'Marine Turtles of the Indian sub-continent'. (Eds K Shanker and BC Choudhury) pp (Universities Press: Hyderabad, India). Jones S (1959) A leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Linnaeus) coming ashore to lay eggs during the day. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 56, Pillai SK, Suresh KK, Kannan P (2003) leatherback turtle released into the sea at Vizhinjam in Kerala, India. Kachappa 9. Upadhyay S, Upadhyay V (2002) International and national instruments for marine turtle conservation in India. In: J. Frazier (ed.) International instruments and marine turtle conservation - Special issue. Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy 5,

59 Status of leatherback turtles in Indonesia By Windia Adnyana 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview Leatherback turtles and their eggs are fully protected under Indonesian law 1. Decision Letter (Surat Keputusan) from the Ministry of Agriculture No: 327/Kpts/Um/5/1978 regarding the protection status of leatherback turtles in Indonesia. In short it called SK 327/78 2. ACT (Undang Undang) of the Indonesian Government Number 5/1990 regarding Conservation of Natural Resources and Their Ecosystems (Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam Hayati dan Ekosistemnya). In short it is called UU No. 5/90 Free translation of the relevant content: catching, harming, killing, storing, owning, keeping, transporting, trading in protected wildlife is prohibited, whether dead or alive; similarly transporting wildlife to places inside or outside of Indonesia is prohibited; trading in, storing or owning skin, bodies or parts of protected wildlife and things made from parts of protected wildlife is prohibited as is moving these to places within or outside Indonesia; getting, breaking, destroying, trading in, storing or owning eggs or nests of protected wildlife is also prohibited. Those who are undertaking activities as mentioned previously will be sentenced to jail for a maximum 5 years or will be fined a sum of Rp (one hundred million rupiah =~ $11,000USD). 3. The Government Regulation (Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia) Number 7/1999. In short it is called PP 7/99 Free translation of the relevant content: Species listed in the attachment (including all species of marine turtles occurring in Indonesia) are protected AND THEREFORE are subject to the effects of other parts of this law and the effects of UU No.5/1990. Species can be added to the protected list (or removed from it) by further laws. Sending or transporting protected plants and wildlife can (whether within Indonesia or to outside destinations) can only be done with the permission of the Minister. It also requires a health certificate from a competent agency and can only be done according to technical regulations. 4. The Government Regulation (Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia) Number 8/1999 regarding the Use of Plants and Wildlife Free translation of the relevant content: Those who are using protected plants or wildlife as listed in PP 7/99 for research and development without permit from the Minister of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation will be fined maximum a sum of 50,000, rupiah (fifty millions rupiah), and/or will not be allowed to carry out any activities that fall into category research and development for a maximum 5 years Without permit to take protected plants or wildlife as listed in PP 7/99 for study, ranching (penangkaran) and alike will be fined maximum a sum of 25,000, rupiah (twenty five millions rupiah) and/or their ranching (and alike) license will be disqualified Without permit to keep protected plants or wildlife as listed in PP 7/99 for ranching purposes and alike will be fined maximum a sum of 100,000, rupiah (one hundreds millions rupiah) and will be sentenced to jail for a maximum 5 years Captive breeders and alike (penangkar) undertaking trade activities of protected plants or wildlife without fulfilling a proper qualification standard or undertake smuggling activities will be fined maximum a sum of 100,000, rupiah (one hundreds million rupiah) and/or their license will be disqualified Captive breeders (penangkar) who are undertaking wildlife trade will be fined a sum of 200,000, (two hundreds millions rupiah) and/or their license will be disqualified. 51

60 1.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level National level State level Local level Name and type of agency The Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (Direktorat Jenderal Perlindungan Hutan dan Konservasi Alam PHKA), Department of Forestry, Indonesia The Nature Conservation Agency (Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam - BKSDA). This is a functional unit of the PHKA The Nature Conservation Agency (Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam - BKSDA). This is a functional unit of the PHKA 2. Nesting populations 2.1 Summary of nesting records for Indonesia There are some historical nesting sites for leatherback turtles in Indonesia as summarized below. However, apart from Meru Betiri and Alas Purwo National Parks (both are located in East Java) and the North Coast of Vogelkop - Papua, data are not quantified. While historical nesting populations for Meru Betiri and Alas Purwo are predicted to yield less than 50 nests per year (Table 3 and 4 and Figures 1 and 2), North Coast of Vogelkop particularly Jamursba Medi Warmon is recorded to yield between nests per year (Table 1 and 2). Survey methods vary between nesting sites. In most sites, surveys were done by means of questionnaire. Direct population monitoring or nest census was only conducted in Meru Betiri and Alas Purwo National parks (see Figures 1 and 2 for annual census data) and Jamursba Medi -Warmon. Historical nesting sites 1. Sumatra a. Aceh: (1) Blok Kluet - Tapaktuan, Gunung Leuser National Park 1 (2) Simeulue island 1 b. North Sumatra: (1) Batu islands (kep. Batu) 2 c. West Sumatra: (1) The islands of Pasaman, Siberut, Penyu, and Sipura 2 (2) Coast of the Regency of South Pesisir includes the island of Penyu, Beringin, Kerabak Besar, Kerabak Kecil, Katang-Katang and Gosong island 3 d. Bengkulu: (1) The island of Pendek, Tikus, Sawangatung, Bintuhan, and Muko-Muko 2 e. Lampung: (1) Cina Peninsula (Tg. Cina) 2 2. Java a. West Java: (1) Pangumbahan Sukabumi of West Java 4 (2) Ujung Kulon and Panaitan island 2 b. East Java: (1) Sukomade Meru Betiri National Park, East Java 2 (2) Alas Purwo National Park, Est Java 5 3. Bali a. Pecatu Beach - Southern part of Bali 6 b. Lepang Beach South Eastern part of Bali 6 4. West Nusa Tenggara a. South-West Coast of Sumbawa 2, 7 5. Sulawesi a. North Sulawesi (1) Tangkoko island Batuangus 2 b. Central Sulawesi (1) Tg Arus Tg Dako 2 c. South Sulawesi (1) Selayar island, Tg Apatama 2 6. Maluku (Moluccas) a. North Coast of Morotai 2 52

61 7. Irian Jaya (Papua) a. Sayang island, Ayu islands, Asia islands, Dua islands 2 b. North Coast of Vogelkop 2, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and Japen island, Inggresau 2 References cited: 1 Database Wetlands International Indonesia Program 2 Cited from various sources by Tomascik et al. (1977) 3 Harfiandri Damanhuri quoted by Antara News, 4 November Natural Resources Management (NRM) Program, Headline News, Issue No. 2, 22 January Database of Alas Purwo National Park 6 Database of Bali Post 7 A Quarterly Bulletin of Suara Batu Hijau, No. 12 Edition April July 2004, Published by PT Newmont Nusa Tenggara PTNNT 8 Putrawidjaja (2000) 9 Tapilatu (2000) 10 Hitipeuw and Maturbongs (2002) 11 Suganuma et al. (2005) 12 Teguh (2000) Current nesting This section will focus on four leatherback turtle nesting sites in which direct population monitoring programs are in place, i.e. Jamursba Medi Warmon (Papua) and Meru Betiri - Alas Purwo National Parks (East Java) (see Figure 3). Jamursba Medi Warmon Jamursba Medi (JM) beach is located at 0º20-0º22 S and 132º25-132º39 E, between two headlands/cape Jamursba and Medi, in the north coast of Vogelkop, Papua. The northern border is the Pacific Ocean while the southern part is Tamrau Mountain with elevation of 45º. The beach is fairly flat and about 21 kilometres long. It is divided into three sections and sequentially disconnected by few small headlands/capes: (1) Wembrak beach (approx. 8.2 km) with black sand substrate, (2) Baturumah beach (approx. 5 km) with greyish white sand substrate, and (3) Warmamedi beach (approx. 4.8 km) with greyish white sand substrate. Based on the WWF study in 1999, the greyish sand of JM constitutes coarse % and fine % aggregates. It is suspected that the beach substrates originated from transported sediment from Pacific seabeds due to the high ocean dynamics (during the monsoons of November to February); since the nearby waterways are only perennial streams or dry stream beds. Being located in the southern part of the equator induces the tropical climate with relatively stable air temperature 29-32ºC and humidity 75-80% (Petocz 1987). Annual rainfall density ranges from 1500 to 2500 mm during the west monsoon. JM beach is located on the northern side of the mountain of North Tamrau, fringed by beach and lowland rain forest (0-100 m above sea level). Mangroves are absent due to the high dynamics of the Pacific Ocean. Littoral vegetation occupying the fringe are Ipomea pes-caprae, Hibiscus tilleaceous, Baringtonia asiatica, and Pandanus canavalia, Pemphis acidula, Tournefortia orgentea, Scaevola sericea, Terminalia catappa, Calophyllum inophyllum, Crinum asiaticum, Spinifex sp. The northern Papua coast, on the eastern perimeter of Southwest Pacific Ocean, is inhabited by four marine turtle species, i.e. leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea). Leatherback turtles are widely distributed on the northern part of the Bird Head Peninsula. Tomascik et al. (1977) included the distribution of the species from Waigeo Island to Yapen Island. However, there is no reliable data on the population size except for JM. Nesting activities in the Bird s Head region are highly dictated by the monsoon. The nesting season in JM starts in March and terminates in September. The peak of the nesting season occurs around June when the sea is relatively calm. Numbers of clutches laid per day in a breeding season is about 20 to 30. Based on the 467 samples, Bhaskar (1987) found the average re-nesting interval to be 9.53 days and as many as eleven clutches were laid per female in a breeding season. Nesting activities later shifted to War-Mon beach (four-km beaches), eastward of JM. This is probably related to the strong eastward current (western monsoon) that made it difficult for the turtles to swim westward. It is possible that nesting period of this particular species occur throughout the year along the northern part of Papua, but concentrated at particular site of such an extended coastline 53

62 depends on the monsoon and consequently ocean current. Following a preliminary survey initiated in 1984, data on the status of the leatherback turtle nesting population has been collected intensively by WWF-Indonesia in collaboration with the Nature Conservation Agency of Sorong since In addition, several other turtle specialists also visited the area and conducted short-term surveys (e.g. Suganuma et al. 2005). Most activities were conducted during the distinct nesting season (May- September). The data is provided in Tables 1 and 2 of section 2. There is a gap of information on population in 1998 and 2000 due to technical and financial constraint (transition of management authority). Sukamade, Meru Betiri National Park (East Java). Sukamade beach is located between 8 o 21-8 o 35 S and 113 o o 58 E in the Coast of South- Eastern Part of Java. The south border is Indian Ocean while the northern part is the Forest of Betiri Mountain (1213 m); the previous home of the Javan tiger. The Sukamade beach is fairly flat ( ) and about three kilometres long, with greyish white sand substrate. The sand is dominated by fine (> 80%) aggregates measuring mm. Annual rainfall density ranges from 2000 to 4000 mm during the west monsoon (November to March). Beach vegetation can be categorized into four, i.e.: beach forest (Hibiscus telectus, Calophyllum inophyllum, Pandanus tectorius and Terminalia catappa), mangroves (Rhizopora sp, Avicennia marina, Bruguiera sp, Sonneratia sp and Nypafrutican), swamp forest (Gluta renghas, Lagerstromia sp, Alstonia scularis), Sterculia foetida and Coripha gebang), and lowland rain forest (Artocarpus elasticus, Pterospermum javanicum, Dendrocalamus asper, and Bambusa sp). The beach has been known to have been visited by four marine turtle species, i.e. leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea). Based on the records compiled by National Park officers, the green turtle is predominant, while the other three species, including the leatherback turtle nest occasionally (see Table 1 in Section 2. 1 for data). Alas Purwo National Park (East Java) Alas Purwo National Park (East Java) is located in the eastern tip of Java island, between 8 o o S and 114 o o E. Similarly, with Sukamade, the south border is Indian Ocean while the other side is lowland forest of Alas Purwo. Nesting occurs in Ngagelan beach, a fairly flat beach (0,86 o 10,76 o ) about 18 kilometres long, with greyish white sand substrate with diameter between mm. Annual rainfall density ranges from 1300 to 2000 mm during the west monsoon (November to March). Beach vegetation is predominated by Pandanus tectorius. The beach has been used by four marine turtle species, i.e. leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea). Based on the records compiled by the National Park officers, the latter species is predominant. The other three species, including the leatherback turtle nest occasionally (see Table 1 in Section 2.1 for leatherback turtle data). 54

63 CLUTCHES LAID PER YEAR Arinal (1997); Database of Muru Betiri National Park YEAR Figure 1. Annual variation in the numbers of leatherback turtle clutches laid at Sukamade Beach in Meru Betiri National Park (East Java). EGGS LAID PER YEAR BREEDING SEASON Database of Alas Purwo National Park Figure 2. Annual variation in the numbers of leatherback turtle eggs laid at Alas Purwo National Park (East Java). 55

64 Figure 3. Locations of current leatherback turtle nesting sites in Indonesia. 1 = Jamursba Medi and 2 = Warmon Beach, 3 = Sukomade, 4 = Alas Purwo. Open circles = other minor leatherback turtle nesting sites and stars = sites were nesting has been recorded but not quantified Table 1. Leatherback turtle nesting census data for Jamursba Medi Papua Beach name Latitude Longitude Year of survey Annual Type of Reference of beach of beach number * data Jamursba Medi 0 20' '- Aug & Sept Nests Database WWF 0 22' S E Jamursba Medi June to Sept Nests Database WWF Jamursba Medi June to Sept Nests Database WWF Jamursba Medi June to Sept Nests Database WWF Jamursba Medi June to Sept Nests Database WWF Jamursba Medi May Aug Nests Database WWF Jamursba Medi May Oct Nests Teguh (2000) Jamursba Medi March Aug Nests Database WWF Jamursba Medi March Nov Nests Database WWF * the data for Jamursba presented here is not the annual number but total nests recorded during the survey. Table 2. Leatherback turtle nesting census data for Warmon Beach Papua (± 30 km toward North- East from Jamursba Medi) Beach name Latitude of beach Longitude of beach Year of survey Annual number * Type of data Reference Warmon Beach January May Nest Database WWF Warmon Beach Nov 2003 to June 2320 Nests Database WWF 2004 Warmon Beach July Dec Nests Database WWF Warmon Beach Nov 2003 to Sept 2881 Nests Thebu & 2004 (continuous Hitipeuw (2005) data) # Warmon Beach Jan Feb Nests Suganuma et al. (2005) * data for Warmon presented here is not the annual number but total nests recorded during the survey. # data incorporates the data listed in the data for the same time period contained in the WWF database. 56

65 Table 3. Leatherback turtle nesting census data for Sukomade (Meru Betiri National Park), East Java. Beach Latitude of Longitude Year Annual Type of Reference name beach of beach number data Sukomade 8 o o Nests Database of Meru 8 o 35 S 113 o 58 E Betiri National Park Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database Sukomade Nests MBNP database 2.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting The nesting season for leatherback turtles in Jamursba Medi starts in March and terminates in September. The peak of the nesting season occurs around June. Nesting activities have lately shifted to War-Mon beach (four-km beaches), eastward of Jamursba Medi. This is probably related to the strong eastward current (western monsoon) that unable the turtles to swim westward. It is possible that nesting period of this particular species occurs throughout the year along the northern part of Papua, but concentrated at particular sites along the extended coastline depending on the monsoon and consequently ocean current (WWF 2003a). The nesting season for leatherback turtles on Sukamade and Alas Purwo Beaches varies throughout the year, but most frequently between October January (WWF 2003b). 2.3) Genetic studies on leatherback turtles Leatherback turtle population genetic studies have been done only for Jamursba Medi. The work was done collaboratively between NOAA and WWF Indonesia in The total number of genetic samples collected was 100. Dutton et al and Benson et al. (in press) state that the nesting turtles in Jamursba Medi are in the same genetic population as those that nest in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. 2.4) Biological parametres. The biological parameters for the nesting leatherback turtle population are detailed in Tables 5 and 6 57

66 Table 4. Leatherback turtle nesting census data for Alas Purwo National Park of East Java. Beach name Latitude of Longitude of Year of Annual Type Reference beach beach survey number of data Alas Purwo 8 o o 114 o Eggs Database of Alas S 114 o E 1,121 Purwo National Park Alas Purwo Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,875 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,513 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,647 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,643 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,166 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,595 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,105 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,452 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,520 Eggs Database of APNP Alas Purwo ,748 Eggs Database of APNP Table 5. Details of clutch parameters for leatherback turtle nests in Papua Average per nest Bhaskar (1987) N=25 WWF (1994) N=27 WWF (2001) N=136 Eggs Yolked eggs 72 (67% of total eggs) 72 (66% of total eggs) 45 (64% of total eggs) Hatched eggs 31 (43% of Yolked eggs) 53 (73% of yolked eggs) 21 (47% of yolked eggs) Hatchlings emerged 25 (80% of hatched eggs) 51 (96% of hatched eggs) 18 (72% of hatched eggs) Table 6. Details of biological parameters for leatherback turtles nesting in Indonesia Category of data Average Standard deviation Range Sample size References Size of nesting females No data available Number of eggs per clutch No data available Clutches per season No data available Re-nesting interval (days) Bhaskar (1987) Number of years between No data available breeding seasons (years) Size of eggs (cm) No data available Size of hatchlings (cm) No data available 2.5). Pivotal temperature studies None 2.6) Migration records Post-nesting migration of Papuan leatherback have been studied extensively by satellite telemetry in nesting season by NOAA and WWF - Indonesia. The turtles swam mostly into the waters of the northern Pacific Philippines, Korea/Japan and mid northern Pacific Ocean (Dutton, Benson, Hitipeuw and Rei unpublished data). 2.7) Protection of nesting beaches Name of the beach(s) Jamursba Medi Warmon Sukamade beach Ngagelan beach Name of the National Park Proposed to be a turtle sanctuary Meru Betiri National Park Alas Purwo National Park 58

67 2.8) Use of hatcheries to leatherback turtle nests Hatcheries are not used to protect leatherback turtle nests in Indonesia 2.9) Threats to nesting populations of leatherback turtles Threats to sea turtles are broadly defined as any factor that jeopardizes the survival of turtles and impedes the recovery of the populations. They exist in almost all phases of the sea turtle life cycle. Main threats identified for leatherback turtles in Indonesia are: adult poaching, egg harvests, feral predations and incidental take by fisheries. Additionally, natural threats such as tidal inundation and hatching failure were observed and therefore required specific studies to confirm impacts. Below is the short description for Jamursba Medi Warmon. A similar situation is believed to occur in Meru Betiri and Alas Purwo National Parks. An overall summary of threats to nesting leatherback turtles in Indonesia is presented in Table 7. Poaching of adult turtles and eggs Poaching of the adult leatherback turtles while they are nesting does not occur. Leatherback turtle eggs, however, have become an important protein source for the coastal communities. Exploitation of turtle eggs on Jamursba Medi beach was relatively intense for a long time, mostly by outside fishermen (from Sorong, Manokwari, Biak, North Maluku). During 1984 and 1985, four to five fishing boats were observed visiting the beach weekly and loaded 10,000-15,000 eggs per boat. The right to collect eggs is given by local people through a trade with household needs such as sugar, rice, salt, soap, cigarettes, and cooking utensils. The beaches became crowded with tempory huts when the nesting season comes. This activity has declined significantly since the intensive monitoring initiated by WWF started in 1993 (Suarez et al. 2000). Depredation of eggs WWF preliminary work through Bhaskar in 1985 sought a more detail information about nest depredation by wild pigs (Sus scrofa). This animal was introduced long ago to the island of New Guinea and is probably responsible for the decline of the nesting population in addition to the human poaching. Nests located close to the fringe of the forests are likely safe from inundation and beach erosion, but vulnerable to the pig depredation. Besides, the wild pigs, monitor lizards (Varanus salvator) and domestic dogs also dig up nests which have been formerly raided by the pigs. Based on the survey done in early July 1985 on JM, an average of 50 nests per night was being deposited and at hatching time, 56 days later, there was evidence that only three or four nests were successfully hatched per day. 17% of the nests were likely to have been inundated; up to 93% of the rest of the nests were destroyed by pigs. The situation in War-Mon Beach is also similar to the JM. Surveys done by WWF-Papua (Stark 1992) counted 387 leatherbacks nests destroyed by feral pigs on Warmamedi beach nest Lawalata et al. (2005) during daytime. The characteristic funnel shaped pit of a nest destroyed by feral pigs may extend up to one metre depth and two metres across, giving the beaches a pock-marked war zone appearance. Interviews done with local people and observations on numerous empty shells lying in and around the nest excavation clearly indicated that wild pigs were the greatest cause of egg mortality. In July to September 1993, 181 out of 1300 nests (14%) depredated by wild pigs. Monitor lizards and dogs also depredate the emerging hatchlings, in addition to ghost crabs (Ocypode sp), birds (crows, Corvus orrea), sea eagles (Haliaetus leucogaster), brahmini kites (Haliastus indus), sharks and finally fishes (threadfin). Scavenging birds such as sea gulls usually wait for the hatching time in late afternoon. In addition, Thebu and Hitipeuw (2005) examined 2881 leatherback turtle nests laid at Warmon beach between November 2003 and September These authors indicated that of the 2881 nests laid 369 (13%) were depredated by pigs, 136 (5%) were depredated by dogs and 310 (11%) were inundated. Suganuma (2005) report data on egg predation from Jamursba-Medi beach for September 1999, July 2001, July 2002, September 2002 and September In this study he found that the predation rate in July 1999 was 63.3% of all nests laid in Jamursba Medi. Following this finding the beach was protected by a series of electric fences to prevent pig predation. The first fence was constructed in March 2001 and in June 2001 predation rates were 24%. The second fence was constructed in July 2002 and predation rates were 17.5% in July 2002, 11.2% in September 2002 and 7.1% in September 2003 (Suganuma 2005). 59

68 Fisheries impacts Although the rapid collapse observed for most populations of leatherback turtles was due primarily to poaching of eggs, the indigenous harvest of adult leatherbacks, the high rate of incidental mortality in fishing gear probably accelerated this process. Facing the Pacific Ocean made the waters off the north coast of Papua potential for pelagic fisheries of both national or foreign fishing industries. Based on the licensing records issued by Department of Fisheries in Sorong, there has been a substantial increase of pelagic fishing activities (for boats less that 30 gross tonnage). These types of fisheries include tuna longline, gillnet, trammel net and some other traditional type of fisheries, trap nets, floating cages with submerged lights (bagan). In addition, being at the edge of national economic exclusive zone (over 200 nautical miles) illegal fishing activities occur in the area. Assuming that leatherbacks migrate across the Pacific Ocean, fisheries activities both on the west and east side will harm them. The Asian longline and drift net fisheries killed at least 500 to 1000 leatherbacks per year during the 1980s and they still kill hundreds of leatherbacks per year in the 1990s (Nishimura and Nakahigashi 1990; Wetherall et al. 1993). The Chilean swordfish fishery killed a minimum of 250 leatherbacks per year in 1988 and 1989 (Frazier and Brito 1990). Pritchard (1982) recorded many dead leatherbacks on nesting beaches along the Pacific coast of Mexico in Fishing activities around the north coast of Vogelkop occur during the eastern monsoon, when the sea surface is calm. Unfortunately, this period coincides with nesting season in JM beach. No quantification of the fisheries induced mortality problem being done so far. However, communities living along the north coast and north islands of Papua witnessed some leatherbacks entangled in fishing nets. Emerged Hatchlings seemed to attract sharks. This opportunity is taken by fishermen to catch sharks with gillnets. Adult turtles if often found entangled in the nets in front of the beach. Nesting success and beach stability Nesting success of leatherbacks is dependent on the dynamic seasonal erosion and accretion of the beaches. In JM beach three to six day periods of windy weather occurred each year in late August or early September. During this period the sea surface abruptly gets rough and this is probably associated with the beginning of the northwest monsoon. Most parts of the beach concurrently with the hatching eggs are washed away. From October onwards the sea is constantly rough. By December/ January there may be 5 to 10 m of beach left between the high tide mark and the forest, and nothing on other stretches. Accretion starts around April each year and the width of the beach slowly increased (coinciding with the increase in turtle nesting) and reached 65 m by late August. At present, the logging concessions are not allowed in the southern boundary of the nesting beach, which is gazetted as limited production forest. The logging activities include lumber harvest and transportation, and the construction of a log pond and base camps. These activities potentially threaten the beach structure, due to changes to the physical environment, not to mention a potential threat of increased opportunity for poaching in the future. Logging and log transportation will likely cause upstream erosion of rivers and consequently the degradation of nesting habitats. The use of the beach as an access for harvested lumber to log pond also has a direct impact on nesting turtles as the logs will potentially block turtle access to the nesting beach. Hatchling failure and sex ratio variation are two areas in need of further study Table 7. Summary of threats occurring towards leatherback turtles in Indonesia Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence Low Med High Unknown Low Med High Exploitation of nesting females X X Egg collection X X Agricultural development X X Tourist development X X Urban development X X Industrial development X X Artificial lighting X X 60

69 Coastal erosion X X Vehicles on the beach X X Sand mining X X Unregulated hatchery NA NA practices Natural threats/predation X X Fisheries bycatch X X 2.10) Impacts of coastal development and/or sand mining on leatherback turtles nesting None 2.11) Major existing threats to nesting leatherback turtles Priority 1: Priority 2: Priority 3: Egg poaching Habitat degradation Fisheries by catch 2.12) Other biological studies conducted on nesting leatherback turtles None 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Overview There have been no studies on foraging leatherback turtles in Indonesia 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal or offshore waters Lawalata et al. (2005) reports that Kei Islanders hunt leatherback turtles predominately during November to February when the waters are calm. 3.3) Size range of leatherback turtles in coastal or offshore waters Size data (curved carapace length) of hunted leatherback turtles from the Kei Islands o October and November 1994 ranged in size from 145 to 173 cm (average 154 and N = 22) Suarez and Starbird (1996) o October 1994 to November 1995 average size 147cm (range 136 to 173; N = 65) Suarez (2000) o November 2003 and October ranged from 52cm to 187 cm (N = 16) (Lawalata et al. 2005). 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles The only available information is from the Kei Islands - Jelly fish (Kei island, Creusa Hitipeuw, pers. comm.). 3.5) Other biological studies None have been conducted 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles Incidental catch of leatherback turtles in Indonesian waters, or by Indonesian fishing fleets is not quantified. However, the direct take (subsistence hunting) of leatherback turtles by people of Kei is a cultural practice that has occurred for generations (Suarez and Starbird 1996; Suarez 2000; Lawalata et al. 2005). Suarez and Starbird (1996) monitored the harvest between October and November 1994 and reported a catch of 23 leatherback turtles by Kei Islanders (six males and 17 females), and between October 1994 and February 1995 Suarez (2000) found 65 leatherback turtle captures (both sexes). More recently the Kei Islands were surveyed between November 2003 and October 2004 (Lawalata et al. 2005). Lawalata et al. (2005) found that at least 29 leatherback turtles were hunted from seven villages in the Kei Islands during this period (18 females and 11 males). An overall summary of threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles in Indonesia is presented in Table 8. 61

70 Table 8. Summary of threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles in Indonesia Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence Directed take of leatherback turtles at sea Longline fisheries Low Med High Unknown Low Med High X X 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved There are no data available, however, WWF Indonesia, together with there partners are conducting studies to identify and quantify fisheries bycatch. 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve conservation of leatherback turtles foraging populations o Policy advocacy to manage fishery bycatch is being conducted by WWF o Community based conservation and awareness programs are being conducted in the Kei Islands (see Lawalata et al. 2005). o Substantial community based awareness raising and public discussions continue between WWF and the local communities with regard to leatherback turtle conservation (see Thebu & Hitipeuw 2005 and Lawalata et al. 2005) 4. Conservation actions The following areas are currently being addressed in Indonesia to help protect leatherback turtles. Areas of change Legislation changes Annual nesting beach surveys Summary including report references for fisheries licensing Only for Jamursba Medi 5. References Bhaskar S (1985) 'The leatherback sea turtle nesting population of Irian Jaya.' PHPA/WWF, Indonesia; Bhaskar S (1987) 'Management and Research of Marine Turtle Nesting Sites on the North Vogelkop Coast of Irian Jaya, Indonesia.' WWF Publication. Benson SR, Kisokau KM, Ambio L, Rei V, Dutton PH, Parker D (in press) Beach use, inter-nesting movement, and migration of leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, nesting on the north coast of Papua New Guinea. Chelonian Conservation and Biology. Dutton PH, Bowen BW, Owens DW, Barragan A, Davis S (1999) Global phylogeography of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Journal of Zoology 248, Frazier JG, Brito Montero JL (1990) Incidental capture of marine turtles by the swordfish fishery at San Antonio, Chile. Marine Turtle Newsletter 49, Hitipeuw C, Maturbongs J (2002) Marine Turtle Conservation Programme Jamursba-Medi Nesting Beach, North Coast of the Bird's Head Peninsula, Papua. In 'Proceedings of the Western Pacific Sea Turtle Cooperative Research and Management Workshop, 5-8 February 2002'. Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. (Ed. I Kinan) pp (Honolulu H: Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council). Lawalata J, Hitipeuw C (2005) Community based management of leatherback turtles residing in Kei Islands: reducing mortality due to traditional hunting practices. In 'Proceedings of the second western Pacific sea turtle cooperative research and management workshop. Volume 1'. Honolulu. (Ed. I Kinan). (Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council) Nishimura W, Nakahigashi S (1990) Incidental capture of sea turtles by Japanese research and training vessels: results of a questionnaire. Marine Turtle Newsletter 51. Petocz RG (1987) Nature Conservation and Development in Irian Jaya. In 'Pustaka Grafiti, Jakarta'. pp Pritchard PCH (1992) Sea turtles. A cornucopia of issues. Florida Naturalist 65, Putrawidjaja M (2000). Marine Turtles in Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Marine Turtle Newsletter 90:8-10 Stark M (1992) Irian Jaya leatherback recovered in the Philippines. Marine Turtle Newsletter 59, 13. Suarez A, Starbird C (1996) Subsistence hunting of leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, in the Kei Islands, Indonesia. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Suarez A, Dutton PH, Bakarbessy J (2000) leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting on the north Vogelkop coast of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. In 'Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Symposium on Sea Turtle 62

71 Biology and Conservation'. (Eds HJ Kalb and T Wibbels). (U.S. Dept. Commerce. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-443.) Suganuma H (2005) leatherback turtle management of feral pig predation in Indonesia. In 'Proceedings of the second western Pacific sea turtle cooperative research and management workshop. Volume 1.' Honolulu, Hawaii. (Ed. I Kinan). (Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council) Suganuma H, Yusuf A, Bakarbessy Y, Kiyota M (2005) New leatherback conservation project in Papua, Indonesia. Marine Turtle Newsletter 109, 8. Tapilatu RF (2000) Conservation of the leatherback turtle population in the Birds Head Region of Papua, Indonesia: A challenge. Teguh H (2000) 'leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) Nesting in Jamursba-Medi Beach, Irian Jaya.' WWF Indonesia-Sahul Bioregion Sorong Field Office, Sorong. Thebu J, Hitipeuw C (2005) leatherback conservation at Warmon Beach, Papua-Indonesia. November 2003 to October In 'Proceedings of the second western Pacific sea turtle cooperative research and management workshop. Volume 1'. Honolulu, Hawaii. (Ed. I Kinan). (Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council) Tomascik T, Mah AJ, Nontji A, Moosa MK (1977) The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas, Part II, Chapter 21. In. (Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd.). Wetherall JA, Balazs GH, Tokunaga RA, Yong MYY (1993) Bycatch of marine turtles in north Pacific high-seas driftnet fisheries and impacts on the stocks. In 'INPFC Symposium on Biology, Distribution, and Stock Assessment of Species Caught in the High Seas Driftnet Fisheries in the North Pacific Ocean. International North Pacific Fisheries Commission Bulletin'. Vancouver, Canada. (Ed. J Ito, et al) pp WWF (2003a) 'Marine turtle conservation program, Jamursba Medi (JM) turtle sanctuary, north coast of the Bird's Head Peninsula, Papua.' WWF Technical Progress Report. WWF (2003b) 'Marine turtle conservation program, Meru Betiri and Alas Purwo National Parks - East Java.' WWF Technical Progress Report. 63

72 Status of leatherback turtles in Islamic Republic of Iran 1. Introduction Iran lies along the eastern shores of the Arabian (Persian) Gulf. The climate is generally arid or semiarid, and subtropical along the Caspian coast. There are an estimated 8,900 ha of Avicennia mangrove along the coast, and a rich and diverse marine fauna, seagrass beds and coral (Harrington 1977). 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview The current main law covering nature conservation, the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act of 1974, supersedes all previous enabling legislation. Four categories of protected natural area can be established and protected; any previously designated sites have been reclassified under this law. Iran is a signatory to Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention on Climate Change, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (RAMSAR), the Convention on the Law of the Sea (not ratified), and the IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU, among others. 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation The main administrative and management body is the Department of the Environment, which was established in March 1972 and is divided into a series of divisions dealing with different environmental matters. Under the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act it superseded the Game and Fish Department in The latter Department was established in 1967 and had been responsible for the protection of wildlife, hunting, and fishing in inland waters as well as protection of the natural environment. It had succeeded the original Game Council of Iran established in The Division of Parks and Wildlife, Department of the Environment is the main body undertaking protected areas management. Generally, the Department undertakes long-term environmental studies and management projects, with responsibilities which include the conservation and enhancement of wildlife resources and the prevention of pollution. It also puts forward regulations on habitat management. Its long-term programmes for the conservation of wilderness sites and wildlife include the cleaning of the Caspian Sea and Iranian rivers and prevention of air pollution in Tehran and Isfahan. The Department has introduced environmental legislation regarding pollution (Sardar 1982). Recommendations for the establishment of reserves or changes in reserve classification are prepared by the Division of Parks and Wildlife, reviewed by all appropriate divisions of the Department of the Environment, and presented to the High Council of the Environment for approval. The arrangement ensures that all government organisations with jurisdiction over lands proposed for protection have an opportunity to assess the impact on resources administered by their organisations (Firouz and Harrington 1976). Research is conducted in ministries and universities. Almost all ministries have their own research institutes and centres (Coad ). 3. Nesting populations There are no historical or contemporary records of leatherback nesting in Iran. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview While there are no historical or contemporary records of any sightings of leatherbacks in Iran s territorial seas, it is unlikely that they are not at least an infrequent visitor to Iran s waters given they are reported as being found occasionally in other Gulf-bordering nations. Marine turtle research and conservation efforts are in their infancy in Iran, with recent baseline coastal and tagging surveys directed primarily at the hawksbill and green turtles. There are no dedicated research or conservation efforts aimed at the leatherback turtle in the Islamic Republic of Iran. 64

73 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles One of the major environmental threats lasting much of the decade was the consequences of the military conflict between Iran and Iraq, although the effects of air pollution from burning Kuwaiti oil wells in the Iraq-Kuwait conflict was also reported in Iran (WCMC 1991). In 1983, the Nowruz oil field in the Persian Gulf, north-west of Kharg Island, was damaged, resulting in severe pollution of the sea by oil and gas leakage. The petro- chemical industry on the Gulf shore and islands continues to pose a number of threats to the environment, not least pollution. The movement of oil tankers through the Gulf presents a continued threat to marine life and to the increasingly important Gulf fishery. However, after eight years of war with Iraq, international political isolation, and economic sanctions, environmental goals have largely been put on the back-burner. It is thought that overfishing has caused a drop in fishing levels; industrial and urban waste water runoff has contaminated a number of rivers and coastal waters and threatened drinking water supplies; and oil and chemical spills in the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea continue to pollute the seas and harm aquatic life. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas There are a number of protected areas along the Iranian coast. These include two of the three biogeographic zones covered by this country's coastline, the exception being the Indo-Pacific. However, the majority of these seem to be coastal terrestrial areas with others being proposed marine areas (for example, Hara Marine Park). Only one established MPA could be confirmed (Shidvar Wildlife Refuge). Its present legal status is not clear because it was declared prior to the Revolution in Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation Effective conservation measures for Iran s marine turtles and their habitats can only be based on the timely delivery of accurate data concerning the state of the marine environment. There is a need for monitoring programmes that feed information into management plans, as opposed to one-time snapshot surveys. Monitoring programmes need to provide regular updates and highlight changes in marine environmental quality which are the basic building blocks on which conservation measures are developed. There is also a need to develop and expand local capacity to monitor and carry out research on marine turtles. This must also include the designation, where applicable, of competent authorities to manage and conserve marine turtles, and detailed management plans to promote the development / replenishment of turtle populations. Public education campaigns are also needed to increase understanding of the importance of marine turtles and their sensitivity to direct and indirect take, and pollution. These should highlight the use of time-area closures to prevent further damage to turtle populations, the need for restrictions / guidance on fishing practices, the problems caused by direct and indirect take, and the need for public and private participation in the management of turtles and their habitats. There is also a need to designate additional Marine National Parks and Marine Protected Areas within integrated management plans. Only within these protected areas will Iran be able to fully protect its marine turtle populations. 5. References Coad B ( ) Environmental change and its impact on the freshwater fishes of Iran. Biological Conservation 19, Firouz E, Harrington F (1976) 'Iran: concepts of biotic community conservation. A paper presented at the international meeting on ecological guidelines for the use of Natural Resources in the Middle East and SW Asia. Persepolis, Iran, May 1975.' IUCN Occasional Paper No. 15. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. 32 pp. Harrington F (1975) Iran: surveys of the Southern Iranian coastline with recommendations for additional marine reserves. Country reports No. 4. In 'Promotion of the Establishment of Marine Parks and Reserves in the Northern Indian ocean including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Papers and proceedings of the Regional Meeting held at Tehran, Iran, 6-10 March 1975.' (IUCN Publications New Series No. 35. Pp ) Sardar Z (1982) 'Iran. Science and technology in the Middle East: a guide to issues, organisations and institutions.' (Longman, London and New York. P. 121) WCMC (1991) ' Gulf War Environmental Service: impact on the marine environment.' (World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 37p) 65

74 Status of leatherback turtles in Iraq 1. Introduction Extending over an area of approximately 434,317 sq. km, Iraq is located in south-west Asia. It lies at the northeastern tip of the Arabian (Persian) Gulf and has a total coastline of 58 km. The maritime area of Iraq falls within the northwestern Arabian (Persian) Gulf. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Information available indicates that there is no legislation to protect habitats and ecosystems for nature conservation. The Iraqi government appears to generally give low priority to nature conservation, with only a few conservation laws known to exist, mostly relating to restrictions on hunting and fishing. These laws, Forestry Law No. 75, Environment wildlife Law and Hunting Laws Nos. 40 and 41, seem to only exist on paper and have never been implemented or enforced. At a broader international level, Iraq is a contracting party to the World Heritage Convention, but has yet to designate any natural World Heritage Sites. Key biodiversity conventions Iraq has not signed include the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Convention on Migratory Species (CMS). Iraq is a member of ROPME, the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment, and a signatory to the Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982). 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation It is unclear what current management of monitoring capacity, if any, exists in Iraq as it goes through reconstruction following the recent war. 3. Nesting populations There are no historical or contemporary records of leatherbacks nesting in Iraq. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview There are no records of leatherbacks having been seen in Iraq s waters. No research of any kind or directed conservation action has been carried out on leatherbacks in Iraq. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles Prior to the Gulf War clear evidence of mangrove die-off close to Khore Zubair and Khor abd Allah was available in satellite imagery, and aerial surveillance immediately after the war showed strong indications of impact from oil spills, as well as other war damage. Drainage of the marsh areas of the Tigris-Euphrates Delta and the damming of these two rivers may have a very large impact on the northern Gulf marine ecosystems. Government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers. In addition, oil exploitation and other activities lead to pollution input into the marine environment from well blow-outs, oil pipelines leakage, loading terminals and discharges from refineries. Natural oil seepage is another source of pollution, estimated at about 10% of the overall chronic oil discharges. Up to 35,000 tankers pass through the Straits of Hormuz annually, making the Gulf among the busiest tanker routes in the world. It is unknown what, if any, impacts these factors might have on the few leatherbacks in the Gulf. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas There are no declared MPAs along the relatively short Iraqi Arabian Gulf coastline. Areas that have not been developed and that are recommended for protection include the mudflats near Khore Zubair and Khor abd Allah Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation Unknown. 66

75 Status of leatherback turtles in Japan By Mark Hamann, Colin Limpus and Naoki Kamezaki 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview The Japanese government banned capture of leatherback turtle and its eggs not only in the territory of Japan but also in the high-seas between 70 N and 50 S (the Law for Conservation of Aquatic Resources). 2. Nesting populations Extensive surveys of Japanese beaches for marine turtle nesting has been conducted (see Uchida and Nishiwaki 1982 and Kikukawa et al. 1999). There have been only two records of leatherback turtle clutches being laid in Japan (Kamezaki et al. 2002). 3. Foraging populations Some stranded leatherback turtles have been found along the coastline both in the Pacific Ocean coast and the Sea of Japan, indicating that this species migrates into Japanese waters (Nishimura 1964; Oike and Kato 1997; Horikoshi et al. 2000; Israel 2002, Oike et al. 2004). At least on tag recovery was reported from off southern Japan of a leatherback turtle tagged as a nesting female at Terengganu, Malaysia, in the 1970s (See Malaysian section). Furthermore, one of the post nesting female leatherback turtles released from Papua Indonesia was tracked via satellite telemetry into Japanese waters (Benson and Dutton unpublished data). The complete stranding data for marine turtles in Japan has not been published yet and although bycatch has been recorded in some fisheries it has not been accurately quantified for leatherback turtles (Horikoshi et al. 2000; Israel 2002). 3.1 Threats to leatherback turtles The most significant current threats to leatherback turtles in Japan, or by Japanese fleets in international waters, is bycatch in fishing gear (Yatsu et al. 1991; Wetherall et al. 1993; Horikoshi et al. 2000; Israel 2002; Nakano 2005). However, the Japanese National Research Institute of Far Seas Fisheries has embarked on a project to quantify marine turtle bycatch and reduce the impacts of fishing on marine turtles (see Nakano 2005). There have been recent efforts to reduce fisheries related bycatch by Japanese fisheries in the Pacific Ocean (see Bellagio Blueprint for Action on Pacific Sea Turtles and the Proceedings of the International Tuna Fishers Conference on Responsible Fisheries July 2005). 4. References Horikoshi K, Sato F, Inaba M, Nakamura Y, Shibata H (2000) leatherback turtles caught by fishing gear in Ogasawara Islands, and in Niigata Prefecture, Japan. Umigame Newsletter of Japan 44, 13. Israel D (2002) Scientists call for fishing moratorium to save leatherback sea turtles. Umigame Newsletter of Japan 56, 13. Kamezaki N, Oki K, Mizuno K, Toji T, Doi O (2002) First nesting record of the leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, in Japan. Current Herpetology 21, Kikukawa A, Kamezaki N, Ota H (1999) Current status of sea turtles nesting on Okinawajima and adjacent islands of central Ryukyus, Japan. Biological Conservation 87, Nakano H (2005) Research on the mitigation and conservation of sea turtles by the Fisheries Research Agency, Japan. In 'Proceedings of the second western Pacific sea turtle cooperative research and management workshop. Volume 1.' Honululu, Hawaii. (Ed. I Kinan). (Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council) Nishimura S (1964) Records of occurrence of the leatherback turtle in adjacent waters to Japan. Seiri Seita (Phys. Ecol., Tokyo) 12, Oike T, Kato H (1997) A stranding record of the leatherback turtle from the coast of Kosai, Shizuoka. Umigame Newsletter of Japan 34, Oike T, Kondo T, Kuroyanagi K (2004) Two leatherback sea turtles stranded on the beach of Chita peninsula. Umigame Newsletter of Japan 62, Uchida I, Nishiwaki M (1982) Sea turtles in the waters adjacent to Japan. In 'Proceedings of the world conference on sea turtle biology and conservation'. Washington. (Ed. KA Bjorndal). (Smithsonian Institution Press). 67

76 Wetherall JA, Balazs GH, Tokunaga RA, Yong MYY (1993) Bycatch of marine turtles in north Pacific high-seas driftnet fisheries and impacts on the stocks. In 'INPFC Symposium on Biology, Distribution, and Stock Assessment of Species Caught in the High Seas Driftnet Fisheries in the North Pacific Ocean. International North Pacific Fisheries Commission Bulletin'. Vancouver, Canada. (Ed. J Ito, et al) pp Yatsu A, Hiramatsu K, Hayase S (1991) Outline of the Japanese squid driftnet fishery with notes on bycatch. In 'INPFC Symposium, 4-6 Nov Tokyo' 68

77 Status of leatherback turtles in Jordan 1. Introduction The coastline of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan extends approximately 27 km along the north eastern-reaches of the Gulf of Aqaba. The coast is home to Jordan's only seaport and is a centre of industry, tourism and transportation. Approximately 30 % of the coast is used for port facilities. Fringing reefs border up to 50 % of the coast, supporting a high diversity of coral and associated fauna, but limiting nesting potential for leatherback turtles. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Jordan is party to several international conventions which are relevant to the conservation of turtles. These are, among others, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna or Flora (CITES), the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL); the Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden Environment (Jeddah Convention); the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD); and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The Middle East peace process and the opening up of relations between Jordan and Israel have also created commitments for regional cooperation on a range of environmental issues. Jordan is also a signatory to the IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU. A number of national laws exist that are directly or indirectly pertinent to reef conservation, in particular the Law of Environmental Protection and several Articles within. The Law of the Aqaba Region Authority No. 7 (1987) delegates the power to plan and execute tourism, industrial and agricultural projects in the region. The law has been the key instrument for strengthening environmental controls including the use of Environmental Impact Assessments and coastal zone management guidelines. Regulations for the Jordanian Red Sea Marine Park are being developed under this law. The Law of Environmental Protection No. 12 (1995) establishes a national framework for environmental policy, including the formation of a Higher Council for Environmental Protection (HCEP). The HCEP sets national environmental policy and reviews proposed laws, specifications and standards prepared by the General Corporation for Environmental Protection (GCEP). The GCEP implements pollution prevention regulations including inspection and monitoring. 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation The responsibility for development of the Aqaba region is borne by the Aqaba Regional Authority (ARA), with conservation works carried out through the ARA Environment Unit (established in 1994). ARA supervises town planning, tenders and public works, finance, administration, regional planning and research and studies. The Aqaba Marine Science Station (MSS) monitors trends on coral reefs and provides facilities for training and research, but little of this is related to marine turtles. Studies are conducted on water quality, impacts of pollutants and baseline coral reef ecology. The MSS also administers the Aqaba Marine Science Centre which occupies 500 m of the coastline (making it a de facto protected area). Three NGOs also address marine environmental concerns in Aqaba: The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, which funds an inspector to patrol merchant vessels; the Jordan Environment Society, which introduces awareness programmes, and the Jordan Royal Ecological Diving Society, which organises underwater cleanups, awareness programmes and monitoring of coral reefs. 3. Nesting populations Jordan s coastline is short and practically entirely fronted by reefs or developments, and no nesting of any marine turtles takes place. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview While hawksbill and green turtles are known to feed along the reefs fronting Jordan, no leatherback turtle records of any kind exist. It is possible that the relative isolation of the Red Sea, where most of the few leatherback turtles are found in the south, coupled with the further seclusion of the Gulf of Aqaba far in the north, combine to limit leatherback turtle distribution into Jordanian waters. The Gulf of Aqaba is deep and relatively narrow, and is characterized by its geographical isolation and the 69

78 number of species that are either restricted to or from the area, including several species of reefbuilding corals and fish. Cool sea temperatures and a dispersal bottle-neck into and out of the Straits of Tiran may be important factors in turtle distributions. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles The Gulf of Aqaba is highly susceptible to pollution. At present, however, pollution is limited and localised. The main threats are oil spills and discharges, industrial discharges, municipal and shipbased sewage and solid waste. Fisheries are limited to some 25 small fibreglass power boats, and no commercial-sized vessels operate in the region. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas There are currently no marine protected areas in Jordan, although one is proposed that will encompass coral reefs at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba. The Aqaba Coral Reef Protected Area is the only proposed protected area for Jordan. It will enclose an undefined area of diverse reefs and associated fauna at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation Most of Jordan's departments and organisations appear to be reasonably well staffed. Certain areas including coastal zone management and computing need to be strengthened to meet the demands of effective development and implementation of legislature, and for the establishment of a Marine Park. Recommendations have been made to develop and implement a training programme to strengthen the capacity to regulate industrial performance (Pilcher and Al-Moghrabi 2000). Essential for the development of this program are an industrial pollution prevention specialist and an environmental monitoring technician to implement the new permitting process, conduct facility inspections and review specific industry documents and practices relevant to control of industrial pollution, and for collection and analysis of both air and water samples. 5. References Pilcher N, Al-Moghrabi SM (2000) 'The Status of Coral Reefs in Jordan , Unpublished Technical Report.' PERSGA. 70

79 Status of leatherback turtles in Kenya By Gladys Okemwa 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview Kenya is a signatory to international and regional instruments such as CITES, CBD, CMS convention, IOSEA MOU. Leatherbacks are considered critically endangered in Kenya according to the IUCN red list and are protected under national legislation (Fisheries Act- Cap 378 and the Wild Act-Cap 376) which prohibits killing, consumption or sale of all marine turtle species, their eggs and products. Enforcement effort is however hampered due to jurisdictional overlaps (between the Kenya Wildlife Services and the Fisheries Department), reduced manpower capacity and lack of deterrent penalties. There is no legislation protecting key nesting and foraging habitats utilized by marine turtles except for those within marine protected areas (Okemwa et al. 2004). 1.2 Management agency responsible for marine turtle conservation in Kenya Name of agency: Type of agency: Kenya Wildlife Services Government Agency 2. Nesting populations 2.1 Overview The Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee (KESCOM) has been in operation since 1993 and is the umbrella body that coordinates surveys of beaches in Kenya for nesting turtles. KESCOM surveys reveal that three species of marine turtle nest on Kenya s beaches (green, hawksbill and olive ridley turtles). Leatherback turtles have not been recorded nesting in Kenya (Frazier 1975; Okemwa 2002; Okemwa et al. 2004). In addition, KESCOM have established community based turtle conservation groups along the Kenya coast covering over 50% of potential nesting grounds which have led to increased reports of nesting activity and better assessment of nesting trends. However, there are still gaps in the knowledge of nesting turtles, in particular the distribution of nests is less known for sections of the coast where accessibility is poor (e.g. between Malindi and Lamu; Figure 1) (Okemwa 2002; Okemwa et al. 2004). There have been no surveys to identify whether anecdotal or traditional records indicating that leatherback turtles nest, or have nested, in Kenya. 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details of leatherback turtle census or tagging results such as tag recovery data. Aerial surveys in 1994 found that marine turtles are widely distributed along the Kenyan coast (Wamukoya et al. 1996). No foraging area surveys have been carried out on leatherback turtles in Kenya. Sightings are rare because leatherbacks would most probably be sighted in deeper offshore waters and Kenya s artisanal fishers are not equiped to fish in such deep waters. Artisanal fishers comprise approximately 80% of the fleet and contribute approximately 60% of the catch (Okemwa et al. 2004). 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters leatherback turtles are most likely to be seen in Kenya s waters between October and March, which is the northeast monsoon season. 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles There is only one mortality report sent to KESCOM by a community member who reported a leatherback turtle that was caught by fishermen using large mesh gillnets (used to catch sharks). This leatherback turtle measured 49cm CCL and 47 cm CCW. However KESCOM were unable to gain any photographic confirmation that this animal was a leatherback turtle. 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles. There are no data on the diet of leatherback turtles that forage in Kenya s waters. 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas. There is no information available about where leatherbacks prefer to forage in Kenya. 71

80 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles. There is only one record of leatherback turtles stranding in Kenya (Okemwa et al. 2004). However, threats for foraging turtles are listed in Table 2; with the exception of trawling these threats have not been quantified. Surveys by Mueni and Mwangi (2002) indicate that at least three turtles are caught by trawl nets per fishing day (in the fishing season). Table 2. Threats to foraging turtles in Kenya Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence & year Exploitation of live animals at sea Yes Yes Incidental capture in fisheries Yes Yes Boat strikes NA NA Plastics (at sea) Yes NA Industrial effluent NA NA Inshore oil pollution Yes NA Natural threats/predation Yes Yes 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved Type of fishery Artisanal gill net (large mesh) fisheries Season of operation Approx number of boats/operators October to March Unknown Low Impact low, medium or high 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations. The Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee (KESCOM), the national coordinating body, was set up to coordinate monitoring and surveillance of nesting beaches and to implement the national marine turtle recovery action plan. KESCOM collaborates with government agencies (including Kenya Wildlife Services, Fisheries Department and Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute), non governmental organizations, fishing communities, hoteliers and conservationists) to advocate for marine turtle conservation. Community based turtle conservation groups have been established along the Kenya coast covering over 50% of potential nesting grounds which have led to increased reports of nesting activity and better assessment of nesting trends. KESCOM carries out targeted awareness activities (training workshops, production of brochures and posters, news articles etc). The conservation of foraging leatherback populations lags behind other marine turtle species, mainly because leatherback observations/strandings are rare in Kenya. However gear regulations on TED usage have been gazetted to reduce bycatch in prawn trawlers. Intense awareness campaigns among fishing communities is also being undertaken by KESCOM. KESCOM has also succeeded in building up conservation action among the relevant government agencies and is advocating for a policy review on marine turtle conservation guided by findings of research and monitoring activities. A marine turtle recovery action plan for Kenya has also been published (Wamukoya et al. 1997). 4. Concluding remarks Generally, little information is known about the status of leatherback foraging populations in Kenya. Funding is being sourced to increase mapping, monitoring and surveillance of key foraging grounds and to increase tagging of foraging turtles. There is need to build capacity especially in the use of satellite telemetry which will aid in identifying critical foraging grounds and leatherback migratory pathways as well as provide the supportive evidence needed to influence our national policy as regards the conservation of key turtle foraging grounds. (nb: only one unconfirmed incidental capture has been reported to KESCOM within the Pemba channel next to the Tanzanian border of the southcoast of Kenya in October 2004). 72

81 5. References Frazier J Marine Turtles of the Western Indian Ocean. Oryx 13: Frazier J Status of Sea Turtles in the Central Western Indian Ocean. In Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles, Bjorndal K.J. (ed.), Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC pp Kairu K.K Vulnerability of the Kenyan Shoreline to Coastal Instability. In: Sustainable Coastal Development through Integrated Planning and Management Focused on Mitigating the Impacts of Coastline Instability. Whitesands Hotel, Mombasa, June UNESCO, Nairobi, Kenya. pp Mwanje J.I Socio-economic impacts of coastal instability (Erosion) in Kenya: A Case Study. In: Sustainable Coastal Development through Integrated Planning and Management Focused on Mitigating the Impacts of Coastline Instability. Whitesands Hotel, Mombasa, June UNESCO, Nairobi, Kenya. pp Mueni E. and Mwangi J Trawler survey along the Kenyan coast. KWS report 11pp. Okemwa G (2002) Nesting and mortality patterns of sea turtles along the Kenya coast. KESCOM technical report series 23pp. Okemwa G.M, Nzuki S. and Mueni E. (2004). The status and conservation of sea turtles in Kenya. Marine Turtle Newsletter 105:1-7. Wamukoya G.M., Mirangi J.M. and Ottichillo W.K Marine aerial survey; marine mammals, sea turtles, sharks and rays, KWS Technical Series Report 1:22pp. Wamukoya G.M., Kaloki F.P and Mbendo J.R Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for Kenya (STRAP). KESCOM Technical Report Series. 69pp. General section of coast where tsunami impacts Figure 1. Map of Kenya coast showing identified turtle nesting sites and the section of coast where impacts from the tsunami were felt. 73

82 Status of leatherback turtles in Korea (Republic of) No report on leatherback turtles in Korea was submitted. However, a search of literature (electronic and printed) has revealed that leatherback turtles are known from Korean waters (Doi 1936). Satellite telemetry of post nesting neatherback turtles from Indonesia Papua indicated that one female swam into Korean waters (see Indonesia section). Leatherback turtles have also been recorded as bycatch by the Korean North Pacific Squid fishery (International North Pacific Fisheries Commission 1991). References Doi H (1936) On a leathery turtle from the sea near Korea. Jour. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc 21, International North Pacific Fisheries Commission (1991) 'Final Report: 1991 observations of the Republic of Korea high seas squid driftnet fishery in the north Pacific Ocean.' Joint Report of: Republic of Korea National Fisheries Research and Development Agency; United States National Marine Fisheries Service; United States Fish and Wildlife Service; 1992,

83 Status of leatherback turtles in Kuwait 1. Introduction Kuwait is bounded in the east by the Arabian or Persian Gulf. The Kuwaiti Gulf is represented by at least four critical marine habitats: coastal marsh and mudflat, coral reef, seagrass bed and mangrove. Kuwait has traditionally long been regarded as a vast hema, or culturally protected area. However, over the last two decades traditional practices have broken down as a consequence of urban development and industrialisation (Alsdirawi in lit. 1991). Today, virtually the entire coastline is built-up with residential or commercial buildings, and no public access is available to the beach. Only the few small offshore islands permit access to the shore. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Kuwait is a contracting part to the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, and actively participates in meetings concerned with additional protocols and the Kuwait Action Plan. Legislation relating to protected areas is based on Decree No. 18 (1968). As such, Kuwait municipality has control of the land-use in all designated nature conservation areas and has the right to remove unauthorised users. The main piece of legislation governing protected areas and the protection of the environment is Decree Law No. 62/1980. Article 3 Item 1 indicates a general policy for the protection of the environment. This encompasses five main areas of which the conservation of nature and natural resources is one. Section 2 of the general framework for environmental protection deals with the preservation of nature and natural resources. Section 2a covers nature; it encompasses the necessary legislation, regulations and codes of practice, the provisions of adequate funds, manpower and legal capabilities to implement a comprehensive national plan. Measures have also been included to prevent the decline of marine turtles. 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation The Environment Protection Council (EPC) is empowered to develop a general policy for the protection of the environment and to propose protected areas, working with the municipality and other relevant agencies. The EPC is charted to develop short and long-term integrated work plans, to coordinate activities, study pollution problems and prepare research policies, regulations and coordinate Kuwait's ratification of appropriate regional and international agreements. The EPC has also been empowered to carry out flora and faunal surveys and be involved in active protected area management. The protected areas system is under the management and direct supervision of the Public Authority for Agriculture and Fisheries (PAAF). The Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) is involved in protection and management of the environment in addition to undertaking research on coastal ecosystems and in providing scientific support for the oil sector. Amongst the many bodies, in addition to KISR, which undertake environmentally related research in protected areas is the Department of Agriculture of the Ministry of Public Works. The Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment (ROPME), with offices based in Kuwait, has been actively involved in evaluating the action plan, including its marine pollution monitoring and research programme. Non-governmental agencies involved in nature conservation and environmental assessment include the Ahmadi Natural History and Field Studies Group. 3. Nesting populations There are no historical or contemporary records of leatherback turtles nesting in Kuwait. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview Al-Mohanna & Meakins (2000) reported a leatherback being seen in Kuwait, although there are no additional contemporary records of leatherbacks having been seen in Kuwaiti waters. While significant research and conservation action has been implemented for hawksbill turtles, no research of any kind has been carried out on leatherback turtles in Kuwait. 75

84 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles Given the physical nature of the Gulf, with its narrow bottle-neck opening and shallow shore approaches, it is unlikely leatherback turtles are anything more than transients or waifs. If leatherback turtles were to be found in Kuwaiti waters, they would be threatened by coastal gillnets if they came close to shore (not a common event for foraging leatherback turtles), or by shipping and petroleumrelated accidents/discharges. There are no commercial trawlers operating in Kuwaiti waters. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas At the present there are no protected areas. The Department of Mari-culture and Fisheries, Food Resources Division of the Kuwait Institute for Science and Research has proposed five Kuwaiti islands as marine parks (Kubbar, Qaru, Bubiyan, Umm al-muradum and part of Failaka), but no action has been taken to date. Before the suspension of legislative activities in August 1990, as a result of Iraqi occupation, Kuwait was in the final stages of developing a detailed protected areas system. To protect the ecological integrity of the coastal and marine environment, a peace park was proposed by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, incorporating the headwaters and north-east shore of the Arabian Gulf (WCMC, 1991) Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation Amongst the various management constraints, perhaps the chief concern is the poor practical coordination between the various administrative and management bodies. Although active within the country, the applied activities of non-governmental conservation bodies appear to provide little input into protected areas conservation. Environmental problems, due to a number of factors, have been identified, principally population growth, urban expansion, industrialisation, transport and recreation and climate. 5. References Al-Mohanna S, Meakins R (2000) First record of the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) in Kuwait. Zoology in the Middle East, 21, Alsdirawi F (1991) Protected areas in the state of Kuwait. Caracas Action Plan. In 'Third Man and Biosphere Meeting on Biosphere Reserves in the Mediterranean and the First IUCN-CNPPA Workshop on Protected Areas in the North Africa-Middle East Region, October 1991'. Tunis p. 10 WCMC (1991) 'Gulf War Environmental Service: impact of atmospheric pollution on the terrestrial environment.' World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 76

85 Status of leatherback turtles in Madagascar No report was received from Madagascar. However, Rakotonirina and Cooke (1994) and Rakotonirina et al. (2004) state that leatherback turtles reside in Madagascan waters but do not nest along any of the surveyed nesting beach in Madagascar. Leatherback turtles are most often sighted along the southern and western coastline (Hughes 1982; Rakotonirina et al. 2004). While Walker et al. (2004) state that leatherback turtles are taken as both bycatch and direct harvest, during their study they found no evidence of leatherback turtles in the market. Hughes G (1982) Conservation of sea turtles in the southern Africa region. In 'Proceedings of the world conference on sea turtle conservation'. Washington. (Ed. KA Bjorndal). (Smithsonian Institution Press). Rakotonirina B, Cooke A (1994) Sea turtles of Madagascar - their status, exploitation and conservation. Oryx 28, Rakotonirina B, Razafinjara A, SP H (2004) Madagacar status report. In 'Proceedings of the Western Indian Ocean Marine Turtle Workshop '. Mombasa, Kenya. (Eds GM Okemwa, NA Muthiga and EM Mueni) Walker RCJ, Roberts E, Fanning E (2004) The trade of marine turtles in the Toliara region, south west Madagascar. Marine Turtle Newsletter 106,

86 Status of leatherback turtles in Malaysia By Mark Hamann, Kamarruddin Ibrahim and Colin Limpus 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview The Terengganu State Government adopted the Turtles Enactment, 1951 (Amendment (1987) to provide for more protection of leatherback turtles in the state. In 1988 the Terengganu State Government banned the commercial sale and consumption of leatherback turtle eggs as long as 100% of eggs could be saved for hatching. Two fishing regulations were adopted; The Fisheries regulation (Prohibition of Fishing Methods) 1985 (Amendment 1989) bans large meshed gill nets throughout Malaysian coastal waters and the Fisheries Regulation (Fisheries Areas) Regulation 1991 provides offshore protection to leatherback turtles during their internesting period. 2. Nesting populations 2.1. Overview The nesting population of leatherback turtles in Malaysia has been well described (see Chan and Liew 1996). While it is likely that rare individuals have come ashore on beach in western Peninsular Malaysia or Sabah and Sarawak nesting of leatherback turtles has only occurred in significant numbers along the beaches of eastern Peninsular Malaysia (Figure 1a,b; see de Silva 1982; and Chan and Liew 1996 for references). There have been several recent media accounts of scattered leatherback turtle nesting along the north-west coast of Sabah (Nicolas Pilcher pers. com.). The decline of the nesting population of leatherback turtles in Malaysia has been well documented (see Chan and Liew 1996 and Spotila et al 1996). The Fisheries Department of Terengganu, Malaysia has kept nearly annual records of the leatherback turtle hatchery program and the number of clutches laid per year from 1956 until 1995 (including records of number of females from 1984 until 2003). These long term data indicate that the population has been severely depleted over the last four decades (Figure 2). Essentially the population has declined from ~5000 nests per year in the 1960s down to less than 10 nests per year in the 2000s (Chan and Liew 1996; Fisheries Department of Terengganu unpublished data). Although Chan et al and Chan and Liew 1996 state that the largest decline coincided with the rapid expansion of fisheries in Malaysia; the declining nesting population was evident during the 1960s.Indeed Hendrickson (see Limpus 1993 for details) strongly advocated for the hatchery system because there was zero hatchling production during the late 1950s (because of near 100% egg harvest). Hence, they did not protect soon enough for the population to be able to cope with fisheries and other pressures in the 1970s and 1980s Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting The leatherback turtle nesting season runs from approx. June to September (Chan and Liew 1989) Genetic studies on nesting populations of leatherback turtles Genetic studies have indicated that the Malaysian nesting population is genetically distinct from the Solomon Islands and South African rookeries (Dutton et al. 1999). It is yet to be determined whether genetic similarities exist between the Malaysian rookeries and rookeries in Sumatra (Indonesia) or the Andman and Nicobar Islands/Western Thailand rookeries Biological parameters Category of data Average Range Sample size References Size of nesting females Number of eggs per clutch Ref 1,2 & 3 Clutches per season Ref 1,3 Re-nesting interval (days) 9 days Ref 1, 2 Number of years between Ref 2 breeding seasons (years) Size of eggs (cm) Size of hatchlings (cm) Ref 4 1 = Balasingam and Tho Yow Pong (1972), 2 = Chua and Furtado (1988), 3 = Balasingham 1967, 4 = Chan and Liew (1989) 78

87 2.5. Pivotal temperature studies Beach temperatures have been reported by Chan and Liew (1995) and Kamurruddin Ibrahim unpublished data. Chan and Liew (1995) report a pivotal temperature between 29.2 o C and 30.4 o C and that at 30.4 o C 100% females were produced. Both Chan and Liew (1995) and Kamurruddin Ibrahim report the mean sand temperatures along the Rantau Abang nesting beach, and in the hatcheries during the breeding season is nearly always above 30.5 o C at nest depth (40 to 80 cm) Figure 1. (a) Peninsular Malaysia and (b) the State of Terenggannu showing the locations of leatherback turtle nesting beaches. Blue triangles represent minor nesting areas, red dots medium nesting beaches and * represents the important site of Rantau Abang. 1 = Telaga Papan, 2 = Megabang Sekeping, 3 = Kuala Bharu, 4 = Tanjung Kanan, 5 = Pulau Kerengga, 6 = Rantau Merchang, 7 = Jambu Bongkok, 8 = Rantau Abang, 9 = Kuala Abang, 10, Rhu Tiga, 11 = Kuala Dungun, 12 = Tanjung Sura, 13 = Kuala Paka, 14 = Kebun Pakar, 15 = Rhu Kudung, 16 = Tanjung Batu, 17 = Chakar Hutan, 18 = Ma Daerah, 19 = Penarik, 20 = Pantai Kerteh, 21 = Pantai Kemasik, 22 = Kijal, 23 = Senanjang, 24 = Tanjung Mengkuang, 25 = Geliga NUMBER OF NESTING FEMALES Nesting females per year, TERENGGANU 2000 Estimated no. turtle Tagged females YEAR Malaysian Fisheries Department data. Figure 2. Decline of the nesting population of leatherback turtles in Peninsular Malaysis 79

88 Figure 3. Locations of leatherback turtle tag recoveries of females originally caught and tagged while nesting in Peninsular Malaysia 2.6 Migration records of nesting leatherback turtles Turtles tagged on beaches in Peninsular Malaysia have been caught or stranded in China, Indonesia, Japan, Philippines and Borneo Malaysia. (Figure 3. also Leong and Siow (1980 and Kamarruddin Ibrahim unpublished data) 2.6. Protection of nesting beaches (e.g. National Parks) In 1988 the Terengganu State Government established the development of the Rantau Abang Turtle Sanctuary. The sanctuary covered 14km of nesting beaches, including the areas that received the highest density of nesting. Turtle watching guidelines were also implemented, although they were largely ineffective due to a lack of enforcement Use of hatcheries to protect marine turtle nests In 1961 the use of hatcheries was the first conservation measure to be used to protect leatherback turtle nests in Malaysia (Wyatt-Smith 1960). The use of hatcheries to protect leatherback turtle nests (and those of other species) still continues to be the main conservation measure employed on mainland nesting beaches (Chan and Liew 1996; Kamarruddin Ibrahim pers. Comm.) 2.8. Threats to nesting leatherbacks turtles The threats to the leatherback turtle population in Malaysia have been well documented (see Chan and Liew 1996 for details). Essentially, fisheries bycatch (both in Malaysian and International waters) and commercial egg collection were the main threatening process operating over the last four decades (especially in the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s). Other listed threats are ineffective hatchery management, tourism related impacts and more recently coastal development by the petroleum industry (Chan et al. 1988; Chan and Liew 1996 and Kamarruddin Ibrahim Pers. Comm.) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles Internesting movements (Chan et al. 1991) Hatchling biology and behaviour (Liew and Chan 1995; Malaverni 1989) Incubation and hatchling emergence studies (Chan 1985; 1989; Chan et al. 1985) Eggshell structure and function (Chan and Solomon 1989) 3. Foraging populations 3.1. Details on any leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results No tagging studies have been conducted on foraging populations of leatherback turtles in Malaysia 80

89 3.2. Seasonality of foraging leatherback turtles in coastal or offshore waters Unknown if there is a main time for leatherback turtle sightings 3.3. Approximate size range of leatherback turtles Unknown 3.4. Information on diet of leatherback turtles Unknown 3.6. Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence Low Med High Unknown Low Med High Directed take of leatherback turtles at sea X 1 X 1 Trawl fisheries X 2 X 2 Gillnet fis heries X 2 X 2 Longline fisheries X 3 X 3 1. Possibly in Indonesia (Kie Islands Suarez and Starbird 1996) 2. Chan et al. (1988) 3. Yatsu et al. (1991) and Wetherall et al. (1993) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved See Chan et al. (1988) for details of incidental catch by Malaysian Fisheries. However, outside of Malaysian waters leatherback turtles are often caught as bycatch by fisheries operating in the Pacific high seas (Yatsu et al. 1991; Wetherall et al. 1993) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations Aside from the legislative changes several organizations (e.g. WWF, SEATRU, SEAFDEC, Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences and Department of Fisheries Malaysia) have implemented a variety of educational and awareness raising activities such as the production of leaflets, school materials and turtle conservation posters. 4. References Balasingham E (1967) The ecology and conservation of the leathery turtle, Dermochelys coreacea (Linn.) in central Trengganu, Malaysia. In proceedings of the 11 th Pacific Scienes Congress, Tokyo. Balasingam E, Pong TY (1972) Preliminary observation on nesting returns of the leathery turtle (Dermochelys coriacea Linn.) in central Trengganu, Malaysia. Malayan Nature Journal 25, 6-9. Chan EH (1985) Twin embryos in an unhatched egg of Dermochelys coriacea. Marine Turtle Newsletter 32, 2-3. Chan EH (1989) White spot development, incubation and hatchling success of leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) eggs from Rantau Abang, Malaysia. Copeia 1989, Chan EH, Liew HC (1989a) The leatherback turtle: A Malaysian Heritage. Tropical Press, Kuala Lumpur. Chan EH, Liew HC (1989b) The offshore protection of Malaysian leatherback turtles. In 'Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Seminar of the Malaysian Society of Marine Sciences' pp Chan EH, Solomon S (1989) The structure and function of the eggshell of the leatherback turtle, (Dermochelys coriacea) from Malaysia, with notes on infective fungal forms. Animal Technology 40, Chan EH, Liew HC (1995) Incubation temperatures and sex-ratios in the Malaysian leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea. Biological Conservation 74, Chan EH, Liew HC (1996) Decline of the leatherback population in Terengganu, Malaysia, Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2, Chan EH, Salleh H, Liew HC (1985) Effects of handling on hatchability of eggs of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)(l.). Pertanika 8, Chan EH, Liew HC, Mazlan AG (1988) The incidental capture of sea turtles in fishing gear in Terengganu, Malaysia. Biological Conservation 43, 1-7. Chan EH, Eckert S, Liew HC, Eckert K (1991) Locating the internesting habitats of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in Malaysian waters using radio telemetry. In 'Biotelemetry XI: Proceedings of the eleventh international symposium on biotelemetry'. Yokohama, Japan. (Eds A Uchiyama and C Amlaner). 81

90 Chua TH, Furtado JI (1988) Nesting frequency and clutch size in Dermochelys coreacea in Malaysia, Journal of Herpetology. 22, de Silva G (1982) The status of sea turtle populations in east Malaysia and the South China Sea. In 'The Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles'. (Ed. KA Bjorndal). (Smithsonian Institution Press). Dutton PH, Bowen BW, Owens DW, Barragan A, Davis S (1999) Global phylogeography of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Journal of Zoology 248, Leong T, Siow K (1980) Sea turtles in the east coast of Peninsula Malaysia and their economic importance. In 'Coastal resources of east coast Peninsula Malaysia'. (Eds T Chua and J Charles). (Universiti Sains, Malaysia) Liew HC, Chan EH (1995) Radio tracked leatherback turtle hatchlings during their swimming frenzy. In 'Proceedings of the 12th annual symposium on sea turtle biology and conservation'. (Eds J Richarson and T Richardson). (NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-361). Limpus CJ (1993) 'Recommendations for conservation of marine turtles in Peninsula Malaysia.' Report to Department of Fisheries, Minister of Agriculture, Malaysia. Malaverni P (1989) 'Orientation and response of leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) hatchlings to selected physical and chemical parameters.' Project report: Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Universiti Pertanian, Malaysia. Spotila JR, Dunham AE, Leslie AJ, Steyermark AC, Plotkin PT, Paladino FV (1996) Worldwide decline of Dermochelys coriacea: are leatherback turtles going extinct? Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2, Suarez A, Starbird C (1996) Subsistence hunting of leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, in the Kei Islands, Indonesia. Chelonian Conservation and Biology, Wetherall JA, Balazs GH, Tokunaga RA, Yong MYY (1993) Bycatch of marine turtles in north Pacific high-seas driftnet fisheries and impacts on the stocks. In 'INPFC Symposium on Biology, Distribution, and Stock Assessment of Species Caught in the High Seas Driftnet Fisheries in the North Pacific Ocean. International North Pacific Fisheries Commission Bulletin'. Vancouver, Canada. (Ed. J Ito, et al) pp Wyatt-Smith J (1960) The conservation of the leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea. Malayan Nature Journal 14, Yatsu A, Hiramatsu K, Hayase S (1991) Outline of the Japanese squid driftnet fishery with notes on bycatch. In 'INPFC Symposium, 4-6 Nov Tokyo'. 82

91 Status of leatherback turtles in Maldives By Hussein Zahir 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview The Moratoriums of and All turtle species, but not their eggs, have been legally protected under a presidential decree for 10 years since July 2005 ended the 10 year ban on capture, killing and handling of what is report ed to be the five species of marine turtles seen in the Maldivian waters: green turtle, hawksbill turtle, olive ridley turtle, loggerhead turtle and leatherback turtle. In fact, however, most likely only green turtles and hawksbills nest in the Maldives. Deciding on a new Moratorium. During the moratorium of , information on egg harvesting was reported to Ministry of Fisheries Agriculture and Marine Resources (MFAMR), thus providing the principle source of information about the extent and pattern of turtle nesting in the islands. In 2005, levels of egg harvest were reviewed by MRC (a research arm of MFARM that provides technical information and recommendations for marine resource management and policy decisions.) MRC assessed the impact of the moratorium and recommended that MFAMR strengthen the existing conservation efforts. Based on the relative intensity of egg harvesting recorded at various sites, field trips were made to some of the most important beaches. Two islands in the south of Maldives; Gaadhoo in Laamu atoll and Gan in south Huvadhoo atoll were found to be exclusively green turtle nesting beaches with a nesting population of approximately 60 and 80 females (based on monthly egg harvesting from ). Based on this information, recommendations were made to MFAMR to enhance conservation effort. After the reviewing the moratorium, the management decision was to extend the moratorium for another 10 years ( ) with the following enhancement of conservation measures: o No nationwide ban on egg harvesting, but eleven islands to be designated as "No Egg Harvesting" islands for the 10 year period. o Initially, egg harvest will be allowed at Gaadhoo and Gan Islands; but starting in 2007 these two islands will become "No Egg Harvesting" islands 1.2. Legislation protecting leatherback turtles No legislation is specific to leatherback turtles, but there is legislation in general for the protection of marine turtles 1. Bill no. 24/87 prohibiting catching of hawksbill turtles of under two feet in carapace length and all the other species under 2 ½ in carapace length. 2. Bill no 31/79 prohibits the export of unprocessed product of hawksbill or hawksbills. 3. Presidential decree for the 10 years from banned the catching, killing or handling of marine turtles (but not the collection of turtle eggs). 4. New 10 year moratorium ( ) recently adopted that will provide partial protection for turtle eggs as described in section Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level National level Ministry of Fisheries Agriculture and Marine Resources Marine Research Centre 2. Nesting populations 2.1. Overview Historical evidence There is very little evidence that leatherbacks ever nested in the Maldives. Gardiner in 1906 reported a gravid female from Addu atoll. Deraniyagala in 1956 (in Frazier and Salas, 1984) gave a description of 83

92 a turtle resembling a leatherback. There is not a single report of nesting of this species in the Maldives. Historically there are five species of marine turtles reported from the Maldives: green turtle, hawksbill turtle, olive ridley turtle, loggerhead turtle and leatherback turtle. But this is historical information only. There have been no confirmed reports of nesting except by greens and hawksbills. Current situation There is no evidence that leatherbacks currently nest in the Maldives. Summary of surveys conducted & what beaches have been surveyed There is no systematic monitoring program for nesting marine turtles in the Maldives. But there is a reporting and data collection process implemented by the Ministry of Fisheries Agriculture and Marine Resources (MFAMR) which started as an effort to estimate the number of turtles caught and eggs harvested, and which has been used to evaluate the impact of the Moratorium of which banned the harvest of all species of turtles (but did not ban egg harvest). During the moratorium information of egg harvesting was reported to MFAMR and is the principle source of extent and pattern of nesting in the islands. Review of the information on egg harvesting was carried out in 2005 by MRC, a research arm of MFARM to provide technical information and recommendations for marine resource management and policy decisions. 3. Foraging populations Much of the information provided in this section derives from the accidental capture of a single leatherback in an exploratory fishing survey that was carried out in 1988 (Zahir 2000). Size: Curved carapace length: 120 cm Date of Capture: 27 November 1988 Location of capture: 5 34 N; 74 5 E Fate of turtle: Captured in experimental gill net (live & entangled) and was freed and released Details on any leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results There have been no tagging studies conducted on leatherback turtles foraging in the Maldives 3.2 Seasonality of foraging leatherback turtles in coastal or offshore waters Single known entanglement occurred in November 1988 (Zahir 1988) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles Single known entangled leatherback measured 120 cm curved carapace length (Zahir 1988) Information on diet of leatherback turtles No information reported 3.5. Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No other biological studies have been conducted on foraging populations of leatherback turtles 3.6. Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles One individual leatherback was caught during an off shore fishing experimental fishing project in 1988 entangled in a gill net at latitude 5 o 34 N and 74 o 5 E (Zahir 2000). Sightings of olive ridley turtles have been reported in several occasions both within atolls and off shore. Most of these are found entangled in ghost nets. Drift gill netting is illegal under fisheries law which is specific to the economic fishing zone ( miles offshore). However several types of set gill nets are used by the local fishermen in near shore fisheries such as shark fishing and reef fishing. This is not widely practiced Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved Not applicable 3.8. Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations None 84

93 4. Conservation Actions Areas of change Legislation changes Awareness raising programmes Summary including report references Legislation not specific of the leatherbacks but all turtle species 5. References Frazier J; Salas S; Hassan Didi, N. T. (1984). Marine Turtles of Maldive Archipelago. In: Marine Turtles of the Maldives Archipelago published in Marine Research Bulletin, 4, Zahir H (2000). Status of Sea Turtles in Maldives. In: Marine Turtles of the Maldives Archipelago published in Marine Research Bulletin; 4,

94 Status of leatherback turtles in Mauritius By Mark Hamann and Mangar Vijay 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview The Fisheries and Marine Resources Act 1988 makes provisions for the protection of marine turtles and their eggs. Under Para 10 (1) c) of Section IV the sale and possession is also banned. The Fisheries Protection Service of the Ministry of Fisheries and the National Coast Guard of the Mauritius are responsible for enforcement. 2. Nesting populations 2.1. Overview There are no records of leatherback turtle nesting in Mauritius (Mangar Vijay, pers. Comm.). 3. Foraging populations There are no records of leatherback turtle foraging in Mauritius waters (Mangar Vijay, pers. Comm.). 86

95 Status of leatherback turtles in Mozambique By Cristina Maria Madureira Louro 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview All five species of marine turtles (Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas, Dermochelys coriacea, Eretmochelys imbricata and Lepidochelys olivacea) are protected under its environmental legislation. However it is poorly implemented. The environmental legislation under which these species are protected are: 1. Forestry and Wildlife Regulation. Decree nº12/2002, of 6th of June Article 43. Number 5. Totally protects all five species of marine turtles 2. Sports and Recreational Fishing. Decree nº51/99, of 31 st of August Article 14. Number 1. Totally forbids the fishing of all five species of marine turtles 3. Maritime Fishery General Regulation. Decree nº43/2003, Article 110. Number 1. States the obligatory use of the Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) in the trawling and motor fisheries. 1.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation in Mozambique Name of agency: National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife Agriculture Ministry (MAG) Development Centre for Sustainable Development of the Coastal Zones Ministry for the Coordination of Environmental Affairs (MICOA) National Directorate for Conservation Areas Tourism Ministry (MITUR) However, it is important to state that these government agencies have the support of several local non-governmental organizations such as the Grupo de Trabalho de Tartarugas Marinhas de Moçambique (GTT), Fórum para a Natureza em Perigo (FNP), Centro Terra Viva (CTV) as well as international NGOs, such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). To mention that several local associations (e.g. Associação dos Naturais e Amigos da Ilha da Inhca ANAII) as well as private tourism projects do support on the conservation and research of marine turtles along the Mozambican coastline(e.g. Ponta Malongane Marine Turtle Conservation Project). Type of agency: Government Organizations Non- Government Organizations 2. Nesting populations 2.1) Overview leatherback turtles nest at Bazaruto Archipelago and Ponta Malongane (Figure 1). For details of the nesting census surveys see Table 1. 87

96 Figure 1. Location of leatherback turtle nesting beaches in Mozambique Table 1. Number of nesting leatherback turtles recorded in Mozambique rookeries Rookery Latitude Longitude Year 1 Number Data type Bazaruto Archipelago 21 o 43 S 35 o 28 E Eggs Eggs Eggs Eggs Eggs Eggs Ponta Malongane Females Females Females Females Females Females Females Females Females Females Females 1. Year given is the first year of the survey; i.e refers to the season 2.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting Nesting occurs regularly from September to March each year. In the Bazaruto Archipelago National Park and the Maputo Special Reserve, data has been collected and female leatherback turtles nest from October until February, the months of November, December and January is when there is a high nesting activity. 88

97 2.3 Genetic studies on nesting populations of leatherback turtles No genetic studies have been conducted on nesting populations of leatherback turtles in Mozambique. 2.4) Biological parameters See Table 2. Table 2. Summary of biological data on leatherback turtles nesting in Mozambique Category of data Average & Standard Range Sample size deviation Size of nesting females* Length (cm): ± 80.4 Length (cm): Width (mm): ± 64.1 Width (mm): Number of eggs per clutch ± Clutches per season* Bazaruto Archipelago 2.00 ± 2.00 Bazaruto Arhipelago Ponta Malongane 2.25 ± 3.86 Ponta Malongane 0-10 Re-nesting interval (days) No data available Number of years between No data available breeding seasons (years) Size of eggs (cm) No data available Size of hatchlings (cm) No data available Incubation success (%) No data available * Data compiled from; Kyle & Lombard (1996), Lombard (1997), Louro (2005), Magane & João (2002) and Videira & Louro (2005). 2.5) Pivotal temperature studies There has been a study on pivotal temperatures, but unfortunately, we do not have access to that information. The study was made by a foreigner student - Carla Ng in 1999/2000. The project was a collaboration, between the Universidade Eduardo Mondlane and the Faculdade de Ciencias de Lisboa, Portugal. Th e research was made along Inhaca Island's east coast. 2.6) Migration records Since 1994 the Ponta Malongane Project has been tagging leatherback turtles with the support of the Kwazulu Natal Wildlife (KZN). However, we do not have all the information regarding migration records, these details may be acquired from them. The methods used are tag returns/recapture. The Mozambique Marine Turtle Tagging Programme has recaptured turtles from the Malongane Project, however the recaptures have only been from loggerheads. The programme has not recaptured any leatherback turtles yet. Please see details for season of of 2 within season recaptured leatherbacks at Ponta Malongane: FF Nest 9.8 Km north of Ponta Malongane FF Nest 28.9 Km north of Ponta Malongane FF Nest 21.4 Km north of Ponta Malongane FF Nest 9.3 Km north of Ponta Malongane FF Nest 5.3 Km north of Ponta Malongane FF Nest 2.7 Km north of Ponta Malongane 2.7) Protection of nesting beaches (e.g. National Parks) Three nesting beaches in Mozambique are within national parks - o The Maputo Special Reserve Maputo Province (Southern Mozambique) o The Bazaruto Archipelago National Park Inhambane Province (Southern Mozambique) o The Quirimbas Archipelago National Park Cabo Delgado Province (Northern Mozambique) 2.8) Use of hatcheries to protect marine turtle nests There was once a hatchery in Bazaruto Archipelago National Park, but it is not functioning at the present moment. 2.9) Threats to nesting marine turtles A summary of the threats to nesting leatherback turtles in Mozambique is presented in Table 3. 89

98 Table 3. Summary of the threats to nesting leatherback turtles in Mozambique Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence & year of records Exploitation of nesting females Egg collection Agricultural/urban/tourism development We don t have reports on the number of turtles killed but Lombard (2005) sums the number of turtles killed at Ponta Malongane (these include also loggerhead turtles ), this number being 32 turtles in eleven years. The area of high number of killings being from Madedjanine to Mamoli. Lombard (2005) affirms the current occurrence of egg collecting. In Bazaruto Archipelago egg collection used to be one of the main causes of disturbance, this having reduced in the last three seasons, due to environmental awareness. Tourism is rising high, especially on the southern coast of Mozambique. However, no data was found. Yes. South of Inhambane province females were slaughtered whenever encountered (Hughes, 1971) Yes. South of Inhambane province eggs were consumed (Hughes, 1971) No data found Artificial lighting No data found No data found Coastal erosion Vehicles Yes. In Bazaruto Archipelago one of the main causes (11.76%) in 10 seasons of monitoring for the destruction of nests has been coastal erosion and the rising of the seawater level (Videira & Louro, 2005). Yes. There is no legislation in Mozambique regarding driving on the beach, and this has turned into a very serious problem, due to the high rise of tourism and the weak enforcement by the local authorities. In Ponta Malongane, especially in the Ponta Techobanine region up north there has been a high rise in the driving of vehicles (Lombard, 2005). In Bazaruto Archipelago the main nesting areas are in the Bazaruto Island and these have been affected with a high incidence of vehicle driving belonging to the hotels. No data found No data was found. Sand mining No data found No data found Natural threats/predation Yes. But no data was found Yes. But no data was found 2.10) Impacts of coastal development and/or sand mining on leatherback turtle nesting. See table above 2.11) Major existing threats to nesting turtles. 1. Exploitation of nesting females for food 2. Collection of eggs for food 3. Beach driving (vehicles there is no legislation, and the level of control is very weak) 4. Tourism development (e.g. there is legislation regarding construction of tourism infrastructure, however, the level of implementation and control is very weak, there has been an uncontrolled growth. 90

99 2.12) Other biological studies conducted on nesting leatherback turtles o Bazaruto Archipelago National Park Nesting Programme (Nesting and tagging monitoring); o Ponta Malongane Marine Turtle Conservation Project (Nesting and tagging monitoring); o Reserva Especial de Maputo (Nesting and tagging monitoring); o Projecto Maçaneta (Nesting and tagging monitoring); o Projecto de Biodiversidade e Turismo de Cabo Delgado (no data found, it needs also to confirm what species are being monitored); 2.13) Activities underway to improve the conservation of nesting populations of marine turtles o Capacity training courses for community guards and volunteers o Promotion of monitoring and research activities o Sensitization and awareness campaigns (e.g. Boas Vindas 2000 Campaign; Precisam-se Vivas Campaign, among others) o Development of current activities that promote the collaboration of local communities and tourism operators 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details on any leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results Mozambique Marine Turtle Tagging Programme: 1 turtle has been tagged since 2003/2004 and no tag recoveries. 3.2 & 3.3) Seasonality and size range of leatherback turtles occurring in offshore waters The leatherback (MO 803) that was caught accidentally in a fishing net at Macaneta, was found in the high peak of the nesting season in December This turtle (MO 803) measured - CCL =160 cm and CCW= 100 cm. 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles No information available 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No other studies have been conducted on foraging leatherback turtles in Mozambique. 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles A summary of the threats to foraging leatherback turtles in Mozambique is presented in Table ) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved A summary of fisheries based threats to leatherback turtles in Mozambique is presented in Table ) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations o Approval of the Turtle Excluder Device (TEDs) since January 2005 in the General Regulation of Mitime Fisheries (Article 110. Number 1, Decree 43/2003) o Sensitization and awareness (e.g. Boas Vindas 2000 Campaign; Precisam-se Vivas Campaign) o Capacity training courses to community guards and volunteers, tourist and industrial and semiindustrial prawn fisheries operators and o Development of current activities that promote the collaboration of local communities and tourism operators 91

100 Table 4. Summary of the threats to foraging leatherback turtles in Mozambique Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence & year Exploitation of live animals at sea Yes. Mozambique is currently being assaulted by illegal longliners mainly dedicated to shark fishing. However, these not only capture sharks but also all the marine biodiversity they find. Some years ago heads of marine turtles were found on the beaches of the Bazaruto Archipelago National Park. Unfortunately we do not have the means to patrol our offshore waters. And currently a new project has been developed called Eyes on the Horizon, this is supported by the Fisheries, the Army and the Tourist Operators whenever strange activities are spotted along the coast. Incidental capture in fisheries Gove et al. (2001) states that 12 marine turtles per trawler per month are caught accidentally in shrimp trawlers, and that this number tends to increase during the high nesting season. Also more than 6 leatherback turtles were caught alive during the beginning of the shrimp fishing season, [mostly at Chami-Chami & Sofala Bank]. No data found No data found Boat strikes Possibly. But no data found. Possibly. But no data found. Plastics (at sea) Possibly. No data found Industrial effluent No data found No data found Inshore oil pollution No data found No data found Natural threats/predation No data found No data found Table 5. Summary of the fisheries based threats to leatherback turtles in Mozambique Type of fishery Season of operation Approx number of boats/operators Prawn trawling fisheries * Industrial Semi-Industrial * Gove et al. (2001) Winter (March September) Winter (March September) Impact low, medium or high 52 (93% Sofala Bank) marine turtles (mixed species) per year caught accidentally (Winter and Summer Seasons) 73 (67% Sofala Bank) marine turtles (mixed species) per year caught accidentally (Winter and Summer Seasons) 92

101 4. Concluding remarks Regarding leatherback turtle biology and management a lot needs still needs to be done. And the same applies to all the remaining four species of marine turtles that occur and nest in our coastline. This can only be achieved if all the implementing research and management institutions work together. 5. References Gove D, Pacule H, Gonçalves M (2001) 'Impacto da Pesca do Camarão de Superfície no Banco de Sofala (Região Central de Moçambique) sobre as Tartarugas Marinhas e os Efeitos da Introdução do TED (Dispositivo de Exclusão de Tartarugas) na Pescaria de Camarão.' Hughes G (1971) Sea turtles a case for marine conservation in South East Africa. In Proceedings of SARCCUS Symposium Nature conservationas a form of land use pp Gorongosa National Park, September Kyle R, Lombard P (1996) 'Sea Turtle Research in Southern Mozambique: A brief overview and results of some recent monitoring and tagging activity.' Lombard P (1997) Marine Turtle Monitoring Conservation in Southern Mozambique: report update 1996/97 Season for Ponta Malongane., 9. Ponta Malongane. Louro CMM (2005) Mozambique Marine Turtle Tagging Programme: Preliminary Results ( ). Final Report of Activities Submitted to WWF, 5. Magane S, João J (2002) Local Community Involvement in Monitoring and Protection of Sea Turtles, Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) in Maputo Special Reserve, Mozambique. In '22nd Annual Symposium on Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtle'. Miami USA 4-7 April (Ed. J Seminoff) pp (NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-503) Videira EJS, Louro CMM (2005) 'Análise da Monitoria dos Ninhos e Marcação das Tartarugas Marinhas no Parque Nacional do Arquipélago do Bazaruto.' Apresentado no IV Seminário de Investigação da UEM. Maputo, de Setembro de

102 Status of leatherback turtles in Myanmar No report on the leatherback turtle was received from Myanmar. However, leatherback turtles are listed as historically being a rare nesting species on the island and mainland beaches known as the turtle banks (Thorbjarnarson et al. 2000). No recent records of leatherback turtle nesting exist (Thorbjarnarson et al and U. Cho Hla Aung 2002). In the past turtle eggs were harvested from beaches in the turtle banks and sold million olive ridley turtle eggs and 1.6 million green turtle eggs harvested annually (Maxwell, 1911). No data is available for the sale of leatherback turtle eggs. Legal protection status for leatherback turtles Taken from the Department of Fisheries information for the Myanmar National Report o Sea turtle conservation programme started in Myanmar since 1905 under Burma Fisheries Act (III 1905). Protection for the turtle hatching areas and turtle included and also trespassed on those areas without official consent was prohibited. o In 1990, Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law (DoF); no person shall search for and collect any marine products without a License (Section 40). In Myanmar Marine Fisheries Law (1990), mentioned in Chapter 1, Section (2), Subsection ( r ) there are Marine Products mean fishes obtained from the sea, aquatic organisms, excrete, scales, bones, skins, plants, non-living. The expression also includes Marine Turtle and eggs, o In 1993, the Department of Fisheries declared the Notification No. II/93 for Sea Turtle Conservation. o New regulations issued in 2005 by the Ministry of Fisheries prohibit the eating of turtle meat and eggs and require that turtles caught as bycatch in fishing nets be released, and trawlers must be equipped with devices to minimize the risk of turtle capture. Education and awareness programs Taken from the Department of Fisheries information for the Myanmar National Report o DoF has distributed pamphlets to fishermen on the fishing areas, fishing gears and fishing season prohibited by notification and fishery laws. o In Myanmar turtle conservation and management course was conducted for the first time from ( ) to ( ) at Gayet Gyi Conservation Station with the participation of 17 trainees. o Also in the Inspector Course No. 6/2003 conducted by DoF, Myanmar at Institute of Fishing Technology (IFT) in Yangon sea turtle conservation and management was introduced. o In Ayeyarwady Division, District and Township Officers and Staff of DoF held workshop on sea turtles to draw public awareness on 7 October o Similarly during the fish replenishing ceremony on DoF also held talks about Sea Turtle Conservation for the Armed Forces, members of the Union Solidarity and Development Association and students in Pathein township, Ayeyarwady Division. o On ( ), DoF has talks about Sea Turtle Conservation and Management for 37 number of teachers and students from Pathein University in Ayeyarwady Yangon University. References Aung UCH (2002) Conservation, research and management on sea turtles in Myanmar. In 'Third workshop on southeast Asia sea turtle cooperative research'. Bangkok, Thailand. (SEASTAR2000) Maxwell FD (1911) Report on the turtle-banks of the Irrawaddy Division. In 'Reports on inland and sea fisheries in Thongwa, Myaungmya, and Bassein Districts and the turtle-banks of the Irrawady Division' pp (Government Printing Office: Rangoon) Thorbjarnarson JB, Platt SG, Khaing ST (2000) Sea Turtles in Myanmar: Past and Present. Marine Turtle Newsletter 88,

103 Status of leatherback turtles in Oman 1. Introduction Oman is the second largest country in the Arabian Peninsula. An enclave, the Musandam Peninsula, is surrounded by the United Arab Emirates (Hunter, 1991). Oman possesses about 1,800 km of coastline bordering on the Indian Ocean. Traditional forms of protected area or range reserves may have origins over 2,000 years ago in the pre-islamic period and still occur to some extent in Oman. Seawater temperature is an important factor controlling the distribution of marine flora and fauna in the Northern Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman. There are differences in the thermal environment between the Gulf of Oman and the Northern Arabian Sea during the summer southwest monsoon season, and this is reflected in the nature and distribution of coral communities in along the coast of Oman. During this period the Gulf of Oman is highly stratified with warm water (28-32ºC) in upper layer separated from underlying cooler water (24-25ºC) by a shallow, sharp thermocline. Wind is probably the main factor to cause the depth of the thermocline to rise and fall and this results in a highly fluctuating temperature regime with changes at 10m of up to 8ºC in 2 hours (Coles, 1997). In contrast, upwelling in the northern Arabian Sea results in low (approximately 19ºC) seawater temperatures in throughout coastal waters during summer months that moderates annual maximum temperatures. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Existing legislation for wildlife and nature conservation is largely based on the following: Decree No. 26/79 of 15 May 1979 providing authority to establish national parks and nature reserves. The Decree calls for the establishment of a technical and consultative committee of members from specific ministries to prepare and study draft schemes for establishing protected areas. It also specifies the kinds of activities to be regulated in such areas. Local authority regulations have been in force for some time and three sites have been granted protected area status. Other pieces of legislation include Royal Decree No. 53, 1981 entitled the "Law of Sea Fishing and the Preservation of Marine Biological Wealth", which regulates fishing. The Royal Decree was followed by Ministerial Decree No. 3/82, 1982 which includes executive regulations for law of marine fishing and conservation of aquatic resources. All capture of turtles is prohibited during the nesting season, as determined by the appropriate authority (the Ministry of Rural Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources). Specific areas are protected by law and collection of eggs within them is prohibited within a distance of the coast to be determined by the MRMEWR. Hunting of turtles on their way to lay eggs on the islands and coasts is prohibited during periods which are determined by the MRMEWR. In addition to specific protected area legislation is a whole series of planning controls which have evolved to include environmental protection. There are obligations of building developers to obtain a certificate of No Environmental Objection (NEO) from the Ministry of Rural Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources, which is applicable to all areas of Oman. Important nature conservation areas can thus be protected by declining to grant NEO certificates (Munton 1991). In addition, the Ministry is working on the principle of undertaking ecosystem conservation in wider areas extending beyond reserve boundaries: these are most finely tuned in the Development Plan for the Southern Region, where all areas are classified according to the degree of planning control in operation or category of use, and legislated through the authority of the PCDESR which was set up under Royal Decree No. 48 of Two classes of nature conservation area have been approved in 1991: reserve zone 1 and reserve zone 2 (Munton 1991). At the international level, the Sultanate of Oman has entered a number of cooperative agreements and legal obligations. Oman is party to the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), which it accepted on 6 October In 1979 the Sultanate of Oman ratified the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (Kuwait Action Plan). Oman actively participates in meetings concerned with additional protocols to the Kuwait Regional Agreement, and is a signatory to the IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU. 95

104 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation In 1991 responsibility for nature conservation was passed from the Dewan (Royal Court) to the (now named) Ministry of Rural Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources. With this change, the emphasis of ideas and activities shifted from the conservation of high profile species through specification of protected areas to the development of a national conservation strategy (NCS), with its emphasis on ecosystem conservation. As a result of this evolution of ideas over the past 20 years, the Sultanate now has a variety of strategies and plans for conserving natural resources and a number of administrative measures that can be taken to conserve and ensure the sustainable use of resources. The NCS is broad, and if effectively implemented, will change both attitude towards nature and natural resources and action towards such resources by government agencies (Munton 1991). The Ministry now controls the work of 43 municipalities, 14 municipal sections and 22 cleaning units in remote areas of the Sultanate. The Ministry is responsible for the continued monitoring and research of marine turtles in Oman. The turtle breeding beaches at Ras al-hadd / Ras al Jinz are protected by Royal Decree as a nature reserve, to which entry is controlled by the Ministry. There are plans to extend the protection of turtles in other areas and to further train Omanis as rangers to monitor the beaches where they lay their eggs. Since the turtles are proving to be a major eco-tourist attraction, the Ministry has introduced a code of conduct for visitors and imposed a limit on their numbers. The Ministry has also has measures in place to protect its flora and fauna, and the newly-proposed National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) will ensure a coordinated and systematic approach by all concerned. 3. Nesting populations There are no historical or contemporary accounts of leatherback turtles nesting in Oman. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview Both SOMER (2000) and Ross & Barwani (1982) suggest leatherback turtles are occasionally seen in coastal waters, but these do not occur on a regular basis and no contemporary records exist of any sightings. While Oman has extremely well-developed marine turtle conservation projects at Ras Al Hadd and at Masirah Island, there are no research projects aimed at foraging turtles, and none at leatherback turtles in coastal waters. Similarly, there are no conservation projects aimed specifically at the leatherback turtle, although all marine turtles are protected by law in the Sultanate. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles Fishing is likely a significant threat to leatherback turtles in Oman, as they may be entangled/drowned in long line fisheries. Fishermen operate from bases and landing sites spread along the mainland coastline down to Salalah and from Masirah Island. While nesting turtles have received great attention in the Sultanate, foraging turtles have not been so high on the list. For leatherback and other turtles to be completely protected there is a need for in-water research and conservation activities to complement the nesting beach protection and research work. The Sultanate also straddles one of the world s major shipping routes, ships are known to dump their wastes and dirty ballast water in open waters but still close to shore, and dirty ballast waters result in the formation of tar balls which have been found along the coastline of the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean proper. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas Oman has a strong commitment to a coastal zone management program, which has been developed with IUCN that includes the identification, declaration and management of MPAs. Oman is a particularly successful example of coastal zone management planning in the Arabian Seas. The government's commitment to coastal zone management has resulted in significant contributions to conservation of coastal and marine environments. There are five coastal protected areas, three of which are MPAs and cover a range of environments, species, objectives and management issues. These vary from the remote Daymaniyat Islands where there are minimal resource use conflicts and globally significant habitats for hawksbill turtles and seabirds to the Qurum mangroves that lie in the heart of a major residential area (Price and Humphrey 1993). Other factors also contributing to marine conservation include traditional fishing controls, fisheries legislation and strict controls over land developments. The following MPAs have been identified: 96

105 1. Daymaniyat Islands National Nature Reserve 2. Khawr Salalah BS Managed Nature Reserve 3. Quru Managed Nature Reserve 4. Ra's al Hadd (Turtle Reserve) Managed Nature Reserve 5. Ra's al Jumayz National Nature Reserve In addition, the Barr Al Hikman and Masirah Island area is important for wetland birds, turtles, coral reefs and others, and is currently being proposed as an MPA. The policy of promoting sustainable utilization of these types of areas, in accordance with Oman's policy of controlled domestic tourism, is one the major objectives of the MRMEWR Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation Of the potential administrative and management constraints in the country, there is still a need to strengthen the activities of the Ministry of Rural Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources with regard to management of turtle populations and analysis of long-term data sets. There is still a significant lack of on-the-ground monitoring and enforcement and a need for a strong educational component in the NCS to explain the basis of sustainable resource conservation. For the NCS to be effective, funds need to be devoted both to an active educational programme and also to on-the-ground monitoring of natural resources and enforcement of their proper use. It has been indicated that such monitoring should take place in nature conservation areas where the natural resources has been identified as being of particular importance and outside such areas where particular ecosystems have to be conserved because of their value or sensitivity. At present, although there are many plans, provisions, legal and administrative measures available, there is a lack of application on the ground. 5. References Coles S (1997) Reef corals occurring in a highly fluctuating temperature environment at Fahal Island, Gulf of Oman (Indian Ocean). Coral Reefs 16, Hunter BE (1991) 'The Statesman's Year Book ' (The Macmillan Press Ltd, London and Basingstoke, UK.) Munton P (1991) Concept development in Oman for conservation of biological diversity. In 'Third Man and Biosphere Meeting on Biosphere Reserves in the Mediterranean and the First IUCN-CNPPA Workshop on Protected Areas in the North Africa-Middle East Region, October 1991, Tunis.' p. 14 Ross JP, Barwani M (1982) Review of sea turtles in the Arabian Area. In: (K.A. Bjorndal, ed.). In 'Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles'. (Ed. KA Bjorndal) pp (Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C) SOMER (2003) 'State of the Marine Environment Report. ROPME/GC-11/003.' Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment, Kuwait. 217 pp. 97

106 Status of leatherback turtles in Pakistan By Fehmida Firdous 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview Marine turtles, including leatherback turtles are declared as protected species under provincial Wildlife Ordinance & Acts - The Sindh Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1972 and the Baluchistan Wildlife Act 1974 Legislation in Sindh The Sindh Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1972: protects all turtles and eggs in Sindh and dictates steep fines for killing turtles (Frazier 1980; Salm 1975a; Salm 1975b; Mohiuddine 1975) Second Schedule of The Sindh Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1972: o All marine turtles of the genera Dermochelys, Chelonia, Caretta, Eretmochelys, Lepidochelys are listed as "Protected Animals" o The definition (as given on page 2 of the Ordinance) of "Protected Animals" means a wild animal specified in the Second Schedule. (See clause (j) of section 2 of SWPO). o Ordinance pertains to: Hunting of any protected animal (Subsection (i), (iii) of Section 7 of SWPO. Animals found dead or killed or caught unlawfully: Any protected animal or game animal which is found dead or dying or which has been killed or caught otherwise than in accordance with the provision of this ordinance or any meat or trophy thereof shall be the property of Government (Section 9 of SWPO). Transfer of animals, trophies or meat (Subsection (1), (2) of Section 11 of SWPO). Import and export of animals, trophies or meat (Subsection (1), (2) of Section 12 of SWPO). o o o Penalties: See clauses (i), (ii), (iii) of Subsection 1 under Section 17 of SWPO. First.published on 13th. April, 1972, then some amendments were made up to 1 June 2001 and reprinted in June This Ordinance can be seen on website click on "about us" and then go on SWD Ordinance Legislation in Baluchistan Third Schedule of The Baluchistan Wildlife Protection Act (BWPA) 1974 o All marine turtles of the genera Dermochelys, Chelonia, Caretta and Eretmochelys are listed as "Protected Animals" o The definition (page 3 of the Act) of "Protected Animals" means all animals, birds, reptiles mentioned in the third schedule appended to the act (clause (I) of section 2 of BWPA). o Ordinance pertains to: Restrictions on hunting of any protected animal (Subsection (a&b) of Section 8 of BWPA). Animals found dead or killed or caught unlawfully: Any protected animal or game animal which is found dead or dying or which has been killed or caught otherwise than in accordance with the provision of this ordinance or any meat or trophy thereof shall be the property of Government (Section 9 of BWPA). Wild birds, animals that shall not be killed, hunted or captured (Section 10 of BWPA). Transfer of animals, trophies or meat (Subsection (1), (2) of Section 12 of BWPA). Import and export of animals, trophies or meat (Subsection (1&2) of Section 13 of BWPA). o Penalties: See Clause (i), (ii), (iii) of Subsection 1 under Section 19 of BWPA o First published on 21st August 1974, amendments were made on December 13th 1977 This Act is not available on Website. If desired, a copy will be sent through post, please send the exact postal address. 98

107 1.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level Name and type of agency National level - State level Sindh Wildlife Department, Govt of Sindh, Karachi 2. Nesting populations 2.1 Overview The leatherback turtle is among five species of marine turtles reported to occur in the territorial waters of Pakistan (Ghalib and Zaidi 1976), but its nesting has not been recorded (Ghalib and Zaidi 1976). Historical Evidence Following are the past references showing possibilities of leatherback turtle nesting or occurrence along Pakistan coast. o No specimens of leatherback turtle were examined by Minton from west Pakistan waters but through the kindness of J. A. Anderson he obtained a photograph of an adult specimen that was found stranded at Hawkes Bay beach near Karachi during June of 1958 (Minton 1966). o If accounts of local fishermen are to be believed, the leatherback occasionally nests on islands near the mouth of the Indus (Minton 1966). o During a survey conducted along Makran coast from January 1987, he contacted someone in Ormara who said that leatherbacks Dermochelys coriacea (which he identified from photograph) were occasionally caught in nets, (Groombridge 1987). o Dermochelys coriacea (Linn), leatherback turtle is included among five other species of marine turtles have so far been reported to occur in the territorial waters of Pakistan (Ghalib and Zaidi 1976), but its nesting was not reported from anywhere in Pakistan by Ghalib and Zaidi (1976). Current Situation Summary Leatherback turtle nesting has not been recorded so far from Pakistan. Surveys have been conducted to assess nesting distributions for all marine turtles, but no leatherback turtle nesting has been observed. The following survey methods have been employed: Ground Survey Regular Patrolling of nesting beaches on foot along Sindh coast on daily basis covering particularly Hawkes Bay and Sandspit nesting grounds. Irregular Patrolling of nesting beaches along Baluc htistan beaches on foot. Occasional off shore surveys by hiring a boat along Sindh and Baluchtistan. Sindh Province Ground surveys have been conducted by Sindh Wildlife Department to identify marine turtle nesting species along the beaches of Sindh coast in Pakistan since o The beaches surveyed during this period include Korangi Creek, Ibrahim Hydri, Clifton, Kaemari, Manora, Sandspit, Hawkes Bay, Buleji, Paradise Point and Capemonz. o The beaches of Sandspit and Hawkes Bay are the most suitable nesting grounds of turtles. o Nesting of leatherback turtle has not been observed along any of the above-mentioned beaches to date. o However, two dead specimens of male leatherback turtles were observed, one during 1988 at Sandspit beach (Firdous 1989) and the other in 1989 near Paradise Point. (For more information: See section Foraging Populations & accompanying photos). Baluchistan coast Occasional ground surveys have also been conducted along Baluchistan coast by WWF Pakistan since o o The beaches surveyed included Sonmiani, Ormara, Pusni, Gwadar and Jewani; but leatherback turtles have not been recorded (dead or alive) (Per. Com. with Mr. Attaullah Pandrani, Conservation Officer, WWF Pakistan Field Office, Jewani, Baluchistan). A few aerial surveys were conducted along Baluchistan coast (Groombridge, 1988) and by Sindh Wildlife Department during 1997 but evidence of leatherback turtle nesting was not recorded. 99

108 3. Foraging populations All data presented in the following sections refer to the two leatherbacks stranded (as reported by Firdous). They are here assumed to be foraging rather than breeding animals. Summary data pertaining to these two stranded carcasses are provided below, as reported by Fehmida Firdous to J.A. Mortimer (in litt. 29 November 2005): 1. Male leatherback at Sandspit (Firdous 1989): o Size: Curved carapace length = cm, curved carapace width = cm, Tail length 45.4 cm o Date of observation: 05 September 1988 o Reported Cause of death: A very high level of decomposition indicated that the specimen had died a few days before, perhaps due to shark attack as there was a prominent cut mark seen on ventral side of left rear flipper. 2. Male leatherback at Paradise Point: o Size: Curved carapace length = 125 cm, curved carapace width = 95 cm o Date of observation: 25 April 1989 o Reported Cause of death: There was a very big hole on the proximal end of right front flipper. Both of the back flippers were also damaged indicating the attack of shark or by another big animal. Editors note: Given the poor condition of these carcasses when they washed ashore, the injuries which are consistent with shark attack, could have occurred post death. Hence anthropogenic factors cannot be ruled out. 3.1) Details of leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results such as tag recovery data There have been no studies conducted on foraging populations of leatherback turtles in Pakistan. 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles caught or seen in foraging areas Data is available for two stranded turtles; one in April and the second in September 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles caught or seen in foraging areas The stranded leatherback turtles were 213.4cm in length and 125 cm in length. 3.4) Information on diet of leatherback turtles No available data 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas Not applicable 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles No threats to leatherback turtles have been recorded in Pakistan 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved During a survey conducted by Groombridge (Groombridge 1987) along the Makran coast from January 1987, fishermen from Ormara indicated that leatherbacks Dermochelys coriacea (which were identified from photograph) were occasionally caught in nets (Groombridge 1987). Fisheries in Pakistan have implemented TEDs and seasonal closures of some fisheries to minimise their impacts on marine turtles (Pakistan National Report to IOSEA 2005) 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging areas There are no other activities underway, or planned to specifically improve the conservation of foraging populations of leatherback turtles in Pakistan. However, a variety of education materials have been developed to raise the awareness of local people of marine turtles such as teachers, school children fishermen and the media (see Firdous 2000 for details). However, regular offshore, ground and aerial surveys should be conducted along Sindh and Baluchistan coast to collect information on leatherback distribution, abundance and threats. 100

109 4. References Firdous F (1989) Male leatherback strands in Karachi. Marine Turtle Newsletter 47, Firdous F (2000) Sea turtle conservation and education in Karachi, Pakistan. In 'Sea turtles of the Indo-Pacific: research, management and conservation'. (Eds Pilcher N. and I G.) pp (ASEAN Academic Press: Sarawak). Frazier J (1980) Exploitation of marine turtles in the Indian Ocean. Human Ecology 8, Gahalib SA, Zaidi SSH (1976) Observations on the survey and breeding of marine turtles of Karachi coast, Pakistan. Agriculture Pakistan XXVII, Groombridge B (1987) Mekran Coast: A newly explored habitat for marine turtles. WWF-Pakistan Newsletter 6, Groombridge B (1988) 'Marine turtles in the Mediterranean: Distribution, population status, conservation.' IUCN World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Groombridge B (1989) Aerial survey of the Baluchistan coast (Pakistan). Marine Turtle Newsletter 46, 6-9. Minton SA (1966) A contribution to the Herpetology of West Pakistan. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 134, Mohiuddin SQ (1975) 'Pakistan National Report for the Regional Meeting on Marine Parks and Reserves.' Regional Meeting on Marine Parks and Reserves, Tehran, Iran, 6-10 March Salm, R.V., 1975a. Preliminary report of existing and potential marine park and reserve sites in Sri Lanka, India and Pakistan. Mimeographed, IUCN, Morges (cited in: Frazier, 1982). Salm, R.V., 1975b.Summary report on existing and potential marine parks and reserve around Sri Lanka, Southeast and Western India and Pakistan. In Regional Meeting on Marine Parks and Reserves, Tehran, Iran, 6-10 March IUCN, Morges. 101

110 Status of the leatherback turtle in Papua New Guinea 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview The Department of Environment and Conservation is the government agency responsible for administration of legislation directly related to species conservation. Importantly, natural resources such as marine turtles belong to the people themselves, and as such they are the actual regulatory bodies upholding the DEC s legislation. Conservation of PNG s natural resources and environment, including marine environments is enshrined in the fourth goal of the countries constitution. The main legislative acts that cover leatherback turtles and their habitats are taken from Kisokau and Ambio (2005): Fauna (protection and conservation) 1982 Crocodile trade (protection) Act 1982 Fisheries (Torres Strait Protected Zone) Act 1984 National Seas Act 1977 Prevention of pollution at seas Act 1981 Dumping of wastes at sea Act 1981 Conservation Areas Act 1992 Environmental Planning Act 1978 Fisheries Management Act 1998 Land Act 1996 Another important government agency with jurisdiction over marine species is the National Fisheries Authority (NFA). NFA is responsible for the Fisheries Management Act of 1998 and is mandated to manage all commercial fisheries within PNG s exclusive economic fishing zone (Kisokau and Ambio 2005). On a local scale, the Kamiali Integrated Conservation Development Group (KIDCG) is the end result of a process that concluded with the designation of Kamiali as a Wildlife Management Area (KWMA) (Kisokau and Ambio 2005) Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level National level State level Local level Name and type of agency Department of Environment and Conservation Morobe Fisheries Management Authority Kamiali Integrated Conservation Development Group Village Development trust Huon Coast leatherback Monitoring and Conservation Network 102

111 2. Nesting populations 2.1 Overview The nesting locations for leatherback turtles in PNG are shown in Figure 1. According to Spring (1982) leatherback turtle nesting occurred widely along the northern coast of PNG, but in low density. The main nesting areas recorded were; mainland PNG (Bioken to Turubu in East Sepik Province and Aitape in West Sepik Province), Long Island and the mainland coast of Madang Province, Normandy Island in Milne Bay, Tulu and Timonai on Manus Island, Garu, Kimbe Bay and Ganoi in New Britain and the south coast of New Ireland. No information on the numbers of females nesting per year in these locations was given nor were any indications of whether the nesting populations were declining. Quinn and Kojis (1985) [in Hirth et al. 1993] estimated that 10 leatherbacks nested nightly along the southern coast of Morobe Province (near Maus Buang/Piguwa). At an adjacent beach, Bedding and Lockhart (1989) indicate that the nesting population on Labu Tali [spelt Tale by the authors] beach is around 300 nests per year. Hirth et al. (1993) conducted a detailed survey of the Maus Buang/Paiawa nesting beach between December 1 and Each turtle encountered was tagged with conventional metal tags. These authors found on arrival nine old body pits within the turtle reserve (725m long beach adjacent to Paiawa village), 22 body pits between the reserve and Labu Tali and 117 old body pits between the reserve and Buasi. Overall the authors tagged 34 leatherbacks that were ashore nesting between Labu Tali and Buasi, and 76 nests were confirmed. The highest density nesting occurred between the Buang and Buasi Rivers. Spotila et al. (1996) provide a pers. comm. of 50 to 100 nesting females per year along the entire north coast of PNG. Community based management at Kamiali Wildlife Management Area (WMA) In 1998 a community based management project began within the Kamiali WMA (Kisokau 2004; Kisokau and Ambio 2005). The sampling methods used from 1999 to 2004 are summarised by Kisokau (2004) and Benson et al. (in press). Briefly, from November to February nightly beach patrols were conducted along the 2km beach within the Kamiali WMA. Female leatherback turtles ashore for nesting were tagged using conventional flipper tags and PIT tags. The results of these annual surveys are presented in Table 1 (Kisokau 2004 and Kisokau 2005). Table 1. Results of annual monitoring of the leatherback turtle nesting beach at Kamiali Nesting season Remigrants New turtles Total turtles 1999/ / / / / / Aerial survey of nesting 2004 An aerial survey of leatherback turtle nesting was conducted between 13 and 20 January 2004 (Benson et al. in press). The survey covered approximately 2800km of coastline including the north coast of PNG from the Indonesian (West Papuan) border eastward through the provinces of Sanduan, East Sepik, Madang and Morobe. In addition the surveys covered the entire coast of New Britain and the northeast coasts of Goodenough, Fergusson and Normandy Islands. For details of the specific methods see Benson et al. in (press). 415 nests were sighted along 363km of beach. Over 71% of nests were found in the Huon Gulf region and only 29% of nests were recorded outside of the two index beaches (Kamiali and Maus Buang). However these aerial surveys did not cover all of the important nesting sites that were identified through surveys by Spring (1982). Benson et al. (in press) report that the numbers of turtles recorded by the nightly patrols in the Kamiali WMA and the numbers estimated by the aerial surveys are lower than the estimates of Quinn and Kojis (1985) and Bedding and Lockhart (1989). More systematic long term data is needed to determine population trends. 103

112 Figure 1. Location of leatherback turtle nesting beaches in Papua New Guinea 2.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting The leatherback turtle nesting season occurs during the austral summer (October to March) with peak nesting in December and January (Hirth et al. 1993; Benson et al. in press). However, community based surveys by Rei (2005) indicate that there may also be a sub-population that nest during the mid year period (June to August) along the Wasur and Busiga coast. 2.3 Genetic studies on nesting populations of leatherback turtles Genetic analysis of skin samples indicates that the leatherback turtles that nest in PNG are part of the western Pacific metapopulation that includes the Solomon Islands, and West Papua (Indonesia) (Dutton et al. 1999; Dutton et al. in press). This metapopulation is estimated to be in the order of 2000 females nesting annually (Dutton et al. in press). The lack of differentiation between rookeries of the south Pacific could reflect high rates of gene flow between rookeries or a lack of power in the analysis that used only mitochondrial markers (Dutton et al. in press). 2.4) Biological parameters See details in Table ) Pivotal temperature studies No studies on pivotal temperatures have been conducted for the PNG rookeries 104

113 Table 2. Summary of biological data on nesting leatherback turtles from Papua New Guinea Category of data Average & standard deviation Size of nesting females (cm) (±8.74) * (±16.62) 4 Number of eggs per clutch 88.2 (20.15) * (±27.28) 4 Range 155 to to to to to Sample size - Clutches per season (±1.59) 4 1 to 6 25 Re-nesting interval (days) (±10.01) 4 2 to Number of years between breeding No data available seasons (years) Size of eggs (cm) 52.2 cm (2.34) 46 to eggs (17 clutches) Size of hatchlings (cm) No data available Hatchling emergence success (%) 58% to nests 1. Quinn and Kojis (1985) 2. Kisokau and Ambio (2005) 3. Hirth et al. (1993) 4. Kisokau (2005) 2.6) Migration records of nesting leatherback turtles Data from the satellite telemetry of post nesting females has shown internesting movements, which include a turtle that was initially caught in PNG and then came ashore in the Solomon Islands (Bougainville Island), presumably to lay a subsequent clutch (NOAA and WPRFMC unpublished data). From 2001 to 2004 Benson et al. (in press) attached satellite transmitters to 19 adult female leatherbacks as they were ashore nesting at Kamiali WMA (Benson et al. in press) to map their post nesting migration. For detailed results of this study see (Benson et al. in press). To summarise, these authors found that all tracked turtles spent the majority of time between nesting events within the Huon Gulf region. Nesting was not restricted to a single beach although they did find some site fidelity to Kamiali nesting beach. Post nesting leatherback turtles initially traveled east and southeast as they moved away from the Huon Gulf and into the Solomon Sea and thereafter into the Coral Sea. Only six transmitters remained active to 20 degrees of latitude. Four of these moved southeast between New Caledonia and Vanuatu and the other two moved south through the Coral Sea. A single female was tracked south into the southern transition zone (adjacent to New Zealand) before heading northwards and ending her track close to Tonga. 2.7) Protection of nesting beaches (e.g. national parks) The majority of leatherback turtle nesting occurs within the Huon Gulf area. In this area most nesting occurs within the Kamiali WMA, the Buang-Buasi region, at Labu Tale and at Paiawa. Kamiali WMA is a ha park that includes 11km of coast and coastal wetlands. The leatherback turtle study site is located on the north of Nasau Bay within the KWMA. The nesting beach is around 11km long. The sampling plot within this is now 3km long and it starts just north of the Kamiali village. The collection of turtle eggs or killing of turtles is not permitted in the WMA. 2.8) Use of hatcheries to protect marine turtle nests Hatcheries are not used to protect nests of leatherback turtles. However bamboo grids are now used to protect nests in situ from dog predation

114 2.9) Threats to nesting leatherback turtles The two main threats for nesting leatherback turtles, the collection of eggs for subsistence or commercial use, although it has occurred for decades it has never been quantified (Spring 1982, Bedding and Lockhart 1989, Hirth et al. 1993, Kisokau and Ambio 2005 and Benson et al. in press) and the depredation of eggs by dogs. Although the collection of eggs is now banned within the 10km nesting area of the Kamiali WMA, it is not yet known what proportion of a female s nests are laid in this area, nor how much site fidelity female leatherback turtles show towards laying multiple clutches in the one season on the same section of beach (as opposed to laying some clutches in and out of the protected zone). Both Benson (2005) and Benson et al. (in press) present results on nesting abundance from aerial surveys. In both papers the author(s) state that 71% of nests are laid within the Huon Gulf and within Huon Gulf 29% of nests were laid outside of Kamiali WMA and Maus Buang. However, the numbers of nests found during the aerial surveys that are presented in tables in the same reports indicate that a larger number of nests are laid outside of protected zones. In addition, while it has not been empirically linked to increased mortality of PNG leatherback turtles, long line fishing in the Pacific Ocean has been documented as a large threat to multiple stocks of leatherback turtles in the northern and southern Pacific oceans (see Spotila et al. 1996). Leatherback turtles have been caught by fishers in southern Australia, however, genetic stock analysis has not been conducted on these turtles (see Australia report in this section and Col Limpus pers. comm.). 2.10) Impacts of coastal development and/or sand mining on leatherback turtle nesting Unknown 2.11) Major existing threats to nesting leatherback turtles Egg collection, fisheries bycatch and egg depredation (Spring 1982, Bedding and Lockhart 1989, Hirth et al. 1993, Spotila et al. 1996, Kinch 2006; Dutton et al. in press). 2.12) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles Unknown 2.13) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle nesting populations The Huon Coast leatherback turtle network has been formed to address general threats to marine ecosystems, provide awareness and education to local communities and integrate local people into conservation activities (Senego 2005). In addition the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Coucil employ an anthropologist to work with communities and streamline the link between donors/scientists and the communities. They also employ a sea turtle biologist to strengthen the scientific approach to data collection and help with programme development. They also fund all of the current work going on along the Morobe Coast. 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details on any leatherback turtle census or tagging results such as tag recovery data There has been no tagging census of leatherback turtles in foraging areas 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters Unknown 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles Unknown 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles Unknown 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas Unknown 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles Unknown 106

115 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved Unknown, however the National Fisheries Authority is currently implementing a project to expand outreach efforts in mitigating sea turtle fishery interactions in some PNG commercial fisheries (see McCoy 2005 for details). 4. References Bedding S, Lockhart B (1989) Sea turtle conservation emerging in Papua New Guinea. Marine Turtle Newsletter 47, 13. Benson SR, Kisokau KM, Ambio L, Rei V, Dutton PH, Parker D (in press) Beach use, inter-nesting movement, and migration of leatherback turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, nesting on the north coast of Papua New Guinea. Chelonian Conservation and Biology. Benson SR (2005) leatherback turtle nesting demographics: identified through migratory movements and aerial census in Papua New Guinea. In 'Proceedings of the second western Pacific sea turtle cooperative research and management workshop. Volume 1.' Honolulu, Hawaii. (Ed. I Kinan). (Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council). Dutton PH, Bowen BW, Owens DW, Barragan A, Davis S (1999) Global phylogeography of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Journal of Zoology 248, Dutton PH, Hitipeuw C, et al. (in press) Status and genetic structure of nesting stocks of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in the western Pacific. Chelonian Conservation and Biology. Hirth HF, Kasu J, Mala T (1993) Observations on a leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea nesting population near Piguwa, Papua New Guinea. Biological Conservation 65, Kinch J (2006) 'From Labu Tale to Busama: leatherback turtle nesting in the Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.' A report prepared for the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council. Kisokau KM (2004) 'Community based conservation and monitoring of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) at Kamiali Wildlife Management Area, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea.' Final report from the Kamiali Integrated Conservation Development Group to the Western Pacific Fisheries Management. Kisakao K (2005) 'Community based conservation and monitoring of leatherback turtles at Kamiali Wildlife Management Area performed by Kamiali Integrated Conservation Development Group.' Final Report submiited to Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council - Contract No 04-wpc-025. Kisokau KM, Ambio L (2005) The community based conservation and monitoring of leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) at Kamiali Wildlife Management Area, Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. In 'Proceedings of the second western Pacific sea turtle cooperative research and management workshop. Volume 1.' Honolulu. (Ed. I Kinan). (Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council). Rei V (2005) The history of leatherback conservation in Papua New Guinea: the local government s perspective. In 'Proceedings of the second western Pacific sea turtle cooperative research and management workshop. Volume 1.' Honolulu. (Ed. I Kinan). (Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council). Spotila JR, Dunham AE, Leslie AJ, Steyermark AC, Plotkin PT, Paladino FV (1996) Worldwide population decline of Dermochelys coriacea: are leatherback turtles going extinct? Chelonian Conservation Biology 2, Spring CS (1982) Status of marine turtle populations in Papua New Guinea. In 'Biology and conservation of sea turtles. Washington D.C. Smithsonian Institution'. (Ed. KA Bjorndal) pp Quinn NJ, Kojis BL (1985) leatherback turtles under threat in Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea. PLES 1, Status of leatherback turtles in Philippines. 107

116 Status of the leatherback turtle in the Philippines By Renato Cruz 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.2 Overview Republic Act No is the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act approved by Congress on July 30, One of the provisions of the law is the ban on the exploitation of endangered species and its habitats that include all marine turtles. Persons caught can be penalized by the court of imprisonment of 6-12 years and/or a fine of 100 thousand to 1 million pesos. Jurisdiction of all marine turtle species falls under the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The DENR is composed of Bureaus and attached Offices. The implementing arm of the DENR is the Regional Offices which are present in every region in the Philippines. Satellite offices of the DENR, the Provincial Environment and Natural Resources Offices (PENROs) and the Community Environment and Natural Resources Offices (CENROs) are also present in every province and in some municipalities. The Pawikan Conservation Project of the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau is the depository of all marine turtle reports coming mostly from the DENR Regional Offices. 2. Nesting populations Nesting populations of marine turtles have been documented over the last two decades (see De Veyra et al. 1994; Palma 1993; Cruz 2002 for records). One account of leatherback turtle nesting in the Quiniluban Island group in north eastern Palawan exists (Matillano and Ladra 1986). However, since no other authors record the presence of leatherback turtle nesting in the Philippines it is likely that this was a once off occurrence (De Veyra et al. 1994; Palma 1993; Cruz 2002). There are also anecdotal reports that nesting occurred in Talagotong, Don Marcelino, Davao del Sur in the 1980s and the caretaker of Arena Island, Narra, Palawan said that nesting occur during the month of July. 3. Foraging populations Philippines waters are an important foraging and/or migratory pathway for leatherback turtles that nest in Malaysia and Indonesian West Papua (see Malaysian and Indonesian sections). One of the leatherback turtles tagged with a satellite transmitter in Jamursba Medi Beach, Indonesia West Papua in 2003 traveled inside and around the Davao gulf, south of Mindanao. Isolated records of leatherback turtles being caught as fisheries bycatch exist for several locations, most are within the Visayan waters, central part of the Philippines (see Leatherback turtle sightings based from the Pawikan Conservation Project Annual Reports from ). Females originally caught and tagged while nesting in Peninsula Malaysia were recovered in the waters of the southern portion of Mindoro Island, the southern portion of Iloilo and the central part of Negros Occidental (see Malaysia section). Leatherback turtle sightings based from the Pawikan Conservation Project Annual Reports from A leatherback turtle measuring 213 cm (7ft) x 121 cm (4 ft) was caught and released at Barangay Canipaan, Hinungan, Southern Leyte No report on leatherback turtle sighting A leatherback turtle was caught at Binungan, Tubay, Agusan del Norte measuring 147 cm in length and 68 cm in width with an approximate weight of 150 k. It was released at Barangay Dahican, Magallanes, Agusan del Norte. An improvised tag made up of bronze metal was attached to the rear end of its carapace Confirmed sighting of a leatherback turtle in Quinapundon, Eastern Samar. 108

117 1994. Confirmed sightings of leatherback turtles in the following areas with the corresponding information: Tag nos. CCL CCW Area RP cm cm Captured and released at Habok- RP6887 Habok, Barangay 4, Sipalay, Negros Occidental 103 cm 93 cm Caught at Barangay Salvacio, Belison, Antique RP127B RP128B RP215B cm cm Captured and released at San Andres, Pandan, Antique Fisherfolks interviewed during habitat surveys sighted leatherback turtles in the following areas: (1) Zambales, (2) Camiguin, (3) Siargao, (4) Polillo Island, Quezon, (5) Lubang Island, Occidental Mindoro, (6) Cuyo Islands, Palawan and (7) Calauit, Palawan Fisherfolks interviewed during habitat surveys sighted leatherback turtles in the following areas: (1) Pujada Bay, Davao Oriental and (2) Mabini, Davao del Norte. Confirmed sightings of leatherback turtles in Caliling, Cauayan in the Province of Negros Occidental and in the Province of Capiz with the following information: Tag nos. CCL CCW Area R - RP251B 137 cm 132 cm Captured at Punta Cogon, Roxas City, Capiz and released at Culasi Port, Roxas City, Capiz Confirmed sightings of leatherback turtles in the following areas with the corresponding information: Tag nos. CCL CCW Area R - RP668E L - RP669E 122 cm 92 cm Captured and released at Magting, Mambajao, Camiguin on Sept. 12, The turtle was swimming when No tag attached captured. 125 cm 75 cm The turtle was accidentally caught during a fishing operation and was brought to Barangay Linaon, Cauayan, Negros Occidental on May 22, Fisherfolks interviewed during habitat surveys sighted leatherback turtles in the following areas: (1) Donsol and Bugat in the Province of Sorsogon, (2) Silay City, E.B. Magalona, Bacolod City, Bago City, Pulupandan, Valladolid, San Enrique, Pontevedra, Sagay City, Cadiz City in the Province of Negros Occidental, (3) Babak, Samal and Kaputian in the Province of Davao del Norte. Confirmed sighting of a leatherback turtle in Sitio Kang-atong, Molocaboc Diot, Sagay City, Negros Occidental Confirmed sightings of leatherback turtles in the following areas with the corresponding information: Tag nos. CCL CCW Area R - P14096 L - P cm 100 cm Accidentally caught in a gill net at Albay Gulf in front of Legaspi Oil Mill and released at the Naval District Station, Regional Center Site, Rawis, Legaspi R - RP245B L - RP255B City, Albay 130 cm 77 cm Captured at Olatayan Island, Roxas City and released at Visayan Sea (Roxas City), Capiz 109

118 2000. No report on leatherback turtle sighting Confirmed sighting of leatherback turtle in the Province of Pangasinan with the following information: Tag nos. CCL CCW Area R - RP13244 L - RP cm 89 cm Captured and released at Pao Bay, Cabungaoan, Iliw-Iliw, Burgos, Pangasinan. Dates of capture and release: March 20, 2001 and April 2, 2001, respectively A dead and decaying leatherback turtle was found along the rocky coast of Sibahay, Lanuza, Surigao del Sur on December 28, It was believed that the turtle was trapped in an abandoned trawl net. The turtle s carapace measurement is 150 cm long and 100 cm wide Confirmed sightings of leatherback turtles in the following areas with corresponding information: Tag Nos. CCL CCW Area R - RP7184 L - RP cm 73 cm Captured between Camiguin Is., Calayan and Palaui Is., San Vicente, Sta. Ana, Cagayan on Oct 21, It was released at Palawig, Sta. Ana, Cagayan on Oct 23, 2002 R - RP cm 73 cm Captured and released at Lagunde, Oslob, Cebu on Sept 30, Confirmed sighting of leatherback turtle in Pujada bay, Mati, Davao Oriental measuring 150 cm x 86 cm. The turtle was encountered on July 8, Confirmed sightings of leatherback turtles in the following areas with corresponding information: Tag Nos. CCL CCW Area R P14697 L P cm 120 cm Captured (entangled from net) in Masbate Pass between Licuson, Mobo, Masbate and Lagundi, Batuhan, Masbate (Ticao Pass) on July 15, It was released at Buntod Island, Masbate Pass, Masbate on July 15, 2004 L P cm 80 cm Captured and released at Idio, Sebaste, Antique. The dates of capture and release: July 07, 2004 and July 08, 2004, respectively. A leatherback turtle was reportedly (featured in Luzon Bulletin, May 07, 2004) caught entangled in a drift net and released at the coast of Ragay Gulf in Tagkawayan, Quezon. The Municipal Administrative Officer facilitated the release Confirmed sightings of leatherback turtles in the following areas with the corresponding information: Tag Nos. CCL CCW Area R P21656 L P cm 117 cm Trapped in fish net (lambat) in Tayabas Bay, Brgy. Kanluran Kalutan, Agdangan, Quezon on Jan 07, It was released in the same area on Jan. 08, 2005 R P cm 70 cm Captured through a fishing net, 20 km off Ilog, Negros Occidental on March 02, It was released in Himamaylan, Negros Occidental on March 04,

119 Other turtles 1. A leatherback turtle with carapace measurement of 158 cm x 102 cm was reportedly captured at Dipnay, San Fernando, El Nido, Palawan on November 22, The turtle bore several bruises. It was released back to the sea by the residents but was found dead after three days at the seashore of same barangay. An apparatus, a microchip with inscriptions Seimac Wildcat was detached from the turtle and is currently kept at the El Nido Protected Area Office. 2. A leatherback turtle with carapace measurement of 143cm x 118cm was reportedly trapped in a fishnet at Lagonoy Gulf, Palawaig, San Andres, Catanduanes on February 26, Due to unavailability of tags, an improvised tag made of plastic petroleum container engraved with DENR CATANDUANES was attached to the turtle s right foreflipper before its immediate release at Brgy. Esperanza (pier site), San Andres, Catanduanes, along Lagonoy Gulf. 3. A leatherback turtle with carapace measurement of 153 cm x 90 cm was reportedly trapped in a fish trap locally known as bobo-bobo in the coastal waters of Colebra Island, Barangay Talotoan, Concepcion on August 11, 1005 at around 10 AM. The turtle was released at Barangay Malangabang, Concepcion, Iloilo on the same day, without a tag. The turtle bore cuts from its left anterior flipper up to its neck. The injury was believed to have caused by the sharp edges of the fish trap during the turtle s struggle to free itself. 4. A leatherback turtle was found freshly dead, entangled in a gill net on March 29, 2005 at Beach Comber Resort, Barangay Parara Sur, Tigbauan, Iloilo. The turtle was rescued at SEAFDEC FishWorld. The turtle s carapace measurement is 128cm x 80.5cm. 5. A leatherback turtle was confirmed to be sighted in the Old Poblacion, Maitum, Sarangani Province. A resident gave a photo to one of the staff of the Pawikan Conservation Project during one of the habitat surveys on October References Cruz R (2002) Marine turtle distribution in the Philippines. In 'Western Pacific sea turtle cooperative research and management workshop'. Honolulu, Hawaii. (Ed. I Kinan). (Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council) De Veyra R, Ramirez T (1994) Status of marine turtles in the Philippines. In 'Proceedings of the 14th annual symposium on sea turtle biology and conservation'. (NOAA Technical Memorandum, NMFS-SEFSC-351) Matillano F, Ladra D (1986) Nesting habits and habitat of marine turtles in Quiniluban Island, Palawan. Philippine Fisheries Newsletter Jan-June, Palma J (1993) Marine turtle conservation in the Philippines. In 'First ASEAN symposium-workshop on marine turtle conservation'. Manila, Philippines. (Eds A Nacu, R Trono, J Palma, D Torres and Aj Felipe). (WWF, Philippines). 111

120 Status of leatherback turtles in Qatar 1. Introduction Qatar is approximately 160 km in length and up to 90 km in width, and projects out on the west coast of the Arabian (Persian) Gulf and is bounded by Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Oman. Some old, now degraded coral reefs, extensive seagrass beds and small mangrove strands occur all around the coast. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Qatar has ratified the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (1954), the Kuwait Regional Convention for Cooperation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution (Kuwait Action Plan), and the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna or Flora (CITES). The Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC) takes an active interest in the marine environment and in other aspects of cooperation for environmental management. 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation The ruling family and concerned industries are the main forces behind wildlife protection, and the main public body concerned with the protected areas system is the Supreme Council for the Environment and Nature Reserves (SCENR). The SCENR has broad environmental powers and responsibilities, including proposing and implementing environmental policy, drafting environmental laws and regulations, undertaking environmental analysis and assessment, coordinating environmental bodies and undertaking education programmes. Other governmental bodies which play limited roles in area protection include the Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Ministry of Finance and Petroleum and the Ministry of Electricity and Water. General fishing restrictions are enforced by the Fisheries Department. 3. Nesting populations There are no historical or contemporary records of leatherback turtles nesting in Qatar. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview There are no records of leatherback turtles having been seen in Qatar s waters. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles It is unlikely leatherback turtles are anything more than transients or waifs. If leatherback turtles were to be found in Qatar waters, they would be threatened by coastal gillnets, shipping and petroleumrelated accidents/discharges. There are no commercial trawlers or long liners operating in Qatar waters. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas At present there are no declared MPAs Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation The SCENR is a young (5 years) agency staffed with young, dedicated staff, but there is still a need for focussed science and conservation input to the SCENR, which typically has to deal with commercial contractors as they do work for the large industrial companies. This has resulted in a do as little for as much work attitude on the part of the consultants, and the SCENR has been left with nothing more than a rehash of past data, year after year. For conservation to be effective, the SCENR needs to be working with the best and most current data sets, which they often do not get. There are plans however to continue with turtle conservation work in the country, sponsored by the SCENR, aimed at hawksbill turtles. 112

121 Status of leatherback turtles in Saudi Arabia 1. Introduction Saudi Arabia s Red Sea coastline extends southward approximately 1,840 km from the Jordan border north of Haql (29 30 N) to the border with Yemen at Oreste Point (16 22 N). The continental shelf extends offshore for distances < 1 km in the Gulf of Aqaba to > 100 km in the Farasan Bank. The Saudi Arabian Gulf extends southward approximately 1072 km from the Kuwaiti border (28 30 N) to the border with Qatar (25 15 N). Over 15 % of the population lives in the Red Sea coastal zone and over 5 % in the Arabian Gulf coastal zone. Urban and industrial development has had severe impacts on the coastal lands and waters, particularly adjacent to the major coastal towns and cities. Much of this development has involved extensive land-filling and dredging which destroyed substantial areas of the intertidal and sub tidal near shore habitats (Chiffings 1989). In addition, an average 25,000 to 30,000 ships are associated each year with the oil production and petrochemical industries on both coasts (Lintner et al. 1995). In the Red Sea a smaller proportion of the coastline has been developed, but in some areas (for instance around Jeddah) impact on the marine environment is severe. The presence of most of Saudi Arabia's oilfields in the Gulf has been a significant factor in attracting development to the region (MEPA/IUCN 1989). The Red Sea and Arabian Gulf exhibit markedly different bio-physical conditions, with the Arabian Gulf exhibiting more extreme changes in water temperature, in part related to the comparatively shallow nature of the Gulf, in particular close to shores (over 25 % of the Gulf is only 5-10 m deep; MEPA/IUCN 1992). In the Arabian Gulf, wind speeds range between 1 m/s in September to 4 m/s in June and July. Air temperatures range from 12 ºC in January to 37 ºC in August. Average annual maximum temperature is 46.5 ºC and water temperature generally ranges between 15 and 33 ºC, with extremes recorded at 10 ºC and 40 ºC (MEPA/IUCN 1992). The narrow straits of Hormuz restricts water exchange with the Arabian sea, which combined with high evaporation rates creates highsalinity water within the Gulf, with a turnover rate of three to five years (Hunter 1983). Saudi Arabia has a relatively long history of being involved with marine turtle research and conservation work, starting with a two-year project sponsored by the Meteorological and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA) in 1986 and 1987 (Miller 1989), and followed by four continuous years of work by the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) from 1999 to 2002 (Al-Merghani et al. 2000; Pilcher 1999a,b; Pilcher 2000; Pilcher and Al- Merghani 2000). A synopsis of much of the work carried out in Saudi Arabia is presented in Al- Merghani et al. (2000). Since that time the NCWCD have continued sporadic monitoring on key nesting beaches, but the data are unpublished. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Saudi Arabia is signatory to regional and international agreements which place obligations upon it for prevention of pollution and protection of resources, including coral reefs. Among these are a number of international agreements and memoranda of understanding, and a series of national laws and royal decrees that are pertinent to coral reef conservation. Relevant to marine turtles, the Kingdom is a signatory to the Kuwait Regional Convention on the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment from Pollution (1978); the Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden against Pollution from Land-based Sources (1982); the Protocol on Marine Pollution Resulting from Oil Exploration Activities in the Arabian Gulf Region (1989), the ROPME protocol for Protection of Pollution of the Sea from Land-based Sources (1990) and the Declaration of the Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (1995). The Kingdom is also a signatory to the IOSEA Marine Turtle MoU. A number of national decrees and laws also affect marine conservation measures in the Kingdom, including the Environmental protection Standards Document No (1402 H); the Council of ministers Decision no. 271 ( ) obliging the use of best available technology to reduce pollutant emissions (such as cement dust); the Rules and Regulations for Saudi Arabian Seaports; the 113

122 draft national Fisheries Regulations (Royal Decree No. 7/505M 28/3/1406); and the establishment of the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD). 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation The National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD): NCWCD is responsible for management of protected areas (Royal Decree No. M/22, dated 12/9/1406). The NCWCD's main role is to preserve, protect and develop the wildlife within the Kingdom. Specific objectives are to develop and implement projects to protect wildlife and their habitats, conduct surveys and promote res earch and public interest in environmental issues related to the wildlife in Saudi Arabia; and co-ordinate different ministries, authorities and national and international institutions to accomplish these objectives. The Meteorology and Environmental Protection Administration (MEPA) was established by Council of Ministers decision No. 157, Dated 20/11/1411 and Royal Decree No. 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406, MEPA has jurisdiction for prevention of pollution in the territorial seas. MEPA is the central environmental agency in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. However, the Kingdom distinguishes between the establishment of environmental criteria such as standards, and actual operational management. Thus operational agencies such as the Ministry of Petroleum, Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Industry and Electricity retain regulatory control over activities carried out under their respective mandates while MEPA sets environmental performance standards, monitors the activities of operational agencies and serves as a central coordinator for environmental management. MEPA is the Kingdom s central coastal zone management agency. Despite this, institutionalisation of authority for centralised coastal zone management has not been achieved, and each individual agency operates under its own specific mandate and numerous overlaps and potential conflicts abound. Day-to-day coordination mechanisms and central planning authority specific to the coastal zone are lacking. MEPA also has jurisdiction for oil spill response (coordination mechanism established under Royal Decree 7/B/13307, dated 22/7/1411), and for prevention of pollution including effluent from land fill ports (Royal Decree No. 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406). MEPA is responsible for setting standards for the environment (Royal Decree No. 7/M/8903, dated 2/14/1401) and for carrying out a program of environmental impact assessment. It is also the designated coastal zone management agency. The Ministry of Agriculture has jurisdiction for fishery activities (Royal Decree No. 7/505M, dated 28/3/1406), and issues permits for extensive filling of submerged lands have been granted in the Eastern Province. Finally, the Saudi Arabian Coast Guard, established by Royal Decree No. 33, dated 27/7/1377, has jurisdiction between the border of the territorial seas (12 miles offshore) and 10 km inland. 3. Nesting populations No records exist of leatherback turtles nesting on any part of the Saudi Arabian Red Sea shoreline, nor its shoreline along the Gulf. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview No specific reports exist for leatherback turtles in the Saudi portion of the Red Sea, although Ross (1995) and Gasparetti et al. (1993) both report the presence of the leatherback turtle in the Red Sea. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles Despite turtles and their nesting habitats in Saudi Arabia receiving legal protection there is still illegal catching of marine turtles by locals in the Farasan Islands, although none of this can be attributed to leatherback turtles. Local threats include oil spills, land filling, pollutant discharges, effluents from desalination activities and a number of other major impacts. Most acute damage is localised and restricted to offshore islands (in the Gulf) and around major urban areas (in the Red Sea). 4.3 Protection of foraging areas Protection of marine habitats in Saudi Arabia has a fairly recent history. In 1977, the small island of Umm al-qamari was given de facto protected area status by the national hunting regulations of Following this, MEPA identified forty-six coastal areas for inclusion in a system of coastal protected areas (MEPA/IUCN 1987). Under Saudi Arabia s Environmental Protection Coordinating Committee (EPCCOM) these were designated Environmentally Sensitive Areas. In 1987, the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD) was formed with the express mission of handling the Kingdom s wildlife and conservation management issues, and its own classification system. By 1989, this program had placed 2.4 % of Saudi Arabia's total area (51,405 km 2 ) under protected status. In 1990, the NCWCD published its Plan to Protect Areas in Saudi 114

123 Arabia that presented a system of protected areas which, if designated, would place 12.8% of Saudi Arabia s land mass under conservation management. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has few marine protected areas. Many areas have been proposed and suggested, dating back to the mid- and late 1980s, and remain that way to date. Actual MPAs include the Yanbu Royal Commission Protected Area which covers an area of ca. 5 km 2 ; Umm al Qamari, covering an area of 2 km 2 ; the Farasan Islands, covering an area of 3310 km 2, is a Terrestrial and Coastal Reserve archipelago of small islands at the southern extreme of Saudi Arabia's Red Sea shores. It is an important habitat for marine turtles, and is threatened by fishing, development and recreation activities. Finally, the Jubail Wildlife Sanctuary is a de facto protected area awaiting Royal declaration. Established in 1994 and covering an area of 2300 km 2, research and baseline surveys to identify the main ecosystems were carried out after the Gulf war. The Sanctuary encompasses important nesting areas for sea turtles Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation One of the major gaps in the process of turtle conservation, in particular in the Red Sea, is the lack of established marine protected areas. In particular, research needs to be carried out in order to update baseline environmental conditions, and follow-up monitoring should refer to these baselines to detect changes in environmental quality; there is a need to integrate current research into global initiatives such as ICRI and GCRMP, and regionally among PERSGA members. There is a need to develop community education programmes that highlight the role of communities in turtle biology and ecology, including at sea stages. The Kingdom needs to take bold steps in the establishment of marine protected areas, and monitor the implementation of legislation concerning these areas with regard to coastal development, fisheries and tourism. Finally, a larger proportion of funds need to be allocated to protected areas and environmental research needs to be appropriated for marine conservation efforts. With the NCWCD for instance, this would also require the expansion of the Marine Department which is currently staffed by only three people with limited research funds and equipment. 5. References Al-Merghani M, Miller J, Pilcher NJ, Al-Mansi A (2000) The green and hawksbill turtles in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Synopsis of nesting studies Fauna of Arabia. Chiffings AW (1989) 'A draft Marine Protected Area System Plan for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.' IUCN/NCWCD Specialist Report, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Gasparetti J, Stimson A, Miller J, Ross P, Gas paretti P (1993) Turtles of Arabia. Fauna of Saudi Arabia 13, Hunter JR (1983) A review of the residual circulation and mixing processes in the KAP region with reference to applicable modelling techniques. In 'Symposium on oceanographic modelling of the Kuwait Action Plan'. Dharhran, Saudi Arabia Lintner SF, Arif S, Hatziolos M (1995) The experiences of the World Bank in the legal, institutional and financial aspects of regional environment programmes: Potential application of lessons leaned for the ROPME and PERSGA programs. Background papers from the Sea to Sea conference. In. (Jeddah) MEPA/IUCN (1989) 'Red Sea and Arabian Gulf: An assessment of national coastal zone management requirements. Report No. 7.' MEPA, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. MEPA/IUCN (1992) Saudi Arabia: An assessment of biotopes and coastal zone management requirements for the Arabian Gulf. MEPA Technical Report 5, 248. Miller JD (1989) 'Marine Turtles, Volume 1: An assessment of the conservation status of marine turtles in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Report No. 9.' MEPA, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Pilcher NJ (1999a) Cement dust as a cause of sea turtle hatchling mortality at Ras Baridi, Saudi Arabia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38, Pilcher NJ (1999b) The Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata in the Arabian Gulf. Chelonian Conservation Biology 3(2): Pilcher NJ (2000) The Green turtle Chelonia mydas in the Arabian Gulf. Chelonian Conservation Biology 3, Pilcher NJ, Al-Merghani M (2000) Reproductive biology of the green turtle Chelonia mydas at Ras Baridi, Saudi Arabia. Herpetological Review 32, Ross JP (1985) Identification of sea turtles in the Red Sea. Journal of the Saudi Arabian Natural History Society 2,

124 Status of leatherback turtles in Seychelles By Randolph C. Bijoux 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview Leatherback turtle are fully protected in the legislation. All marine turtles are dealt with under the Wild Animals and Birds Protection Act (1961), which: provides framework for Regulations to be made by Minister for protection of wild animals & birds; Defines maximum penalties. The following regulations under the Act pertain to turtles: a) Turtles Protection Regulations (1994) declares turtles & their eggs protected throughout Seychelles: No person shall disturb, catch, injure, fish for, kill, sell, purchase, receive or possess any turtle or egg No person shall sell, expose for sale, purchase or receive any products derived from any shell of turtle without a permit No person shall export or import a turtle shell or any product of a turtle b) Wild Animals (Turtles) Protection (Amendment) Regulations (1998) made it illegal to possess raw turtle shell (closing loophole in 1994 regulations) c) Wild Animals and Birds Protection (Amendment) Act, 2001 deals with penalties: increased maximum penalty: from Rs 1,000 to Rs 500,000 fine; and from 1 year to 2 years prison; Allows police search without warrant and enables confiscation of boats, vehicles or aircraft involved 1.2. Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level National level State level Local level Name and type of agency Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR) 1. Government: Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Marine Conservation Society of Seychelles 2. Parastatal Organisations: o Seychelles Islands Foundation (SIF) -- responsible for Aldabra atoll o Seychelles Centre for Marine Research & Technology - Marine Parks Authority (SCMRT/MPA) -- responsible for Marine Parks 3. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs): o Island Conservation Society (ICS) -- responsible for Aride Island o Marine Conservation Society of Seychelles (MCSS) o Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles (NPTS) -- responsible for Silhouette Island o Nature Seychelles -- responsible for Cousin Island 4. Private Sector o Various hotels & private islands conduct turtle conservation activities on beaches adjacent to their property -- i.e., Bird Island, Cousine Island, Denis Island, North Island, etc. 116

125 2. Nesting populations 2.1. Overview Historical Evidence Two possible (but unconfirmed) reports of leatherback nesting include: a) Photograph taken prior to 1970 of a leatherback that 'beached' at Anse Kerlan, Praslin. and was released the next day (Frazier 1984); b) An unconfirmed anecdotal report of leatherback nesting on Beau Vallon beach, Mahe, in the 1970s (C. Lorentz pers. comm. to J.A. Mortimer). Current Situation Virtually all nesting beaches have been monitored with some regularity during the past few decades, and there have been no reports at all of leatherback nesting anywhere in Seychelles during this period (Frazier 1984; Mortimer 1984, 1998). 3. Foraging populations 3.1 Details on any leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results. No tagged leatherbacks have been reported in Seychelles (J. Mortimer, pers. comm.). Nor have any tagging studies been conducted on foraging leatherback turtles Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters According to the rather general reports made by fishermen, foraging leatherback turtles occur in Seychelles waters during virtually any month of the year, but they are most easily observed during the calm periods of October through April (based on interviews with various fishermen, pers. comm. J.A. Mortimer). According to unconfirmed reports from fisherman there is no specific pattern in which they occur but they also claimed that these were rare events (based on interviews with various fishermen, pers. comm. R.C. Bijoux). There have been several well documented observations of leatherback turtles in Seychelles waters, for which dates have been recorded. These indicate that leatherbacks can occur throughout the year, and include the following: a) Reports of free swimming leatherbacks: August South Mahe, near Pt. Capucin. (pers. comm. G. Rosine to J.A. Mortimer). May Amirantes group, north of St. Joseph atoll, deep water near shore. (pers. comm. A. Jean-Baptiste to J.A. Mortimer). b) Stranded leatherback carcasses: May North Mahe, North East Point beach (unpublished data J.A. Mortimer & Seychelles Ministry of Environment). November North Mahe, Union Vale (unpublished data J.A. Mortimer & Seychelles Ministry of Environment) Approximate size range of leatherbacks caught or seen in Foraging Areas Measurements are available from the two leatherback strandings reported in section 3.2. The overcurve carapace measured for both turtles was 165 cm (MENR Stranded Turtle Network Data files; unpublished data J.A. Mortimer) Information on Diet of leatherback Turtles Unconfirmed reports from fishermen suggest that they may be feeding on jellyfish (based on interviews with various fishermen, pers. comm. J.A. Mortimer & pers. comm. R.C. Bijoux) Other Biological Studies Conducted on leatherbacks in Foraging Areas Genetic samples were retrieved from the two dead turtles washed ashore at Mahe in 2002 and 2003, and sent to Peter Dutton at the NMFS in the USA in effort to determine rookery of origin but to date, no results have been obtained (pers. comm. J.A. Mortimer) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles Threats to foraging leatherback turtles in Seychelles are summarised in Table

126 Table 1. Summary of threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles in Seychelles Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence Directed take of leatherback turtles at sea Trawl fisheries Gillnet fis heries Longline fisheries Other fisheries (state which ones) Boat strikes Plastics and other debris (at sea) Industrial effluent Inshore oil pollution Natural threats/predation Other (please describe) Low Med High Unknown Low Med High N/A N/A Yes? Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 3.7. Fisheries Bycatch of leatherback Turtles Hooked by long lines. According to reports made during interviews with several commercial fishermen (pers. comm. J.A. Mortimer) who have worked on long lining vessels, leatherback turtles regularly, but infrequently, suffer accidental entanglement in fishing gears. Typically they are accidentally hooked through the skin of various parts of their body including the neck, shoulders and flippers; and released as quickly as possible (see Table 2). Net Entanglement. One anecdotal report of a leatherback trapped in a fishing net on the boundaries of the Ste. Anne Marine National Park in the 1990 s but the rangers could not locate the animal to release it (pers. comm. J.A. Mortimer). Cause of death of the two stranded leatherback carcasses is unknown, as there were no marks on the turtles. But, fishermen who were on site said that they thought it was likely the turtles had been entangled in fishing gear (pers. comm., J.A. Mortimer.) Table 2. Summary of fisheries based threats to leatherback turtles in Seychelles Type of fishery Commercial Longliners Months of operation Number of boats Impact low, medium, high or unknown Medium Reference J.A. Mortimer, Unpublished data based on interviews with fishermen 3.8. Other activities being undertaken to improve conservation of leatherback turtles Not applicable 4. Concluding Remarks Given the relatively small size of the nesting leatherback population in the Indian Ocean, the incidental entanglement of leatherbacks in fishing gear - i.e., long liners & nets needs to be taken seriously and addressed accordingly (J.A. Mortimer, Pers. Comm.). 118

127 5. References cited Frazier J (1984) Marine turtles in the Seychelles and adjacent territories. In 'Biogeography & Ecology of the Seychelles Islands'. (Ed. DR Stoddart) pp (Dr. W. Junk Publishers: The Hague). Mortimer JA (1984) 'Marine Turtles in the Republic of Seychelles: Status and Management.' Publication of the IUCN Conservation Library, Gland, Switzerland. Mortimer JA (1998) 'Project J1: Environmental Management Plan of the Seychelles.' Final report to the Ministry of Environment Republic of Seychelles and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) January, Vol. 1 & Vol

128 Status of the leatherback turtle in Singapore By C. H. Diong 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview No specific laws have been enacted to protect marine turtles or marine life as an entire ecosystem. Laws to protect Singapore s wildlife were enacted in Today, all wildlife is protected by the Wild Animals and Birds Act, enforced in The Fisheries Act regulates the fishing industry, requiring persons who use fishing gear to obtain a license; the trapping of fish by explosives or poisons and the use of trawl nets are prohibited. Singapore became a signatory of CITES in 1986 and passed the Endangered Species (Import and Export) Act to implement the Convention. The Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority (AVA) Singapore is the Management Authority responsible for the implementation and enforcement of CITES in Singapore. All CITES violations pertaining to marine turtles or their products are managed by AVA Singapore. AVA have, in the past, intercepted several illegal consignments of green turtle and hawksbill turtle eggs (but not leatherback turtle eggs) by smugglers. 1.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level Name and type of agency National level State level - Local level - National Parks Board Singapore 2. Nesting populations 2.1 Overview There are no marine turtle nesting beaches in Singapore. No surveys for nesting marine turtles have been conducted in the past. Singapore however has its only leatherback turtle specimen, caught in 1883 in Singapore territorial waters, kept at the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research, National University of Singapore (Hanitsch 1908). No leatherback turtle has been sighted since. 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details on any leatherback turtle census or tagging results such as tag recovery data No studies on foraging leatherback turtles have been conducted in Singapore s waters. There is only one record of a leatherback turtle being sighted or caught in Singapore (Hanitsch 1908); on page 37, Hanitsch wrote: The specimen in the Museum measures 5feet 9inches in its entire length. It was caught at Siglap, Singapore, in 1883 and presented by the Honourable A.M. Skinner. 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters No data available 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles The leatherback turtle reported by Hanitsch in 1908 measured 5 feet 9 inches in its entire length 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles No data available 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No biological studies have been conducted on leatherback turtles in Singapore 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles No threats have been identified or quantified 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved No fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles by Singaporean fleets has been reported 120

129 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations No other activities have been planned to improve the conservation of leatherback turtles 4. References Hanitsch R (1908) Guide to the Zoological Collections of the Raffles Museum, Singapore. In 'The Straits Times Press, Limited.' pp. iv (Singapore). 121

130 Status of leatherback turtles in Somalia By Rudy v.d Elst 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1) Overview Somaliland - Protected. Rest - protected under an old conservation act that is not implemented 1.2) Management agency responsible for marine turtle conservation in Somalia. Name of agency: Fisheries Department Not Functional Type of agency: Ministry (fisheries) 2. Nesting populations 2.1) Overview According to Nini (1937 [cited in Frazier (1982)] green turtle nesting occurred along much of Somalia s Indian Ocean coast. While Márquez (1990) stated that occasional nesting for leatherback turtles occurred in Somalia, there have been no recent records and the species is currently thought not to nest in Somalia. 2.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting Seasonality of nesting by leatherback turtles in Somalia is unknown 2.3) Genetic studies on nesting populations of leatherback turtles There have been no studies on population genetics of leatherback turtles in Somalia 2.4) Biological parameters No biological parameters for leatherback turtles have been quantified in Somalia. 2.5) Pivotal temperature studies There have been no studies on pivotal temperatures or hatchling sex ratios of leatherback turtles in Somalia 2.6) Migration records of nesting leatherback turtles There have been no recoveries of tags from leatherback turtles, however, turtle tag recoveries from loggerhead turtles tagged while nesting in South Africa have been recorded in fisheries by catch in Somalia (Frazier 1982). 2.7) Protection of nesting beaches (e.g. national parks) There are no marine turtle nesting beaches that are protected. There is a protected zone around the Saardin Islands, and marine turtles are possibly turtles harvested here. 2.8) Use of hatcheries to protect marine turtle nests There are no hatcheries used to protect marine turtle nests in Somalia 2.9) Threats to nesting marine turtles The threats to marine turtles in Somalia are shown in Table ) Impacts of coastal development and/or sand mining on leatherback turtle nesting There are no current impacts of coastal development, including sand mining, on leatherback turtles in Somalia, 122

131 Table 1. Summary of threats to nesting marine turtles in Somalia (not necessarily for leatherback turtles). Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence & year of records Exploitation of nesting females Yes Yes Egg collection Yes Yes Agricultural/urban/tourism development No No Artificial lighting No No Coastal erosion No No Vehicles No No Sand mining No No Natural threats/predation Storms ) Major existing threats to nesting leatherback turtles Marine turtles, including leatherback turtles have been used as an important food source by coastal peoples. 2.12) Other biological studies on marine turtles There have been no other biological studies on marine turtles in Somalia 2.13) Activities underway to improve the conservation of the nesting populations of marine turtles There have been periodic studies and projects such as through IUCN/ORI (Oceanographic Research Institute, Durban, South Africa). 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details of leatherback turtle census or tagging results such as tag recovery data There have been no leatherback turtle tagging projects in Somalia, nor have any leatherback turtles tagged elsewhere been caught in Somalia. 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters Unknown 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles occurring in your country Unknown 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles No information on the diet of leatherback turtles in Somalia is known 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas There have been no other biological studies on marine turtles in Somalia 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of marine turtles in Somalia Fisheries bycatch is the main threat to marine turtles, including leatherback turtles in Somalia (Table 2). In particular foreign vessels (from neighbouring nations) fishing in Somalia s waters, artisanal gillnet fishery and the destruction of critical habitat by trawlers (Coffen-Smout 1998). 123

132 Table 2. Summary of the threats to foraging leatherback turtles in Somalia Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence & year Exploitation of live animals at sea Yes Yes Incidental capture in fisheries Targeted using shark gill nets Boat strikes No No Plastics (at sea) No No Industrial effluent No No Inshore oil pollution No No Natural threats/predation Other (type in): Yes None known None known Yes 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved Type of fishery Season of operation Approx number of boats/operators Shark gill netting All year - especially in March & November Unknown but several hundred km of nets Impact low, medium or high Very high on all marine turtle species 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations No other activities are currently being undertaken 4. References Coffen-Smout SS (1998) Shell strength in the cockle Cerastoderma edule L. under simulated fishing impacts. Fisheries Research 56, Frazier JG (1982) Status of sea turtles in the central western Indian Ocean. In 'The Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles'. (Ed. KA Bjorndal) pp (Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington, D.C). Márquez MR (1990) Sea turtles of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of sea turtle species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis 11,

133 Status of leatherback turtles in South Africa By Ronel Nel 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview Regulation 58(7) of the MLRA (1998) exercise control over turtles as a marine living resource providing full protection of turtles and their products in South Africa namely; specifying that: No person shall, except on the authority of a permit, engage in fishing, collecting, killing, attempting to kill, disturbing, harassing, keeping or controlling of, or be in possession of, any turtle or any part or product thereof at any time. 1.2 Management agency responsible for marine turtle conservation in South Africa Name of agency: Type of agency: Legislative Responsibility Marine & Coastal Management* Government Department * MoU with Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife to perform tasks in the province, although not yet a specific MoU for turtles, EKZNW has been the almost exclusively involved in marine turtle conservation activities for the last four decades. 2. Nesting populations 2.1) Overview The South African leatherback turtle nesting population and beaches have been described by Hughes (1974a, b and 1996). Briefly, the leatherback turtle nesting beaches in South Africa stretch for nearly 200km south from the Mozambique border. The beaches are mostly silica sand beaches rising steeply and reaching heights of 100m above sea level (Hughes 1996). The methods used in the annual nesting beach census have been standardised and a 56km section of beach (north and south of Bhanga Nek) is used as a standard index beach and this index beach is monitored nightly by EKZNW staff (see Figure 1 for example of the index beach and its relative numbers of nests). A combination of foot and vehicle patrols is used each night to collect data on nesting turtles. The leatherback turtle population in South Africa was reviewed in 1996 including data up to the 1994/1995 nesting season and then by Hughes in 1998 (Hughes 1996 and Figure 2). Results from the 32 years of monitoring reported in 1996 show a steady increase in the number of leatherback turtles nesting annually along the 56km index beach (Hughes 1996). Data from 1995 until 2004 was obtained from Nel and Papillion (2005) to update this figure. 125

134 Figure 1. Summed distribution of leatherback turtles between The distance from north to south is ~ 65km with each bar indicating number per 1mile (1.6km) NESTING FEMALES BREEDING SEASON Tagging census (Hughes & Bartholomew 1998; Nel & Papillion 2005) Figure 2. Number of nesting females recorded from the KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife index beach from 1963 until ) Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting The nesting season for leatherback turtles in South Africa occurs from October to mid February. Hatching occurs through until the end of March (Hughes 1996). 126

135 2.3) Population genetic studies on leatherback turtles Genetic studies have been conducted on leatherback turtles in South Africa and are summarized by Dutton et al. (1999). This study found that leatherback turtles nesting in South Africa were a separate population to those nesting in Malaysia. 2.4) Biological parameters Curved carapace length Hughes (1996) reports that average size of nesting leatherback turtles declined from 1964 to 1968 compared with 1995 and 1995, and speculates that this decline could reflect more smaller and younger females in the population. Remigration Remigration intervals (n = 513) recorded from 1969/1970 through until 1993/1994 range from 1 to 12 years (Hughes 1996). The remigration intervals are dominated by two (44.8%) and three (29.2%) year periods, with a small number of females breed in consecutive years (1.9%) (Hughes 1996). Furthermore, Hughes (1996) also present data on the variability of remigration intervals for 123 nesting leatherback turtles that were recorded between 1969/1970 and 1993/1994, it is clear from this data that leatherback turtles show considerable variation in reproductive periodicity. 2.5) Pivotal temperature studies No studies on pivotal temperatures or sex ratio have been conducted on leatherback turtles in South Africa 2.6) Migration records Tag returns for leatherback turtles are scarce, Hughes (1996) report six tag returns for Tongaland leatherback turtles away from the nesting beaches. Two of these returns are in Mozambique, one from Madagascar and three in South Africa (Indian Ocean Coast). All recaptures were within the breeding season for leatherback turtles and were caught at distances between 250km and 2600km away from the nesting beach (Hughes 1996). Satellite telemetry of three leatherback turtles tagged while nesting at Maputaland Marine Reserve was conducted between 1996 and 1999 in collaboration with Paolo Luschi at Pisa University (Figure 2; Hughes et al. 1998; Luschi et al. 2003). 2.7) Protection of nesting beaches (e.g. national parks) The entire nesting area for leatherback turtles (~ 200 km of nesting area) is within a World Heritage Site (Greater St Lucia Wetland Park) of which ~ 50km is currently designated as Sanctuary areas. Occasional nesting, 6-15 individuals per year, has been recorded nesting outside of the Park. 127

136 Figure 2. Reconstructed migration paths and low resolution sea surface temperatures of post nesting leatherback turtles tracked via satellite telemetry (Figure from Lambardi et al. 2006) 2.8) Use of hatcheries to protect marine turtle nests No hatcheries are used in South Africa to protect leatherback turtle nests 2.9) Threats to nesting leatherback turtles A summary of the threats to nesting leatherback turtles is presented in Table ) Impacts of coastal development and/or sand mining on leatherback turtle nesting There are no coastal developments or sand mining impacts to nesting populations of leatherback turtles in South Africa. 2.11) Major existing threats to nesting leatherback turtles The main threats to nesting populations of leatherback turtles in South Africa are boat strikes, shark nets and long-line fishing (see section 3.6/3.7). 2.12) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles Long term monitoring of the dive behaviour of two leatherback turtles was investigated by Sale et al. (2006). 2.13) Other activities underway to improve the conservation of nesting populations of marine turtles Annual tagging projects are conducted by the EKZNW throughout the index section of the beach to monitor the nesting populations of leatherback and loggerhead turtles. See section

137 Table 2. Summary of threats to nesting populations of leatherback turtles in South Africa Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence & year of records Exploitation of nesting females Incidental <1pa 1 Substantial until ~1960. No quantitative data*. Egg collection Incidental <5 nests pa 1 Was substantial until 1963 Agricultural/urban/tourism development Artificial lighting Coastal erosion Vehicles Tourism developments Four areas (< 100m each) High-energy coastline; varies seasonally. < 10 Vehicles per night: concession, management & media. Single recreational use is limited to (1.5 km where there is impact) Sand mining No No Natural threats/predation Relatively low: honey badgers, ghost crabs & feral dogs, side striped jackals (Canis adjustus) #. High-energy coastline; varies seasonally. Very heavy use of vehicles between ~ (e.g. Figure 3) but only during daylight hours. Relatively low: honey badgers, ghost crabs & feral dogs. *The original monitoring area ( ) and current monitoring area do not correspond in size. Numbers of nests are therefore not directly comparable. # Side striped jackals (Canis adjustus) were first noticed depredating turtle nests in 1994/1995 (Hughes 1996). 1. Nel and Papillion (2005) Figure 3. Picture of vehicle use during peak holiday season. Historically it was an extended area, now it is restricted to ~ a few kilometres out of the entire 200km stretch. 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details of leatherback turtle foraging area census or tagging results such as tag recovery data No foraging population census has been conducted on leatherback turtles in South Africa. However, it is suspected that the Atlantic coast of South Africa is a foraging area for both the east coast population (see Figure 2) as well as central and northern African leatherback turtles. 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters leatherback turtles are most often seen during October to April in both the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts of South Africa. 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles caught or seen in foraging areas The size range of leatherback turtles in South Africa is between cm curved carapace length (CCL) (Hughes 1996) 129

138 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles No new information since Hughes (1972). 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No other biological studies have been conducted on leatherback turtles in South Africa 3.6 & 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved. Type of fishery Bather protection (shark-nets) Season of operation Year-round Approx number of boats/operators 27 km of gill-nets along 62 beaches, 39 localities Impact low, medium or high Low: between 2-11 turtles per annum ( 1993 to 2004) with approx. 50% mortality rates (Nel and Papillion 2005) Pelagic Long-lining Year-round (?) 23 SA Operators leatherbacks pa* * Some turtles are released alive with the hooks still in place; no idea about the survival rates afterwards. 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations o Experimentation in the long-lining fishery with circle hooks is soon to start. o Shark protection nets are serviced daily to release live trapped animals. 4.References Dutton PH, Bowen BW, Owens DW, Barragan A, Davis S (1999) Global phylogeography of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). Journal of Zoology 248, Hughes GR (1972) The olive ridley sea-turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) in south-east Africa. Biological Conservation 4. Hughes G (1974a) 'The sea turtles of South-east Africa. I. Status, morphology and distributions.' Oceanographic Research Institute of South Africa, 35, Durban. Hughes G (1974b) 'The sea turtles of South-east Africa. II. Investigational Report.' Oceanographic Research Institute of South Africa., 36, Durban. Hughes GR (1996) Nesting of the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) in Tongaland, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Chelonian Conservation and Biology 2, Hughes GR and Bartholomew W (1998) The Tongaland sea turtle project 1 April March Natal Parks Board Annual Research Report. 1998; May: Hughes GR, Luschi P, Mencacci R, Papi F (1998) The 7000 km oceanic journey of a leatherback turtle tracked by satellite. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 229, Lambardi P, Mencacci R, Lutjeharms J, Hughes GR, Benvenuti S and Luschi P (2006) The influence of oceanographic conditions on the migratory behaviour of South African Leatherbacks. In Frick M, Panagopoulou A, Rees A and Williams K (compilers). Proceedings of the 26 th Annual symposium on sea turtle biology and conservation, Crete Luschi P, Sale A, Mencacci R, Hughes GR, Lutjeharms JRE, Papi F (2003) Current transport of leatherback sea turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) in the ocean. In ' Proceedings of the Royal Society of London'. pp. S129- S132. Nel R, Papillion J (2005) Turtle monitoring programme: season report for Report for Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife Sale A, Luschi P, Mencacci R, Lambardi P, Hughes G, Hays G, Benvenuti S, Papi F (2006) Long-term monitoring of leatherback turtle diving behaviour during oceanic movements. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 328,

139 Status of leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka By Thushan Kapurusinghe 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview In Sri Lanka, marine turtles are legally protected under the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance, No 2 of 1937 and the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act, No 2 of In 1979, Sri Lanka entered into the CITES agreement which prohibits member nations from export or import of turtles and their parts and products. All five species of marine turtles and their eggs, both on land and sea, are completely protected by amendments to the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance in 1970 (for the leatherback turtle) and by regulation in 1972 (for the other four turtle species). The punishments meted out to offenders have been increased by the Fauna and Flora Protection (Amendment) Act No 49 of 1993) (Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, 1993). Under Section 30 of the Fauna and Flora Ordinance (as amended), it is an offence to kill, wound, harm or take a turtle, or to use a noose, net, trap, explosive or any other device for those purposes, to keep in possession a turtle (dead or alive) or any part of a turtle, to sell or expose for sale a turtle or part of a turtle, or to destroy or take turtle eggs. A person who commits any of these offences is liable to a fine of Rs 10,000 30,000 or to imprisonment of 2-5 years or to both. Section 40 of the Fauna and Flora Protection Act prohibits export of a turtle, any part of a turtle or turtle eggs from Sri Lanka, except with the authority of a permit issued by the DWLC. Such a permit can be issued only for scientific purposes and not for trade in turtles or parts (which includes tortoise shell ornaments as well). Violation of this section carries a fine of Rs 20,000 Rs 50,000 and/or a jail term of 5-10 years. Import of a turtle, any part of a turtle or turtle eggs, without a permit issued by the DWLC is an offence under Section 37 of the Fauna and Flora Protection Act, and if found guilty, liable to a fine of Rs 5,000 Rs 10,000 and/or a jail term of 2-5 years (Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, 1993). In terms of Section 29 of the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act, regulations can be made to ban the capturing, landing, transportation, selling, buying, receiving or keeping in possession of any prohibited species of fish. The definition of fish in this Act is broad enough to include every aquatic animal, from mammals to invertebrates. An offence under this Section is punishable with a fine not exceeding Rs 3,000 and/or a jail term not exceeding 6 months. Section 30 (1) of this Act also empowers the minister in charge of the subject of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources to make regulations to prohibit or regulate the export from or import into Sri Lanka, of turtles or their derivatives (Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, 1993) Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level National level State level Local level Name and type of agency Department of Wildlife Conservation, National Zoological Department, Coast Conservation Department, Sri Lanka Customs, National Aquatic Resources and Development Agency, Marine Pollution Prevention Authority, Central Environmental Authority 2. Nesting populations 2.1) Overview Summary of historical evidence There is no historical evidence about the numbers of nesting females in various places. For the entire country, there is no leatherback turtle assessment done by any one. However some data can be found from the eggs collected in turtle hatcheries (Wickramasinghe 1982), as follows: 131

140 Kosgoda turtle hatchery: Between the period of 10 Dec 1981 and 4 April 1982 this hatchery released 249 leatherback turtle hatchlings (4.8% from the total hatchlings they produced, the balance were other species) Bentota turtle hatchery: Between the period of 14 December 1981 and 4 April 1982 this hatchery reburied 275 leatherback turtle eggs (5.65% from the total eggs reburied, the balance were other species) Summary of current situation The locations of leatherback turtle nesting sites are shown in Figure 1. Recent leatherback turtle nesting numbers are shown in Table 1. Both TCP and NARA have done some data collection from various nesting beaches in Sri Lanka (TCP beach survey 1999). During the period of July 1995 and August 1996, NARA surveyed the beaches between Karathivu and Yala and stated that no nesting beaches remain in the Puttalam and Gampaha Districts. Some beaches of the Colombo, Kalutara and Matara districts are still occasionally visited by turtles including leatherback turtles. Most of the important nesting beaches are located in the districts of Galle and Hambantota (Amarasooriya and Gunawardana1997). NARA has also classified the nesting beaches based on nesting frequencies (Amarasooriya 2000). According to the TCP data, Godawaya beach has the largest leatherback nesting population. 333 leatherback nests were reported between March 2001 and November 2001 and it was estimated 170 adult females of total nesting population use on the Godawaya beach (Ekanayake et al. 2002). For the entire season of 2005 only two leatherback turtle nests were recorded at Godawaya Beach which is abnormal. While it is too early to link it to the effects of the tsunami a lot of sand erosion has occurred due to the tsunami in Godawaya Beach. IUCN Sri Lanka has surveyed the beaches between Tangalle and Yala between the period of 2004 and 2005 and final report has yet to be published. Between 2000 and 2004 leatherback turtle eggs laid at Rekawa Beach and Bundala National Park were collected and reburied by the wildlife department but their data has not been analysed and published. There are occasional leatherback turtle clutches laid along beaches on the south western coast (around Kosgoda). However the entire beach is 4km in length and TCP monitors only 1km. Since 2003 TCP recorded only one leatherback turtle clutch in their 1km of beach, however there could have been more leatherback turtle nests laid along the other 3km of the beach and purchased by the hatchery owners. Leatherback turtles are mostly found to be nesting on beaches located in the dry zone of the southern coast line. Leatherback turtles nest in Godawaya in reasonable numbers and Kosgoda, Rekawa, Ussangoda, Kalametiya, Bundala, Yala are some of the other known nesting areas for leatherback turtles. Numbers of nesting females have not been recorded accurately for many beaches. Groombridge (1985) estimated the nesting population to be several dozen but probably less than 100. However, Salm (1976) found 173 leatherback nest excavations at Yala National Park between 9-13 June 1975 and 333 nests were estimated by TCP in 2001 at Godawaya (Ekanayake et al. 2002). IUCN s regional conservation strategy recognizes the Sri Lanka and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India as the last three areas in the region that have substantial nesting populations of leatherback turtles (IUCN 2001). 132

141 Table 1. Results of the annual monitoring of leatherback nesting populations. Beach name Duwemodara 0.5 km Bandarawatta 1 km Kosgoda 1.25 km Rekawa 3.5 km Kahandamodara Gurupokuna beach 3 km Godawaya 3 km Ussangoda - welipatanwila 2 km Bundala 12 km Amadoova to Mahaseelava (in Yala NP) 4 km Gonalehebba to Kalliya Kalapuwa (in Yala NP) 3 km Latitude of beach 06 o N to 06 o N 06 o N to 06 o N 06 o N to 06 o N 06 o N to 06 o N 06 o N to 06 o N 06 o N to 06 o N 06 o N to 06 o N Longitude of beach 80 o E to 80 o E 80 o E to 80 o E 81 o E to 81 o E 80 o E to 80 o E 81 o E to 81 o E 81 o E to 81 o E 81 o E to 81 o E Year of survey Annual number Type of data (e.g. turtles, nests, eggs) Reference NA eggs Ref 3. NA eggs Ref 3. NA eggs Ref 3. 3?&3N 7?&10N 10?&17N 11?&13N 8?&12N Turtles and nests NA Eggs & nests 333 nests 170 females Ref 3 & Ref 4. Ref 3 & Ref 4. nests Ref 2, Ref 3 & Ref 4. NA nests Ref 2, Ref 3 & Ref 4. NA nests Ref NA eggs Ref NA eggs Ref 5 References cited 1. Ekanayake and Kapurusinghe (2000). 2. Ekanayake et al. (2002). 3. Amarasooriya (2000). 4. TCP Beach survey report (1999) 5. Wickramasinghe (1982) Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting April to August (unpublished TCP data) 2.3. Population Genetic Studies of Nesting leatherbacks No genetics projects have been conducted on leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka 2.4. Biological parameters Curved carapace length (CCL) and curved carapace width (CCW) were measured from all nesting leatherback turtles in Rekawa between 1996 and 2000 (Table 2). A sample of ten eggs was measured from each clutch. A sample of ten hatchlings was measured from each hatching emergence. Nesting behaviour was observed and recorded. Leatherback turtles were tagged in Rekawa. 133

142 Table 2. Summary of biological data collected from leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka Category of data Average Standard Range Sample size References deviation Size of nesting females CCL:151.9cm CCW:109.7cm TCP Unpubl. Data Number of eggs per nests TCP. U.D clutch nests* Clutches per season No available data Re-nesting interval No available data (days) Number of years No available data between breeding seasons (years) Size of eggs (cm) 53.2 mm 34 nests TCP. U.D Egg weight 79.6 g 41.3 g 33 nests 55 nests* TCP. U.D Size of hatchlings (cm) Lth: 5.35 cm TCP. U.D 55 nests* Wth: 3.27cm Incubation success (%) No available data Incubation period 59.6 days 55 nests* TCP. U.D Average nest depth 89.5 cm 55 nests* TCP. U.D Nesting times: Emergence: 14.8 Minutes, Body pit digging: 14.8 Minutes, Nest chamber digging: 21.2 Minutes, Egg laying: 11.6 Minutes, Egg chamber cover: 11.1Minutes, Body pit cover: 34.1Minutes, Return to water: 8 Minutes Figure 1. Locations of leatherback turtle nesting sites in Sri Lanka * TCP unpublished data from Rekawa beach September 1996-July

143 2.5. Pivotal temperature studies Data not available for leatherbacks 2.6. Migration records for tagged nesting leatherback turtles Data not available for leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka. No recaptures of tagged turtles other than returning to the same beach for laying eggs Protection of nesting beaches (e.g. National Parks) Existing protected nesting beaches Name of the beach(s) Bundala Yala Wilpattu Name of the National Park Bundala National Park Yala National Park Wilpattu National Park Planned protection for nesting beaches Name of the beach(s) Rekawa Name of the planned National Park Rekawa Marine Turtle Sanctuary will be declared as a turtle sanctuary by the Department of Wildlife Conservation 2.8. Use of hatcheries to protect leatherback turtle nests Hatcheries are used to protect leatherback turtle nests. Summary Turtle hatcheries are mainly located in Bentota, Induruwa and Kosgoda areas. In 1994 the Turtle Conservation Project (TCP) surveyed 16 marine turtle hatcheries in Sri Lanka (Richardson 1996). In agreement with Hewavisenthi (1993), the subsequent report concluded that hatchery management practices were not contributing to the conservation of marine turtles effectively. The TCP report also included a draft proposal for the establishment of a hatchery licensing scheme to be implemented by the Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC) and the Ceylon Tourist Board (Richardson 1996). Status of the existing turtle hatcheries along the West, South-West and Southern region has been investigated by NARA between the period of July 1995 and June The report says that the main reason or aim of all these hatcheries except two was income generation through tourist attraction (Amarasooriya 1996) Threats to nesting leatherback turtles Summary of threats Killing for meat The slaughter of marine turtles has been widely reported (Dattari and Samarajeewa 1982). Currey and Mathew (1995), report that reliable sources informed them about the slaughter of marine turtles in Beruwela, Trincomalee, Negambo, Chilaw and Kalpitiya areas. Egg collection The most widespread form of marine turtle exploitation is the illegal poaching of turtle eggs. Almost all marine turtle nests on Sri Lankan beaches are robbed of their eggs (Kapurusinghe 2000). The eggs are either sold at markets for consumption or to hatcheries. This means that few, if any, hatchlings return to the sea under natural conditions. Salm (1976), reported that the turtle nests were dug during the day time in full view of the public at Bentota. Beach erosion In many areas the coast is being seriously eroded. This results in the destruction of nesting habitats of marine turtles. Examples for sand mining can be given from Panadura, Lunawa, Angulana and Palliyawatta (CCD 1992). 135

144 Incidental & intentional catch of turtles TCP has conducted a survey on turtle by-catch between 1999 and According to the results, of the 5241 turtles recorded as by-catch (entangled), 431 were leatherback entanglements (Kapurusinghe and Cooray, 2002). Predators Feral dogs, water monitors, land monitors, jackals, wild boars, mongooses, some species of ants, crabs can be considered as natural predators on marine turtle eggs and hatchlings on nesting beaches in Sri Lanka (Kapurusinghe and Ekanayake 2000). Habitat loss Most of the nesting habitats in the western province have been either developed for tourism, resulting in the beaches being floodlit at night, or have been subject to the construction of beach armoring which have rendered the beaches totally unsuitable for marine turtle nesting. Large hotels and restaurants adjacent to the beach create a lot of noise and light. A summary of threats to leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka and their historical and current occurrence is presented in Table 3. Table 3. Summary of the threats to nesting leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence Low Med High Unknown Low Med High Exploitation of nesting females x x Egg collection x x Agricultural development x x Tourist development x x Urban development x x Industrial development x x Artificial lighting x x Coastal erosion x x Vehicles on the beach x x Sand mining x x Unregulated hatchery practices x x Natural threats/predation x x Other (please describe): Major existing threats to marine turtles See Table Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles No other biological studies have been conducted except those mentioned earlier. Table 4: Main threats to leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka Priority 1 Priority 2 Priority 3 Priority 4 Priority 5 Turtle by-catch in fishing gear Turtle egg collection Habitat loss Nesting female exploitation Coastal Development (Including tourism industry) 136

145 3. Foraging populations 3.1. Details of any leatherback turtle foraging census or tagging results. There have been no tagging studies or population census work conducted in Sri Lanka on leatherback turtles Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters Data not available 3.3. Approximate size ranges of leatherback turtles Data not available 3.4. Information on diet of leatherback turtles Data not available 3.5. Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No other studies have been conducted. 3.6). Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles The main documented threat is the by-catch in fishing gear (Kapurusinghe and Cooray 2002) A summary of existing and historical threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka is presented in Table 4. Table 4. Summary of threats to foraging leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence Low Med High Unknown Low Med High Directed take of leatherback turtles at sea x x Trawl fisheries Gillnet fisheries x x Longline fisheries x x Other fisheries (state which ones) Boat strikes x x Plastics and other debris (at sea) x x Industrial effluent x x Inshore oil pollution x x Natural threats/predation x x a. Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved Between 1999 and 2000 a bycatch survey was conducted in 16 main fishing ports in Sri Lanka. A total of interviews were conducted with the aim of quantifying fisheries related bycatch. In total 5241 turtles were recorded as being caught by fishers. This comprised 431 leatherback turtles (8% of all bycatch) (Table 2 and 3; Kapurusinghe and Cooray 2002). 137

146 Table 2. Results of TCP turtle By-catch survey conducted in Sri Lanka between 1999 and 2000; Numbers of each species caught per each fish landing site (to see the full dataset see Kapurusinghe and Cooray 2002) Survey site Total turtles caught (all species) Dc Total 1 Beruwala Chilaw Colombo Dondra Galle Hambantota Kandakkuliya Kirinda Kottegoda Mirissa Morogalla Negombo Panadura Tangalle Wadduwa Weligama Total Table 3. Summary of the fisheries based threats to leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka Type of fishery Months of operation Number of boats Impact low, medium, high or unknown Reference Gillnet fishery Seasons vary according to locations Over 100,000 Very high (Kapurusinghe and Cooray 2002) 3.8. Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations Turtle Conservation Project (TCP) has conducted a turtle by-catch reduction educational programme for fishermen and produced a by -catch reduction educational poster. 4. Conservation Actions Summary of conservation actions being undertaken to address threats to leatherback turtles in Sri Lanka Areas of change Action/recovery plans Awareness raising programmes Summary including report references National action plan will be published soon TCP will continue its educational programmes Research activities Managed turtle based tourism Wildlife Department, NARA, TCP, IUCN will conduct more research TCP continues conducting managed turtle night watch programmes in Rekawa and Kosgoda Annual nesting beach surveys TCP will conduct more beach surveys in Kahandamodara area Managed hatcheries After the action plan Planned protected areas Rekawa beach will be declared as a turtle sanctuary 138

147 5. References Amarasooriya D (1996) Turtle Hatcheries. Is it additional disaster for the turtle fauna of Sri Lanka? In 'International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of the Amphibians and Reptiles of South Asia'. Kandy, Sri Lanka. Amarasooriya KD (2000) Classification of Marine turtle Nesting beaches of Southern Sri Lanka. In: Sea turtles of the Indo Pacific, Research, Management and Conservation. In '2nd ASEAN Symposium and Workshop on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation'. (Eds N Pilcher and G Ismail) pp Amarasooriya D, Gunawardana MGK (1997) Present status of the Turtle Nesting Beaches of the North-Western, Western and Southern provinces of Sri Lanka. In '3rd Annual Session of SLAFAR. National Aquatic Resources and Development Agency'. Colombo. CCD (1992) 'Coastal 2000.' CRC Technical Report No Currey D, Matthew E (1995) 'Report on an investigation into threats to marine turtles in Sri Lanka and Maldives.' Environmental Investigation Agency. Dattari S, Samarajeewa D (1982) 'The status and conservation of sea turtles in Sri Lanka.' March for Conservation (MFC), Colombo. Ekanayake, L. and Kapurusinghe,T (2000). The nesting frequency of marine turtles on the Rekawa turtle Rookery in Southern Sri Lanka. Abs. Report of the South and Southeast Asian Regional Session of the Global Bio diversity forum. : Colombo, Sri Lanka. Ekanayake EML, Kapurusinghe T, Saman MM, Premakumara MGC (2002) Estimation of the number of leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) nesting at the Godavaya turtle rookery in Southern Sri Lanka during the nesting season in the year Kachhapa, Groombridge B (1985) India's sea turtles in world's perspective. In 'Pro. Symp. Endangered Marine Animals and Marine Parks 1985' pp Hewavisenthi S (1993) Sri Lanka's hatcheries: Boon or Ban. Marine Turtle Newsletter 49. IUCN (2001) 'A Marine Turtle Conservation Strategy and Action Plan for the Northern Indian Ocean (NIO). IUCN SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 03.' Kapurusinghe T (2000) 'Community Participation in Turtle Conservation in Sri Lanka: A Summery of Community- Based Turtle Conservation Project's (TCPs) Activities in Sri Lanka.' U.S.Dept. Commerce. NOAA. Tech. Memo. NMFS-SEFSC-443, Kapurusinghe T, Ekanayaka L (2000) Nesting frequencies of marine turtles in Rekawa, Sri Lanka September 1996 to September In 'International Conference on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation'. Florida, USA, 2000 (in press). Kapurusinghe T, Cooray R (2002) 'Marine turtle by-catch in Sri Lanka.' Turtle Conservation Project (TCP). Survey Report ISBN Parliament of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka. Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance (Amendment). Publ. As a Supp. to part ii of the Gazette of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka of Oct 22, Richardson P (1996) 'The marine turtle hatcheries of Sri Lanka: A TCP review and assessment of current hatchery practices and recommendations for their improvements.' TCP report submitted for DWLC and NARA. Salm RV (1976) 'Critical marine turtle habitats of the Northern Indian Ocean.' IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. TCP (1999) 'Beach survey report. Ecological Assessment on Marine Turtles on Sri Lanka's South coast between Rekawa and Godawaya.' IUCN, Sri Lanka. Wickremasinghe S (1982) The WNPS turtle Hatcheries Volume XVI - No: 1 Loris, WNPS. 139

148 Status of leatherback turtles in Sudan 1. Introduction The Sudanese Red Sea coast is approximately 750 km long, inclusive of bays and inlets, extending from 18ºN at the Eritrean border to 22ºN at the Egyptian border. In most parts of the Sudanese Red Sea water transparency is very high, reaching up to 70 m. Surface temperatures range between 26.2 and 30.5 C, and salinity is high (39-41 p.p.t.). From May to October, surface currents flow in a southerly direction, and for the rest of the year they flow northwards. Most of the coast is bordered by fringing reefs 1-3 km wide, and not favourable nesting habitat for leatherback turtles, even though the reefs are separated by deep channels from a barrier reef of 1-14 km offshore, and the outer barrier drops steeply to several hundred metres depth. Port Sudan is the largest coastal city with a population of ca. 390,000. At present Sudan s natural resources of the Red Sea are under-exploited due to a lack of marketing, transport facilities and cold storage. There is no offshore oil exploitation, the contribution of fisheries and tourism to the GNP is < 3 %, and subsistence fisheries are only locally important. The primary industries are maritime shipping and portrelated activities. Fisheries play a minor role in the economy at the national level, but are important at a subsistence level along the coastal area. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview Sudan is a signatory to a number of international conventions and agreements that promote marine conservation. National legislation in Sudan is not believed to address turtles per se, but indirectly supports pollution control measures and navigation. Sudan has ratified the following Conventions and Protocols relevant to marine turtles: Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1974); Convention on Biological Diversity (1995); Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1982); Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment (1984); United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1985). Several national legislative frameworks are in place that relate indirectly to turtles: the Sudanese Fishery Ordinances and Regulations (1937, amended in 1975 and 1978); the Environmental Health Act (1975); the Marine Fisheries Ordinance (date unknown to the author). Al-Mansi et al. (2003) suggest all turtles receive legal protection, but do not cite it specifically. A new Maritime Law has been drafted by the Maritime Administration and is awaiting approval and implementation, and the Comprehensive National Strategy commits Sudan to the pursuit of sustainable development and environmentally sound resource management. 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Sudan has much of the infrastructure needed for regular monitoring and effective management of marine resources. There exist research organisations (based at the universities) that have carried out brief research on turtles in the past, and government agencies (such as the Navy) which provide a limited degree of enforcement. Many of the present problems faced by turtles can be attributed to a widespread lack of law enforcement, a lack of awareness among law enforcement authorities, a weak legal framework, and the absence of surveillance. Recently, power was transferred from the central government to federal states. The new system is not yet well established, resulting in an unsatisfactory legal situation and inadequate enforcement of existing regulations. The Sudan Marine Conservation Committee (SMCC) is an institution with representatives from all government institutions, the private sector, and NGOs concerned with the Red Sea environment. It played an important role in raising awareness and in formulating regulations on marine conservation, particularly in the 1970s. 140

149 The following institutions are involved in management of coastal and marine areas and resources: 1. The Ministry of Environment and Tourism, established in 1994 with the mandate of coordinating environmental conservation and promoting tourism (under its umbrella it includes the Higher Council for the Environment and Natural Resources (HCENR), which is the technical branch in charge of co-ordination, policy making, and international co-operation; the National Tourism Corporation, which is responsible for planning and promotion of tourism; the General Administration for Wildlife Conservation, which is charged with the protection and management of wildlife, including protected areas) 2. The Ministry of Animal Wealth: In charge of animal production and fisheries, and includes the Marine Fisheries Administration, which manages fisheries resources and controls the observation of fisheries regulations; the Marine Fisheries Research Centre, which provides scientific information for the management of fisheries resources; and the Wildlife Research Centre, in charge of providing the scientific background for wildlife conservation and management. 3. The Ministry of Defence is in charge of the Naval Forces in the Red Sea area. The Navy is responsible for the security in the coastal and marine areas. The Navy has a boat and two soldiers stationed at Sanganeb Marine National Park. 4. The Ministry of Interior is in charge of the Police Forces. The Wildlife Force is under administrative supervision of this Ministry. 3. Nesting populations The results of a questionnaire in 2003 which targeted fisherman, coastal villagers, maintenance workers at the light house at Hindy Qider Island, shell collectors and the Sudanese Army suggested that green turtles Chelonia mydas, hawksbill turtles Eretmochelys imbricata, loggerhead turtles Caretta caretta and leatherback turtles Dermochelys coriacea can be found at sea, but only the first three nest on the offshore islands (Al-Mansi et al. 2003). 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview leatherback turtles are known to occur in the Red Sea (e.g. Frazier et al. 1987), but no nesting has yet been recorded on any Red Sea-bordering nation. The fact that they are seen in Sudan s waters is evidenced by their having a distinct local name, Abo-Herab, but no quantitative records are available of the frequency of sightings at sea. No studies of any kind have been carried out on nesting or foraging leatherback turtles in Sudan. There are no known sanctioned sea turtle hatchery programmes of any kind, or any focussed conservation actions aimed at the leatherback turtle in Sudan. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles Due to the limited industrial development along the Sudanese coastline, threats are localised at the few urban centres. Turtles are threatened by maritime shipping, dredging and artisanal fishing. The most severe threats to turtles come from accidental capture by the limited fisheries. The large-scale shark fisheries by foreign vessels produce large amounts of bycatch, including turtles, which are discarded, invariably dead. Turtles are not reported as being commercially landed (Sanders and Kedidi, 1981; Mishrigi, 1993). Illegal take of marine turtles by fisherman and egg poaching continues at a low rate (Al-Mansi et al. 2003). 4.3 Protection of foraging areas The only marine protected area in Sudan is the Sanganeb Marine National Park (19 45'N 37 25'E), established in This is a 12 km 2 atoll with highly diverse and complex coral reefs, diverse reefassociated fauna. There are five proposed marine protected areas, of which four contain coral reefs: Shuab Rami, which covers ca. 4 km 2 and contains coral reefs and unique associated fauna including sharks and marine mammals; Mukkawar Island and Dungonab Bay, which cover ca. 300 km 2 and are home to coral reefs, whale sharks, and the largest aggregations of manta rays in the Red Sea; Suakin archipelago, which contains coral reefs with a diverse fish fauna, and is nesting site for marine turtles and sea birds, and Abu Hashish, which covers ca. 5 km 2 and also contains coral reefs and associated fauna. 141

150 4.4. Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation A major problem in conservation of turtles is funding for research and management efforts. The recent revival of PERSGA (PERSGA 1997; 1998) and the injection of GEF funding have meant there was some research and training, but enforcement will remain at its present state. Additionally there are political obstacles within the government: the General Administration for Wildlife Conservation is charged with the protection and management of wildlife, including protected areas. However, it is still lacking experience in marine issues, and its efficiency is hampered by the fact that it is technically under the Ministry of Environment and Tourism, but administratively under the Ministry of Interior (employees are part of the police force). Finally, there are a few logistical constraints which combine to make turtle conservation ineffective. For instance, a number of important legal instruments still await ratification (the National Maritime Law and the marine conservation laws drafted by the Sudan Marine Conservation Committee); and the Faculty of Marine Science and Fisheries of the Red Sea University and the Suakin Marine Laboratory have conducted small and limited research on a few selected nesting beaches, but these projects are limited in scope and intermittent. No temporal studies take place in Sudan, providing little indication of changes to populations over time. 5. References Al-Mansi AM, Bilal SA, Abdullah EO, and Elamin SM (2003) The marine turtles in the Republic of Sudan: their biology and conservation. PERSGA Technical Report, Jeddah. 26pp. Frazier J, Bertram GC, Evans PG (1987) Turtles and marine mammals. In 'Key Environments: Red Sea'. (Eds AJ Edwards and AM Head) pp (Pergamon Press: Oxford) Mishrigi SY (1993) 'Identification Study for Sudan Red Sea Fisheries.' Ministry of Economic Planning and Investment (MEPI) Project Preparation Unit, Khartoum. PERSGA (1997) Draft Country Report: Republic of the Sudan. Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. 14 pp. PERSGA (1998) Surveys of natural habitats and plans for their protection in Sudan. Hunting Aquatic Resources, London, Draft Final Report. Sanders MJ, Kedidi SM (1981) 'Summary Review of the Red Sea Commercial Catch and Stock Assessments, Including Maps of Actual and Potential Fishing Grounds.' UNDP/FAO, RAB/77/008/

151 Status of leatherback turtles in Thailand By Maitree Duangsawasdi 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview The legislation and regulation items that protect leatherback turtles in Thailand are listed as follows 1. Fisheries Acts, B.E.2490 (1947). 2. National Park Acts, B.E.2504 (1961). 3. Acts on Export and Import for trade, B.E.2522 (1979). 4. The acts on Protection and Preservation of wild fauna, B.E.2535 (1992). 5. Treaties: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Fisheries Acts, B.E.2490 (1947) Section 2 (7), declared by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on the 14 April (1947), states that catching, entrapping, luring, harming, or killing of every species of marine turtle and hawksbill turtles are strictly forbidden. If those turtles were caught as by-catch or accidentally trapped with any kinds of fishing equipment, they must be released immediately. Moreover, collecting and harming of marine turtle eggs of all species on all beaches are forbidden. According to section 60, declared by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives on the 16 April (1996), all shrimp trawls in the fishery areas have to be equipped with a Turtle Excluder Device (TED). This is for all fishermen using trawls in areas where marine turtles are residing, the attachment of TED or similar apparatus could potentially reduce marine turtle mortality. National Park Acts, B.E.2504 (1961) A Royal Decree has been declared to announce that 14 groups of islands have become National Parks. Thus, protecting marine turtles and their habitats. Sections 16 and 18 are good references for the decree, which raise several important points: Section 16 (2): Collecting or taking away resources by all means that could potentially harm or degrade qualities of wood, amber, rubber oil, pine oil, mineral, and other resources. Section 16 (3): Taking away or harming animals in any way. Section 16 (13): Permission from National Park officers must be sought prior to entering areas for all purposes, such as tourist business, which could effect turtle habitats and nesting beaches. Section 16 (16): Shooting or exploding devices that harm marine turtles and their habitats is banned. Section 16 (18): Disposing of rubbish and waste materials is forbidden outside provided areas. Section 18: While staying in the National Parks patrons or users must obey the officers, who in turn abide by the rules Park s which are written and approved by a director-general and a minister, respectively. Acts on Export and Import for trade, B.E.2522 (1979) The Ministry of Commerce wrote and approved article 14(B.E.2526 (1983)) which announces that official permission must be given before international trade hawksbill turtle, green turtle, loggerhead turtle, leatherback turtle, and olive ridley turtle can occur. Similarly, Article 24(B. E.2526 (1983)), written by the Ministry of Commerce, announces that carcasses of olive ridley turtle are protected and permission must be sought and provided before trading into or out of the country can occur. The Ministry of Commerce has also approved article 58(B.E.2534 (1991)), which is an act for protecting and conserving wild animals from extinction according to CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. As mentioned in section 5 of the Act on international trade of green turtle, hawksbill turtle, and olive ridley turtle are classified as products that need permission before exporting. 143

152 The Acts on Protection and Preservation of wild fauna, B.E.2535 (1992) These Acts aim to protect and preserve wild fauna species by announcing that owning, trading, hunting, breeding, and importing-exporting of wild fauna and their extractions are forbidden. Wild fauna are divided into 4 categories 1. Preserved species 2. Protected species 3. Protected species that could be traded 4. Wild fauna species under CITES lists Hawksbill turtle, green turtle, leatherback turtle, olive ridley turtle, and loggerhead turtle are categorized as protected species. 1.2) Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level Name and type of agency National level Department of Marine and Coastal Resources, Department of National parks, Department of Fisheries State level Local level Maikhao Marine Turtle foundation, Phuket Province 2. Nesting populations 2.1 Overview Historical nesting by leatherback turtles The important areas of leatherback turtle s nesting were along the west coast of Phrathong Island, Thaimuang beach and the west coast of Phuket Island. o o o o Kata beach, Patong beach, Phuket Province Niyang beach, Suanmaprow beach, Maikhao beach, Phuket Province Tanun beach, Natoi beach, Phanga province Thaimuang beach and Phrathong beach, Phanga Province At these locations beach patrols and survey were conducted between October and March each year between 1977 and 1983 (Chantrapornsyl 1987; Chantrapornsyl 1996; Chantrapornsyl et al. 1997). Current nesting by leatherback turtles The important areas of leatherback turtle s nesting are along the west coast of Phuket and Phanga Province (see Figure 1). o o Niyang beach, Suanmaprow beach, Maikhoa beach, Phuket province Thaimuang beach and Phrathong beach, Phanga Province Beaches are monitored during nesting season (November-February) by the Maikhao Marine Turtle foundation, Phuket Province (Chuntrapornsyl 2001). 144

153 Table 1. Nesting records of leatherback turtles in Thailand. * refers to unpublished records from the Phuket marine biological centre. Beach name Mai Khao beach, Phuket Province Naiyang beach, Phuket Province Thai Muang beach, Phanga Province Phrathong beach, Phanga Province Latitude of beach Longitude of beach Year of survey 8.133N E N E N E N E Annual number Type of data Reference (e.g. turtles, nests, eggs) Nests PMBC * Nests PMBC Nests PMBC Nests PMBC 2.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtle nesting October to March (Phasuk 1992) 2.3) Genetic studies on nesting populations of leatherback turtles No genetic studies have been conducted on the nesting leatherback turtles in Thailand. 2.4) Biological parameters No biological data have been published for the nesting population of leatherback turtles in Thailand 2.5). Pivotal temperature studies No studies on pivotal temperatures have been conducted in Thailand 2.6) Migration records of nesting leatherback turtles There are no records of migration for leatherback turtles that were tagged while nesting in Thailand. Nor have any females tagged elsewhere been recorded nesting in Thailand. 2.7) Protection of nesting beaches Two beaches are currently protected as National Parks; Thaimuang Beach which is within the Thaimuang-Koalumpee National Park, Phanga Province and Niyang, Maikhoa Beach which is within the Sirinat National Park, Phuket Province. There are no planned national parks in any of the other leatherback turtle nesting locations. 2.8) Use of hatcheries to protect marine turtle nests Hatcheries are not used to protect leatherback turtle nests 145

154 2.9) Threats to nesting leatherback turtles The main threats to nesting populations of leatherback turtles that have been documented are; tourist infrastructure development, incidental catch fisheries, degradation of nesting beach and foraging habitats and the illegal trade on eggs and meat (see Table 2; Chantrapornsyl et al. 1997; Adulyanukosol and Ruangkaew 2002). Table 2. Summary of the threats to nesting leatherback turtles in Thailand Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence Low Med High Unknown Low Med High Exploitation of nesting females Yes Yes Egg collection Yes Yes Agricultural development Yes Yes Tourist development Yes Yes Urban development Yes Yes Industrial development Yes Yes Artificial lighting Yes Yes Coastal erosion Yes Yes Vehicles on the beach Yes Yes Sand mining Yes Yes Unregulated hatchery practices Yes Yes Natural threats/predation Yes Yes Other (please describe): 2.10) Impacts of coastal development and/or sand mining on leatherback turtle nesting Not applicable 2.11) Major existing threats to nesting leatherback turtles The main two threats are the rapid increase in tourist related development along coastal areas and incidental catch in fisheries. 2.12) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles No other studies have been conducted on leatherback turtles in Thailand 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details of any leatherback turtle census or tagging results such as tag recovery data There have been no studies on foraging populations of leatherback turtles, and no leatherback turtles caught as bycatch have been tagged and released. Four leatherback turtles have stranded on Thailand s beaches since 1991, and one female leatherback turtle died after becoming entangled in a crab trap line at Thaimuang beach, Phanga province. 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore water There is no available data 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles There are no available data 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles No studies on diet or incidental records are available 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles Incidental capture in fishing gear has been reported but not quantified in Thailand (see Table 3 for a summary of threats to foraging leatherback turtles in Thailand). 146

155 Table 3. Summary of the threats to foraging leatherback turtles in Thailand Threats at this site/area Current occurrence Historical occurrence Low Med High Unknown Low Med High Directed take of leatherback turtles at sea Yes Yes Trawl fisheries Yes Yes Gillnet fisheries Yes Yes Longline fisheries Yes Yes Other fisheries (state which ones) Yes Yes Boat strikes Yes Yes Plastics and other debris (at sea) Yes Yes Industrial effluent Yes Yes Inshore oil pollution Yes Yes Natural threats/predation Yes Yes Other (please describe) 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved Type of fishery Months of operation Number of boats Impact low, medium, high or unknown Gillnet fisheries Throughout the N.A. high year Trawl fisheries October - May N.A. medium Reference 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtles Areas of change Legislation changes Action/recovery plans Awareness raising programmes Research activities Summary including report references Done by Department of Marine and Coastal Resources Done by Research Centres of Department of Marine and Coastal Resources Done by NGO and Research centres Done by research centres of Department of Marine and Coastal Resources Physical interventions Fishery controls Managed turtle based tourism Annual nesting beach surveys Managed hatcheries Planned protected areas Done by Fishery patrol vessels Done by Maikhoa Marine Turtle Foundation Done in part by Maikhoa Marine Turtle Foundation Done by Maikhoa Marine Turtle Foundation but not for leatherback turtles Undertaken by National Parks Department 147

156 Figure 1. Locations of leatherback turtle nesting sites in Thailand 4. References Phasuk B (1992) Biology of sea turtles in Thailand. Thai Fisheries gazette 45, Adulyanukosol K, Ruangkaew W (2002) Sea turtle stranding records on the Andaman coast, Thailand. In 'The 3rd Workshop on SEASTAR2000, December'. Bangkok. Chantrapornsyl S (1987) ' Preliminary Study on Sea turtle Conservation.' Phuket Marine Biological Center. Chantrapornsyl S (1996) The Status of Marine Turtles in Thailand. In 'SEAFDEC (1) Workshop on Marine Turtle Research and Conservation, January 15-18'. Malaysia pp. pp Chantrapornsyl S (2001) Technical paper. In. pp. 18. (Phuket Marine Biological Center) Chantrapornsyl S, Charuchinda M, Ruangkaw W (1997) 'Sea turtle conservation project by means of returning turtles to the sea.' Phuket Marine Biological Center. Technical paper Vol. 4/1997. Phuket marine biological center. 148

157 Status of leatherback turtles in Timor Leste No report was received from Timor Leste. However, there are no known records of leatherback turtles nesting in Timor Leste, and it is unknown whether the Timorese waters are an important habitat for leatherback turtle. No fisheries based interactions are known. However, given that leatherback turtles are known from the waters of neighbouring countries (Indonesia and Australia) when assessments are completed it is likely that their presence in Timor Leste s waters will be confirmed. 149

158 Status of leatherback turtles in Tanzania (United Republic of) By Catharine Muir 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview All species of marine turtles occurring in Tanzania (green, hawksbill, leatherback, loggerhead and olive ridley turtles) are protected under section 57 of the Fisheries Act of Under section 12 (1) (9) of the Fisheries Regulation Act it states that no person shall kill or fish sea turtles or possess a sea turtle shell or deal in sea turtle shells or any other species listed as endangered in any International Convention, which the United Republic is a party to. In the case of a first offence, the fine is TSh 200,000 (approx $200USD) or a 3 month sentence, and in the case of a second and subsequent offence, the offender is fined TSh 300,000, a 6 month sentence, or both. 1.2 Management agency responsible for marine turtle conservation in Tanzania Name of agency: Type of agency: Fisheries Division, Ministry of Natural Resources & Tourism Government Agency 2. Nesting populations 2.1) Overview leatherback turtles do not currently nest in Tanzania, and there are no records of historical nesting by the species in Tanzania. Nesting for green, hawksbill and olive ridley turtles have been recorded by beach surveys (Frazier 1982). Marine turtle surveys have been conducted on Maziwi Island (olive ridley, hawksbill and green turtle nesting), Mafia Island (green turtle nesting) and Ras Dege (green turtle nesting) (Frazier 1982). 2.2) Seasonality of leatherback nesting Not applicable for leatherback turtles and other species of marine turtle nest between June and October (Frazier 1982). 3. Foraging populations 3.1) Details on any leatherback turtle census or tagging results such as tag recovery data Infrequent sightings of leatherback turtles have been reported by Frazier (1982). There has been no census of foraging populations of leatherback turtles in Tanzania, or tag returns in Tanzania from turtles tagged elsewhere. However, several leatherback turtles have been caught in nets off Mafia Island, Pemba Island and Madete (Saadani National Park) (Muir 2002, 2005 and see section 3.2 and Figure 1). In addition, tagged recoveries from loggerheads tagged while nesting in Tongaland and Natal (South Africa), and from green turtles tagged while nesting in Seychelles, Comoros, Mayotte and Kenya. 3.2) Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters o o o Two leatherback turtles were caught and drowned off Pemba Island in gillnets in1997 (months not specified). Four leatherbacks were caught and drowned off the west coast of Mafia Island in gillnets (November 2001, September 2002, December 2003 and December One leatherback was caught in a gill net at Madete in April 2005 and returned to the sea alive. 3.3) Approximate size range of leatherback turtles Two of the leatherback turtles that were caught in Tanzania were measured; the curved carapace lengths (CCL) were 192cm and 130cm (sex was not determined for either of the turtles) (Tanzania Turtle and Dugong Conservation Programme unpublished data) 150

159 3.4) Information on the diet of leatherback turtles Unknown 3.5) Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No other biological work has been conducted on leatherback turtles in Tanzania. 3.6) Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles The threats to turtles in Tanzania are outlined in (Muir 2004) which was prepared for the Tanzania Committee on the Conservation of Marine Turtles and their Habitats. However, there is nothing mentioned specifically about leatherbacks. Historical threats to leatherback turtles and marine turtles in general are not known. Current threats include gillnets, and may include plastics, industrial effluent and inshore oil pollution. 3.7) Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved Type of fishery Season of operation Approx number of boats/operators Impact low, medium or high Artisanal gillnets Throughout year, during Unknown Low medium neap tides Commercial prawn trawlers March - November 30 Low medium 3.8) Other activities being undertaken to improve the conservation of leatherback turtle foraging populations Awareness raising activities by the Tanzania Turtle and Dugong Conservation Programme occur along the coast of Tanzania (all species of marine turtles). The Tanzania Turtle & Dugong Conservation Programme is now registered as a local NGO called "SEA SENSE") and works in five coastal districts in mainland Tanzania i.e. about 25 villages. Activities conducted by SEA SENSE include regular fisher meetings, school competitions, and the distribution of posters, T-shirts, videos. There is an Action Plan for Zanzibar although I don't think it is being implemented. Nothing is yet available for mainland Tanzania. There are two marine parks (Mafia and Mtwara) which are zoned and where fishing is regulated. There are also a number of marine reserves where fishing is illegal. 4. References Frazier JG (1982) Status of sea turtles in the central western Indian Ocean. In 'The Biology and Conservation of Sea Turtles'. (Ed. KA Bjorndal) pp (Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington, D.C). Muir (2002) Quarterly progress reports (July - Sept 2002) - Unpublished. Muir (2004) The status of marine turtles in the United Republic of Tanzania. Report commissioned by the Tanzania Committee on the Conservation of Marine Turtles and their Habitats. Muir (2005) Quarterly progress reports (Jan - March 2005) - Unpublished. 151

160 Status of leatherback turtles in United Arab Emirates 1. Introduction The United Arab Emirates, situated at the extreme eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, is bounded by Oman and Saudi Arabia. There are patchy coastal mangrove forests distributed in limited areas along 450 km of the Arabian Gulf coast and 100 km of the Gulf of Oman (Kahn 1982; Ramadan-Jaradi 1985; Satchell 1978). Numerous offshore islands and banks are favourable for sea-grass beds and coral reef development (Carp 1976; UNEP/IUCN 1988). Traditional forms of nature conservation have had a long history in the Arabian Peninsula, in the form of range reserves or hema (hima or ahmia). Numerous offshore islands and banks are favourable for sea-grass beds and coral reef development. 2. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 2.1 Overview The UAE acceded to CITES on 1 July 1975 but withdrew from the Convention in It signed on 12 May The UAE is a signatory to CITES and is a member of ROMPE, the regional organisation concerned with the protection and development of the marine environment and the coastal areas along with Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates. Legislation for nature reserves and national parks does not exist in the technical sense. Individual sites are established under private initiative of the ruling families or under hunting legislation. Under the Hunting Law seasonal protection is provided to a number of bird colonies, in addition to restrictions applying to at least one turtle beach and the Jebel Hafit Tahr Reserve area. Khor Dubai Wildlife Sanctuary was established in 1985 (Carp, 1976; Richardson, 1990). In addition, the Dubai government has designated a single national park, a combination of natural woodland and recreational area (Richardson, 1990). The only other forms of protection include Al Ayn Wildlife Enclosure and Zoological Garden and a municipal nursery in Ra's al-khaymah (Richardson, 1990). 2.2 Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation The Federal Environmental Agency (FEA) has primary responsibility for drafting environmental laws and regulations and serves as the point of contact for international environmental conventions. A comprehensive Federal Environmental Law in 1999 stipulated that all new construction projects implemented in the UAE must complete environmental impact assessments, and these assessments must be reviewed and certified by emirate-level enforcement authorities. In addition to the FEA, other federal ministries have environmental responsibilities in specific areas. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries promulgates laws relating to agriculture, pesticides and marine resources. The Ministry is also obliged to manage and protect the various hunting areas, bird sanctuaries and turtle beaches. Khor Dubai Flamingo Colony has 24-hour police protection (Richardson 1990). The Fisheries Section of the Department of Agriculture undertakes research on the marine environment, although as far as is known there are no marine conservation areas (Carp 1976). Each of the emirates is responsible for enforcing environmental laws through its own local environmental regulatory authority. The emirate of Abu Dhabi established the Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency (ERWDA), which is the largest and most proactive of the local authorities in the UAE. Abu Dhabi designated ERWDA as the competent authority for environmental and wildlife issues in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in 2000, as well as the scientific authority for UAE for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). Other main state bodies with interests in protected areas are the Permanent Committee for Conservation and Ecology at the Presidential Court of Abu Dhabi and the Higher Environmental Committee (HEC) of the Ministry of Health. The HEC is concerned with aquatic life in coastal and marine areas and the impact of water pollution, as well as environmental threats posed by oil and gas development. In addition, both bodies undertake monitoring of marine pollution (Montague and Bruun, 1987). The Dubai Wildlife Research Centre, established by the son of the ruler of Dubai, is a semigovernmental organisation. Its sphere of interests include; fauna and flora surveys, habitat studies including wetlands and shorebird areas and the establishment and development of wildlife preserves and zoos. It has been closely involved in identifying important nature conservation areas of Dubai (DSP 1987; Montague and Bruun 1987). 152

161 3. Nesting populations There is no historical or contemporary record of leatherbacks nesting in the United Arab Emirates. 4. Foraging populations 4.1 Overview The United Arab Emirates historically lists the leatherback as rarely occurring in its waters, and there are no contemporary records of leatherbacks having been seen in UAE s waters. No research has been carried out, or directed conservation action taken, on leatherback turtles in the United Arab Emirates. 4.2 Threats to leatherback turtles The main environmental problems which would affect leatherback turtles include expansion of cities and residential/commercial areas leading to reclamation of vast tracts of shallow waters and saltmarshes in order to provide more space for building, port installations and industry. During the 1991 Iraq-Kuwait war oil slicks threatened the coastal and marine habitats all along the Arabian coastline. With the exception of a small purse seine industry operating out of Sharjah, the fisheries of the UAE are entirely artisanal in nature. No trawling takes place in the UAE since this has been banned since the 1970s in an effort to protect marine habitat. Although the use of drift nets is also prohibited, their illegal use is common. 4.3 Protection of foraging areas Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are an important part of marine management in the UAE and several large MPAs are reported to exist, although only one is reported officially (Ganadah, or Ras Ganadah, lagoon and mangrove Marine Park) particularly in the west of the country. These western areas are primarily concerned with protection of marine habitat and rare and endangered species, such as dugong. Fishing activities in these MPAs are either banned or restricted. In addition, large areas of the UAE s territorial waters are occupied by oil concessions where most activities are either banned or restricted Gaps in capacity and requirements for improved conservation It is widely regarded that there is a lack of legislation relevant to protected areas. Indeed, in 1982 a recommendation was put forward for a comprehensive forest law for the country as a whole, envisaging a technically trained and suitably constituted forest service to apply and enforce the provisions of the proposed law (Khan, 1982). It was recommended that a study be made of existing forest laws in other parts of the Middle East. It was further suggested that subsequent phases could involve the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation to provide suitable consultancy services in drafting the outlines of the proposed forest law (Khan, 1982). 5. References Carp E (1976) United Arab Emirates: report of a survey of marine habitats carried out during 3-15 February In 'Promotion of the establishment of marine parks and reserves in the Northern Indian Ocean including the Red Sea and Persian Gulf'. Tehran, Iran, 6-10 March (IUCN Publications New Series 35: ) DSP (1987) 'Shorebirds of Khor Dubai: Dubai shorebird project report 1987.' University of Durham, UK. 59 pp. Kahn M (1982) Status of the mangrove forests in the United Arab Emirates. Bulletin of the Emirates Natural History Group (Abu Dhabi) 17, Montague K, Bruun (1987) 'Biological Diversity in North Africa, the Middle East and Southwest Asia; a directory of organizations and institutions.' (HLCF, New York, USA.) Ramadan-Jaradi G (1985) Les oiseaux non nicheurs observes en migration dans les Emirats Arabes Unis. L'Oiseau et la Revue Francaise d'ornithologie 55, Richardson C (1990) 'The birds of the United Arab Emirates.' (Hobby Publications, Dubai and Warrington, Cheshire, UK.) Satchell J (1978) Ecology and environment in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Arid Environments 1, UNEP/IUCN (1988) 'Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf.' (UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.) 153

162 Status of leatherback turtles in United Kingdom British Indian Ocean Territory (B.I.O.T.) By Jeanne A. Mortimer 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1. Overview All marine turtles are protected by law in BIOT. Certain fisheries regulations are particularly pertinent to leatherback turtles Legislation protecting leatherback turtles Legislation pertinent to marine turtles in general: The protection and preservation of Wild Life Ordinance 1970 (as amended) empowers the Commissioner to enact legislation to protect wildlife (including turtles), prohibit the purchase, sale or export of wildlife, and prohibit the introduction of wildlife. It also permits the seizure in certain circumstances, of any vessel which brought a suspected offender into the Territory and, if any fine imposed is not paid, the eventual forfeiture of that vessel. The Wildlife Protection regulations of 1984 makes it an offence to intentionally kill or attempt to kill or injure, or to take or be in possession of and intentionally to destroy, damage or take any birds nest while the nest is in use or being built, or any birds egg or turtles eggs. The Wild Life Protection (Amendment) Regulations 2000 (2003) extends this list to include possession of a dead animal or any part of an animal or of a dead animal. Green Turtles Protection regulations 1968 states that no person shall harpoon, kill, destroy or take possession of any turtle for any reason whatsoever (Similar legislation was not passed for Hawksbill turtles at this time because hawksbill turtle flesh was not being hunted for its meat; however all turtles are protected under other legislation). The Prohibited Imports and Export Order, 1984 prohibits the exportation of wild animals, whether alive or dead, (includes turtle eggs) The Trade in Endangered Species (Control) Ordinance 2001 provides for the application of CITES, appointing the Administrator as the Management Authority and requiring that advice be taken from a scientific authority a person or authority as the Commissioner may from time to time appoint. The Joint Nature Conservation Committee is appointed as the Scientific Authority under Section 5 of this Ordinance. (The introduction of species does not appear to be expressly prohibited other than in Strict Nature Reserves) Legislation relevant to leatherbacks: The use of drift nets is prohibited in BIOT waters by conditions attached to fishing licences and the Fisheries Conservation and Management Ordinance 1998 and this Ordinance makes it an offence to contravene licence conditions. Note: Driftnets are known to impact leatherbacks, and it is likely that leatherbacks forage in the territorial waters of BIOT Management agencies responsible for marine turtle conservation Operational level National level State level Local level Name and type of agency UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office, BIOT Administration Department of Environment, Diego Garcia 154

163 2. Nesting populations 2.1. Overview Summary There have been no confirmed reports of leatherback nesting in the Chagos Islands, British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT)(Mortimer & Day, 1999). But, according to Marcel Moulinie who managed cobra collection in the Chagos in the 1960s and 1970s (pers. comm. to J.A. Mortimer), a single leatherback once nested at Peros Banhos atoll during the early 1970s. The following turtle surveys have been conducted in BIOT territory during the past three decades: Frazier (1977) made a brief visit to several of the islands in 1970 and interviewed a number of local inhabitants. None reported leatherback nesting. Dutton (1980) surveyed several of the islands of Peros Banhos atoll in late 1978/early 1979, and found no evidence of leatherback nesting. Mortimer surveyed most of the islands of BIOT during a six week period in 1996 and found no evidence of leatherback nesting anywhere (Mortimer & Day, 1999). Mortimer surveyed the entire coastline of Diego Garcia atoll in 1999 and found no evidence of leatherback nesting (Mortimer, 2000). 2. Foraging populations 3.1. Details of any leatherback turtle foraging area census of tagging results No information available 3.2. Seasonality of leatherback turtles in coastal and offshore waters No information available 3.3. Approximate size range of leatherback turtles No information available 3.4. Information on the diet of leatherback turtles No information available 3.5. Other biological studies conducted on leatherback turtles in foraging areas No information available 3.6. Threats to foraging populations of leatherback turtles No information available, however, commercial fishing activities, especially long lines & netting activities are a potential threat to leatherbacks in the territory Fisheries bycatch of leatherback turtles and the fisheries involved No information available 3.8. Other activities being undertaken to improve conservation of leatherback turtles No information available 3. Concluding Remarks leatherbacks can be expected to forage regularly in the territorial waters of BIOT, but no information is available. Collaboration with the fisheries authorities is needed to gather data on this matter and determine what follow up conservation efforts may be called for. 5. References Dutton RA (1980) The herpetology of the Chagos Archipelago. British Journal of Herpetology 6, Frazier J (1977) Marine Turtles in the Western Indian Ocean: British Indian Ocean Territories, Comores. Oryx 13, Mortimer JA (2000) 'Diego Garcia Marine Turtle Conservation Assessment.' Fauna & Flora International. Mortimer JA (1999) Sea turtle populations and habitats in the Chagos Archipelago. In 'Ecology of the Chagos Archipelago'. (Ed. CRC Sheppard) pp ) 155

164 Status of leatherback turtles in Viet Nam By Phan Hong Dung 1. The legal protection status for leatherback turtles 1.1 Overview leatherback turtles are listed as a threatened species in the Red Data book of Viet Nam The following legal documents have been issued by the Government of Viet Nam in relation to the fisheries resources protection and development (including leatherback turtles): Ordinance dated 25 April 1989 on the protection and development of fisheries resources, which stipulated that: o Prohibit any actions causing harmful affects on resources or habitats of aquatic living resources (Chapter I, Article 5). o Exploitation and commerce of living aquatic resources of high economic value that are rare, threatened or endangered should be banned (Chapter II, Article 12). Enactment No HDBT (Council of Ministers) dated 2 June 1990 guiding on execution of the Ordinance dated 25/April/1989. Decision No 130-CP dated 20 April 1991 on Establishment of the Fisheries Protection Department under Ministry of Fisheries. National Law on Environment Protection issued in 1993 and innovated in Provisions No 415/TTg dated 20 August 1994 of Prime Minister promulgating the statute on the organization and activities of State Inspectors in the field of protection of fisheries resources. The Ministry of Fisheries of Vietnam has also issued other relevant documents, namely: Circular No 04-TS/TT dated 4 August 1990 guiding execution of ordinance on protection and development of fisheries resources. Circular No 04-TS/TT dated 21 November 1994 guiding the execution of enactment No 85-CP on administrative punishment in fisheries resources protection. Decision 682 TS/QD dated 11 September 1993 enacting the provisions on marine resources exploitation and management in key fishing grounds The ordinance dated 25 April 1989 stipulates that The Government of Vietnam welcomes and is ready to cooperate closely with any regional and international organizations in protecting, conserving fisheries resources, their habitats and other shared aquatic living resources In April 2002, the Government of Vietnam amended Decree 48/CP to include marine turtles. Under this decree the deliberate catch, killing or use of turtles (including leatherback turtle) is illegal. Most importantly, Vietnam Law of Fisheries had been signed by H.E President of S.R. Viet Nam on December and it entered enforcement on the July : This law is the great legitimacy to exploit, capture, culture, preserve, protect and manage the marine resources, especially, fisheries resources and other marine wildlife. The Vietnam Law of Fisheries had been states that: Chapter II: Protection and development of fisheries resources Article 7: Habitat protection 1. Organizations and individuals shall be responsible for the protection of aquatic habitat. 2. Organizations and individuals conducting fisheries activities and other activities that directly affect the aquatic habitat, migration, spawning of fish species shall comply with provisions as set out by this Law and other legislation dealing with environmental protection, water resources and other relevant legislation. 3. Organizations and individuals while setting up, altering or destroying the constructions related to aquatic habitat, migration, spawning of fisheries resources shall conduct environment impact assessment as set out by legislation dealing with environmental protection. 4. Organizations and individuals while fishing by setting barriers, set nets in rivers, lakes, lagoons shall provide corridor areas for the movement of fisheries resources as regulated by local People s Committees. 156

165 Article 8: Conservation, protection, rehabilitation and development of fisheries resources 1. The State: shall issue policies regarding the conservation and protection of fisheries resources, particularly of the endangered, rare and precious species and those that have economic value and scientific importance; shall encourage the scientific research for suitable measures to develop fisheries resources; shall invest in production of fish fry for releasing into their natural habitat and shall create artificial habitat in order to rehabilitate and develop fisheries resources. 2. Organizations and individuals shall be responsible for conservation, protection, rehabilitation and development of fisheries resources as set out by this Law and other relevant legislation. 3. Ministry of Fisheries shall periodically proclaim the followings: a. The Red Book of Viet Nam lists of aquatic species and other species prohibited to be fished; the list of aquatic species for which fishing is prohibited and also defines season b. Fishing methods, types of fishery and fishing gear which are prohibited or are restricted are scheduled 1.2 Management agency responsible for marine turtle conservation in Viet Nam Operational level National level Name and type of agency In 1998 the Ministry of Fisheries appointed the Research Institute for Marine Fisheries (RIMF) as the national institution responsible for research activities and proposing the general framework for management and conservation of marine turtles. The National Department of Fisheries Resource Exploitation and Protection (at MoFI) has prepared and developed the management tools that relate to controlling fisheries resource exploitation and protection in sustainable manners. State level Local level WWF-Indochina, IUCN Viet Nam, Traffic Viet Nam-ASEAN and FFI all collaborate with Viet Nam Government partnerships involving marine turtles in Viet Nam. Coastal Provincial Fisheries Departments play an important coordinating role with the national organization as well as NGO to protect and conserve marine turtles at provincial sites. Authority Board of Marine Protected Areas, Marine Park and Natural Preservation Area, such as Hon Mun MPA, Nui Chua and Con Dao NP implement several activities as volunteered and assigned by MoFI and RIMF. 2. Nesting populations 2.1 Overview Bourret (1941) provided the first descriptions of marine turtles in Viet Nam and reported that Viet Nam s waters five species of marine turtles including leatherback turtles. Bourret (1941) also collected information from local fishers indicating that leatherback turtles nested along the beaches in central Viet Nam. More recently detailed surveys of the distribution and abundance of marine turtles in Viet Nam conducted by Pham Thuoc (2003) and Hamann et al, (2005) indicate that in the 1960s/1970s there was a nesting population in the order of 500 females per year. Nesting beaches were spread throughout the central provinces from Quang Binh south to Binh Thuan. In particular, elderly fishermen interviewed by Hamann et al. (2005) from Quang Ngai (Binh Son district) and Binh Thuan (Bai Xep commune) said that prior to the 1960s (and the war) 10 to 20 leatherback turtles nested per night between June to August. Occasional leatherback nesting was also recorded by Nguyen Khac Huong (1978) in Hai Van- Son Tra during the late 1970s Vietnamese nesting green turtle surveys began at Con Dao in 1995 and at Nui Chua in Although leatherback turtles are occasionally seen in the waters around Con Dao National Park and the coast adjacent to Nui Chua, they have not been recorded nesting on any of Con Dao s or Nui Chua s beaches (Pham Thuoc 2000; Nguyen Thi Dao 1999; Le Xuan Ai 2001, 2003; Tran Minh Hien 2002; Hamann et al. 2002, 2005). Recent sightings of nesting leatherback turtles Thua Thien Hue Province (2000), and Quang Ngai Coastal Area (2001) (Dinh Hong Thanh Personal Communication) 157

166 2.2 Details of leatherback turtle nesting population There are two turtle tagging programs operating in Viet Nam. The first, and longest running program, occurs on Con Dao Islands and the second program was started in 2000 at the mainland beach of Nui Chua (Ninh Thuan Province). Neither of these programs have recorded leatherback turtle nesting. Two recent surveys of marine turtles have been conducted. Between 1998 and 2002 RIMF investigated marine turtle resources in Viet Nam in 28 coastal provinces by conducting interviews at fishing ports and with staff at marine research institutions. This survey found no evidence of current leatherback turtle nesting (Pham Thuoc 2003). A second survey, involving some of the same research staff, was conducted in This second survey entailed conducting interviews with a broader section of the community (including artisanal fishers, commercial fishers and Government representatives) (Hamann et al. 2005). Results from Hamann et al. (2005) indicated that fewer than 10 nests are laid per year and these occur along the beaches in each of Quang Ngai and Binh Dinh provinces (Figure 1). 2.3 Seasonality of leatherback nesting Tonkin Gulf (from Quang Ninh to Quang Tri Province): foraging leatherback turtles are normally seen in March and April and very rare captures (one or two per year, generally released alive) of adult sized leatherback turtles occur each year, coinciding with the jellyfish season. Given that the nesting season in the provinces of Quang Binh, Quang Tri, Hue and Da Nang begins in April (Pham Thuoc 2003; Phan Hung Dung 2003; Hamann et al. 2005), it is likely that leatherback turtles are migrating or courting in the offshore island at Tonkin Gulf. Central Viet Nam (from Thua Thien Hue to Ninh Thuan Provinces): the nesting season for leatherback turtles is similar as for the other species. It occurs from April until July. Southern Viet Nam The nesting season for marine turtles, although very few leatherback turtles currently nest in this region, lasts from June till September along the southern coast beaches of Vietnam, such as Con Dao, Phu Quy, Tho Chu and Phu Quoc Island Group. 2.3) Genetic studies A plan to collect and analyse mtdna samples for marine turtles in Viet Nam, including leatherback turtles, has been approved by RIMF and MoFI and will be conducted after ) Biological parametres There are no published biological data collected from nesting leatherback turtles in Viet Nam. However, from interviews with fishermen, Pham Thuoc (1999, 2003) indicate that; the average size of nesting females is between 120 and 180cm, they lay between 70 to 90 eggs per clutch; eggs are between 41 and 50mm in width and hatchlings are between 40 to 60mm in carapace length (Table 1). Table 1. Summary of biological data collected from leatherback turtles in Viet Nam Category of data Average References Size of nesting females Pham Thuoc (2001) Number of eggs per clutch Pham Thuoc (2001) Clutches per season Re-nesting interval (days) Number of years between breeding seasons (years) Uncertain Uncertain Uncertain Size of eggs (cm) 41-50mm Pham Thuoc (2001) Size of hatchlings (cm) 4-6 Pham Thuoc (2001) Incubation success (%) Uncertain 2.5) Pivotal temperature studies No studies on pivotal temperature or hatchling sex ratios have been conducted in Viet Nam 158

167 Figure 1. Location of former and current locations for leatherback turtle nesting in Viet Nam 2.6) Migration records There have been no reports of leatherback turtles being caught in Viet Nam that were carrying tags applied in another country. Only one leatherback turtle has been tagged in Viet Nam. This tagged turtle stranded adjacent Nghia Hung Commune, Nam Dinh Province and was tagged and released. 2.7) Protection of nesting beaches (e.g. national parks) Name of the beach(s) Son Tra Island beaches Nam Yet Island Beaches Bai Dai Beaches Bai cat min Hon Da Lon Name of the planned National Park Hai Van Son Tra (Quang Nam) Spratly archipelago (although only at sea sightings of leatherback turtles) Phu Quy Island (Ninh Thuan) (although only at sea sightings of leatherback turtles) Tho Chu Island (Kien Giang) (although only at sea sightings of leatherback turtles) Phu Quoc Island (Kien Giang) (although only at sea sightings of leatherback turtles) 2.8) Use of hatcheries used to protect marine turtle nests Hatcheries are used by staff at Con Dao National Park to protect a small number of green turtle nests. No leatherback clutches have been placed into hatcheries for incubation. 159