THE CONSERVATION OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED TURTLE SPECIES IN NORTHERN NEW YORK. Clare Joscelyne and Nora Talkington Conservation Biology Case Study

Transcription

1 THE CONSERVATION OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED TURTLE SPECIES IN NORTHERN NEW YORK Clare Joscelyne and Nora Talkington Conservation Biology Case Study

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Problem Definition a. Worldwide Decline b. Northern NY Decline c. Bog Turtles d. Wood Turtles e. Blanding s Turtles f. Spotted Turtles 2. Historic Distributions 3. Human Impacts a. Life History Characteristics b. Predation c. Road Mortality d. Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation e. Pet Trade and Illegal Collecting f. Invasive Species 4. Government Issues 5. Stakeholders a. Wildlife b. Conversationalists and Organizations c. General Public d. Road Management e. Developers f. State Government 6. Solutions a. Parameters b. Possible Solutions c. Feasibility and Best Solutions i. Headstarting ii. Habitat Protection and Networking iii. Creation of Artificial Habitat iv. Reducing Road Mortality 7. Implementing Solutions a. Headstarting b. Habitat Protection and Networking c. Creation of Artificial Habitat d. Reducing Road Mortality e. Implementation Plan 8. Works Cited 2

3 Problem Definition: Worldwide Decline It has been estimated that more than 130 or at least half of all the 260+ turtle species populations are in serious decline worldwide (Angier, 2006). Researchers have even gone further to predict that over 100 species of turtles will go extinct if severe conservation and protection strategies are not implemented soon (Klemens, 1993). Although there are many turtle species that are common such as the Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta) in North America, turtles as a group are not considered safe from population decline, whether or not they inhabit terrestrial, marine, or freshwater ecosystems (Klemens, 2000). As when any species undergoes a significant decline, it is crucial to examine this loss on a larger scale. To begin, it is beneficial to address the question of why this loss is even significant and whether or not biodiversity will be affected. More specifically, if certain turtle populations decline or even go extinct, the biodiversity implications and overall significance this will have on the surrounding ecosystem and functioning, other species, and humans that have a say in the matter. Biodiversity is extremely important for a number of reasons, many of which depend on individual conservation values. Often support for the conservation of a species originates from its intrinsic value, or the belief that biodiversity should be conserved and considered important just because it exists. In many cases, the driving motivation behind the conservation of turtle species worldwide has been the intrinsic value that people place on the animal simply because it exists (Groom et al., 2006). Cultures worldwide have placed intrinsic value on turtles out of fascination with their unique defense armor and their slow and often friendly nature. Peter C. H. Pritchard, director of the Chelonian 3

4 Research Institute in Oviedo, Florida, firmly believes that just about everyone finds turtles endearing. Pritchard argues that turtles are by far the most popular reptile: unlike snakes, which may threaten you and which move like a flash, turtles are benign and slow, and you can t dislike or distrust the clumsy (Angier 2006). It is quite possible that the reason why turtles have often played key roles in mythology and folklore is a direct result of their charismatic and lovable nature (Klemens, 2000). However, conservation of turtle species or biodiversity in general for the sole reason that these populations have intrinsic value does not always pertain to all interests. Many times individuals will value a certain species, community, or ecosystem for the benefits that it will bring to humans. This motivation for conservation is what is known as the instrumental or utilitarian value of biodiversity (Groom et al., 2006). A utilitarian motivation for the conservation of turtles could be the fact that as a group they are known as a flagship species, or a charismatic species that often provokes interest in conservation. One of the primary reasons why Blanding s Turtles in Nova Scotia are frequently studied is because promoting awareness and efforts towards this species is often linked with the success of Kejimkujik National Park. As more interest and effort is put into Blanding s Turtle conservation in the National Park, more turtle enthusiastic visitors are drawn to the area although it is already a location that is greatly admired by many people for its natural beauty and recreational opportunities (Herman et al., 1995). Although many humans support global biodiversity on an intrinsic level, the ecological reasons why turtles should be valued are quite possibly more significant reasons for conservation efforts. Conserving biodiversity and ensuring a wide variety of diversity is important for the purpose of ecosystem functioning and success. Although 4

5 there are a limited number of studies on the effects that rare species have on ecosystem functioning, there is data to support the hypothesis that a more diverse community is beneficial in terms of maintaining ecological balance and keeping certain populations in check (Groom et al., 2006). Turtles are vital species in ecosystems for their role as scavengers, herbivores, and even as carnivores. For example, the Blanding s Turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) is a species that feeds on many levels of the food chain, and therefore has a role in preventing severe population increases in species such as insect larvae and freshwater snails (Herman et al., 2003). Turtles are also important in terms of their role in linking ecosystems, as they often are a mode of plant dispersal and thus contribute to the overall biodiversity of a region (Lovich, 1995). For example, turtles often are responsible for dispersing temperate forest plants between ecosystems (Klemens, 2000). Turtles are also important to ecosystems for their role as indicator species. For example, the Blanding s Turtle in Nova Scotia has been recognized as an ideal indicator species because its presence generally indicates highly productive and nutrient rich waters, thus smaller or non-existent populations of Blanding s turtles are generally a sign of nutrient poor waters (Herman et al., 2003). Northern New York Decline The turtle populations of New York State are not exempt from the declines that have been so characteristic of turtle populations worldwide. Table 1 is a comprehensive list of the 18 turtle species that can be found in New York and their current status according to the Herpitile Atlas compiled by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC). 5

6 Table 1. Total number of turtle species and current status located in New York State as compiled by the NYSDEC (Ford and Johnson, 2007). Turtle species Bog Turtle Clemmys muhlenbergii Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) Atlantic (Kemp's Ridley) Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii) Atlantic Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys i. imbricata) Blanding's Turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Eastern Mud Turtle (Kinosternon s. subrubrum) Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta) Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta) Spotted Turtle (Clemmys guttata) Status Endangered Endangered Endangered Endangered Threatened Threatened Threatened Threatened Special Concern Special Concern Northern Diamondback Terrapin (Malaclemys t. terrapin) Red-Eared Slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) RedBelly Turtle (Pseudemys rubriventris) Common Map Turtle (Graptemys geographica) Stinkpot or Common Musk Turtle (Sternotherus odoratus) Eastern Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta) Eastern Spiny Softshell Turtle (Apalone s. spinifera) Eastern Box Turtle (Terrapene c. Carolina) Special Concern Non-Native Introduced Common Snapping Turtle (Chelydra s. serpentina) Overall turtle diversity in New York is relatively low, with only two species considered as common and found statewide; the Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentine) and the Painted Turtle (Chrysemys picta) (Johnson, et al., 2007 DEC). Out of the 18 6

7 endemic species, 11 are listed as either threatened, endangered, or of special concern; indicating that there is a definite trend of population decline in turtle species of New York. In terms of understanding the extent of this issue and in order to attempt forming possible conservation strategies, it is important to understand the reasons behind these declining populations. There are many reasons contributing to this statewide decline which can explained by specific life history traits of turtles such as their long reproductive life span, low juvenile survivorship, and low egg production. Many turtles are also lost to road mortality, as nesting sites and migratory routes often collide with state roads and large highways. Collection of turtle species for the pet trade and export for consumption (which is most common in Asian countries) has also contributed to turtle decline. Another factor, although not as common, is the outbreak of disease in various turtle species and the pollution of aquatic water bodies by chemicals and heavy metals (Klemens, 1993). However, the major causes of turtle decline are the loss of habitat and the habitat fragmentation that results from the increase in urbanization and development as well as new road construction (Klemens, 2000). Of the 18 turtle species found in New York, our study focuses on the Bog Turtle (Clemmys muhlenbergii), the Wood Turtle (Clemmys insculpta), Blanding s Turtle (Emydoidea blandingii), and the Spotted Turtle (Clemmys guttata). All four species are listed as either endangered, threatened, or of special concern in the state of New York. According to the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) an endangered species is one which is in imminent danger of extinction in NY and which is listed as endangered by the United States Department of the Interior. Species which are listed as threatened or of special concern are those that are in danger of becoming either 7

8 endangered or threatened in the near future. Special concern species are not recognized by the United States Department of the Interior while threatened species have federal status (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation). We chose to focus on the Bog Turtle because it is the only turtle in New York State listed federally as endangered. Historically the Bog turtle occurred in over 74 locations which were primarily in the northeastern portion of the state, but only a quarter of these sites currently host active populations. In 1997 the Bog Turtle was first recognized as threatened by the US Fish and Wildlife Service although the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species has listed the turtle as endangered since 1975 (New York State Amphibian and Reptile Atlas Project ). This convention (CITES), which protects internationally traded species from unsustainable levels of exploitation, recognized at an early date the susceptibility of Bog Turtles to overharvesting. We also chose to focus on the Wood Turtle because it is listed as a species of special concern and was also one of the few rare species found in Saint Lawrence County. This herpitile was one of the first turtles in North America to be protected by law and in 1905 New York State added this species to the Forest, Fish, and Game Law and prohibited the taking, killing or exposing for sale of all land turtles and tortoises, including the Box and Wood Turtle ( Herp. Atlas ). The Spotted Turtle is also listed as a species of special concern and was selected because of its proximity to Saint Lawrence County (Spotted Turtles are distributed from the Great Lakes Plains region to the Lower Hudson River valley). This species was additionally selected because of its sensitivity to human impacts such as habitat fragmentation, urban development, and pollution (Gibbs et. al 2007).In the early 1900s the Spotted Turtle was recorded as the 8

9 most common turtle found near New York City but abundance has since declined and it is currently listed as endangered in Illinois and Ohio, threatened in Maine and Vermont, and special concern in Indiana (Herp. Atlas ). The Blanding s Turtle has a threatened status in the state of New York and was chosen primarily because of it s presence in Saint Lawrence County. This species is especially vulnerable to residential development and associated habitat loss occurring in the area (Gibbs et. al 2007). Bog Turtles: The Endangered Species Act began protecting Bog turtles nationwide in November 1997 because of inconsistent state conservation throughout the species range. Populations of these turtles are scattered along the east coast, ranging from Georgia and Tennessee to New York and Massachusetts (Figure 1). Figure 1. Range of Bog Turtles, Clemmys muhlenbergii, in the US (Herp Atlas). 9

10 Bog Turtles are found primarily in the southeast portion of NY, although four populations occur in Seneca and Oswego Counties (Gibbs et. al 2006). These turtles, which are the smallest in North America, are characterized by dark coloration and large yellow to orange spots on both sides of the head. The coloration and size of these blotches vary between populations and are dependent on the age of the turtle (Figure 2). Figure 2. Bog Turtle; Clemmys muhlenbergii (Herp. Atlas ). Newly hatched juvenile Bog Turtles have faintly colored blotches which increase in size and intensity as the turtle ages. Shell lengths of this species average between 3-4 inches (Ecology of Bog Turtles). The diet of Bog Turtles is known to include insects, plants, frogs, slugs, and carrion. This secretive species can sometimes be spotted basking in the open during mid-april after they have emerged from hibernation in soft mud. Mating activities occur in the spring, but can sometimes be observed in the fall as well. A female Bog Turtle will lay a clutch of two to four eggs in nest located inside an un-shaded tussock which hatch in mid-september. These herpitiles reach sexual maturity at around eight years old and can live up to thirty years. Over this period of time a female may reproduce from 10 to 15 times (Gibbs et al. 2007). 10

11 Despite their name, Bog Turtles are not found in bogs and instead prefer open, early-successional habitat. They also favor fens (wetlands fed by springs or seeps) dominated by sedges and sphagnum moss. Characteristics of these habitat types include slow-moving water, deep muck soils, and tussock-forming vegetation (NYNHP Conservation Guide 2007). In order to successfully conserve Bog Turtle abundance in New York, it is important that we have a clear understanding of the various habitats used by this species and their movements between them. This species in particular has a large dispersal range and high mobility. Individual Bog Turtles have been sited miles away from their wetland habitats. Such migratory movements take them across forested uplands, valleys, and cultivated areas. Mark-and-recapture studies have discovered that Bog Turtle densities seldom are more than individuals per acre (Ecology of Bog Turtles). A study performed by Chase et al. in 1989 on habitat characteristics and home range of Clemmys muhlenbergii in Maryland found that male Bog Turtles had home ranges of around acres which were typically larger than female ranges (0.066 acres). Turtles moved extensively within these ranges, indicating that conservation efforts should focus on the protection of a network of critical habitats which would allow for movement and gene flow among sub-populations (Chase et al. 1989). Wood Turtles: Wood turtles are distributed throughout the Midwestern to the northeastern United States and Canada. All states within its range list this species as either threatened, endangered, or a species of special concern. Within New York, Wood turtles are widely scattered, although they are most common in the Hudson River Valley region (Figure 3). 11

12 Figure 3. Illustration of Wood Turtle, Clemmys insculpta, distribution in New York State (Herp. Atlas ). These herpitiles are dark brown with yellow, orange, or red chins, throats, tails, and undersides of forelimbs. They are typically large animals, with an average carapace length of inches (Figure 4). Figure 4. Illustration of a Wood Turtle, Clemmys insculpta (Herp. Atlas ). 12

13 The diet of the Wood Turtle consists of earthworms, snails, slugs, insects, amphibians, algae, moss, berries, and fungi (Gibbs et al. 2007). These turtles are mostly active during the day from April through November. After this period of activity they enter into hibernation in undercut banks and root masses and emerge when temperatures are high enough for them to maintain a high body temperature. Wood turtles reach sexual maturity at years of age and have a lifespan of years. Mating occurs throughout the year but peaks in the fall. Females can lay between 5-12 eggs and incubation lasts typically days (Wetland Connections). Because Wood Turtles typically have large ranges and require many different habitat types, the conservation and networking of these specific habitat types is needed in order to sufficiently protect this species. Wood turtles hibernate in streams, nest in riparian gravel bars, and forage during the summer in a variety of upland and wetland habitats. These habitat generalists are found in alder swales, swamps, bogs, meadows, fields, and mixed forests. A study by Compton et. al in 2002 tracked Wood Turtles in western Maine in order to identify habitat selection by this species. They found that turtles migrate often between wetlands and forests in order to balance foraging (forest) and basking (wetland) activities. Table 2 shows the specific cover types used by these turtles in 1998 at 1155 turtle locations selected in western Maine from May-September. This diverse use of many different habitats indicates that the protection of this species requires the conservation of many different ecosystems (Compton et al. 2002). 13

14 Table 2. Cover types used by Wood Turtles in 1998 at 1155 turtle locations in western Maine from May-September modified from Compton et al Blanding s Turtles: Blanding s Turtles are a species of great concern in Saint Lawrence County because they are found in few other New York locations (Jefferson county and in the great lakes plain in Niagara County). Isolated populations have also been noted in Dutchess and Saratoga counties (Gibbs et al. 2007) (Figure 5). Figure 5. Blanding s Turtle, Emydoidea blandingii, distribution in New York State (Herp. Atlas ). 14

15 These turtles are also found in the Great Lakes region, Minnesota through Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan, Southeastern Ontario, and Southwestern Quebec. They are characterized by a bright yellow coloration of the chin and throat and are medium to large in size with a shell length of 5-10 inches. Their unusually long necks serve as periscopes in shallow water and allow them to search deep water for prey (Figure 6). Figure 6. Illustration of Blanding s Turtle, Emydoidea blandingii, distribution in New York State (Herp. Atlas ). The diet of Blanding s Turtles in New England include crustaceans, insects, other invertebrates, and vegetable matter (NYNHP Conservation Guide 2007). This species is active from early April to November. Mating occurs from May to July although fewer than half of the adult females may nest in a given year. Females lay a clutch size of 5-13 eggs which have an incubation period of days. Sexual maturity of Blanding s Turtles is not reached until years of age and these turtles may live up to 70 years (Gibbs et al. 2007). Blanding s Turtles require shallow wetlands such as swamps, marshes, ponds and use vernal pools in the spring. They are known to travel long distances from wetland habitats in search of uplands for nesting site locations. Development in corridors between the Blanding s Turtle s wetland and nesting habitats is the leading reason for the decline 15

16 of this species (NYNHP Conservation Guide 2007). Juvenile turtles tend to prefer small ponds and marshes over larger lakes because the shallow waters and dense vegetation of these areas provide protection from predators such as large fish (Bury et al. 2003). Spotted Turtle: The Spotted Turtle s range extends from Southern Maine along the east coast to northern Florida. Populations are also found in the Great Lakes region and in Southern Quebec. In New York State these turtles are found in the Great Lakes Plains, in the lower Hudson River valley, and on Long island (Figure 7). Figure 7. Spotted Turtle, Clemmys guttata, distribution in New York State (Herp. Atlas ). This polka-dot turtle has yellow spots on the head and shell but is primarily black. Like the yellow blotches found on the head of the Bog Turtle, the number and arrangement of spots is a good indicator of the age of an individual. These turtles are relatively small, measuring inches in length (Figure 8) (Herp Atlas ). 16

17 Figure 8. Illustration of Spotted Turtle, Clemmys guttata (Herp. Atlas ). Spotted Turtles are active from March to October and are relatively tolerant of cold temperatures in comparison to other species. In late October they hibernate communally under shrub roots in slow-moving streams. Mating season occurs from March to May and during June females voyage from the wetlands to an appropriate nesting site. Clutch sizes usually range from 3-7 eggs and incubation time of days. Like the Wood Turtle, Blanding s Turtle, and Bog Turtle, Spotted Turtles are opportunistic feeders and prefer worms, slugs, snails, crayfish, millipedes, spiders, and other insects (Wetland Connections). Spotted turtles are excellent navigators and some males may travel over a mile in search of females (Gibbs et al. 2007). They are habitat generalists as well as opportunistic feeders and have been noted in brooks, marshes, sedge meadows, bogs, ponds, woodland streams, swamps, ditches, and seasonal pools. In general this species uses vernal pools in the spring, upland forest habitat in the summer, and swamps, bogs, or wet meadows for hibernation. Because Spotted Turtles move about these different types of habitats, conservation strategies should provide networks between these ecosystems. Areas targeted for conservation should also be large enough to accommodate viable 17

18 populations of Spotted Turtles, and the upland habitat should be conductive to travel between wetlands (Wetland Connections). Spotted Turtles also have relatively large home ranges and according to a study on habitat movements and use by Spotted Turtles in Massachusetts, these can range between acres (Milam et al. 2001). Table 2 compares the overall proportion of days that Spotted Turtles spent in each habitat type for two sites in Massachusetts in ( Milam et al. 2001) (Table 3). Table 3. Comparison of overall proportion of days spent by individual Spotted Turtles in each habitat type in two sites (Quabbin and Lawrence Swamp) in central Massachusetts modified from Milam et al Historic Distributions: In order to asses whether or not populations of these four species (Wood, Bog, Blanding s, and Spotted Turtles) has actually declined from past to present distributions, it is essential that we compare historic versus current data on population distributions and abundance of these herpitiles. Unfortunately this type of data does not currently exist, although several observations were made in the 1800s and early 1900s which allow us to predict relative historic abundance of several species. Dekay in 1842 noted the presence 18

19 of Spotted Turtles and added that these little animals [are] found throughout the Union (Herp. Atlas ). Later observations by Eckel and Paulmier in 1902 also noted the presence of Wood, Spotted, and Bog turtles. Spotted Turtles were common in ponds all over the state, frequently seen sitting on logs. Wood turtles were distributed all over the state, taken both in land and water. Bog turtles were more rare yet nevertheless reported in the Southern Part of the state, particularly in the branches of the Delaware River (Herp. Atlas ). According to fossil records, these ancient turtles have been traced back to the Paleocene era when the species expanded its range eastward from habitats in the Midwestern prairie. Bog turtles made there way to NY State by moving along glacial outlets and river basins, negotiating their way over mountain chains and ridges (Lee et al )Over the past 20 years Bog Turtle populations in the northern portion of the United States have declined by 50 percent. Currently, this species has been observed at fewer than 200 sites in their northern range. Because of increasing habitat degradation, only 35 of the 176 sites assessed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service are capable of supporting healthy Bog Turtle populations into the future unless measures are taken to protect and restore this specie s critical habitat (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997). Fossil evidence of historic Blanding s Turtle distributions suggest that the species has also expanded eastward since the last glaciation. It is estimated that this shift occurred because of habitat disappearance and changing climatic conditions. Although there is a lack of data on past population abundance and distributions in NY State, based on estimates of genetic diversity, it is likely that Blanding s Turtles were once more widespread and populations were larger (Herman et al. 2003). In Canada, as concern for 19

20 this species grew in the mid 1980 s, research was conducted on Blanding s Turtle distributions and ecology. This research, which documented declining Blanding s population abundance from the start to end of the study, led to the development of a status report in This report encouraged the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) to declare this species as threatened the same year (Herman et al. 2003). In Northern New York, little data has been collected on Blanding s Turtle population abundance and demographics from year to year. One study by Johnson et al. surveyed for Blanding s Turtles in Saint Lawrence County using both mark and recapture and non-trapping techniques. From this data, we can estimate both abundance and range of this threatened species over a period of six years (Figure 9) (Johnson et al. 2005). Currently an estimated 64 extant Blanding s Turtle occurrences have been sited in Dutchess, Saratoga, St. Lawrence, Jefferson, Niagara, and Erie counties, yet data on how this number compares to historical abundance is not available as surveys which assess population abundance were not completed until recently (New York Natural Heritage Program, 2007). 20

21 Figure 9. Distribution of Blanding s Turtle in Saint Lawrence County from annual surveys during modified from Johnson et al In conclusion, turtle population decline is a concern both on a local (within Northern NY) and global scale (as 130 of all the 260+ turtle species populations are in serious decline). Faced with this issue, the future of four endangered and threatened turtle species in Northern New York (the Wood, Blanding s, Spotted, and Bog turtles), is pessimistic to say the least. Action must be taken immediately in order to preserve New York herpitile biodiversity and save these species from further decline. This decline, as detailed in the following section, is caused primarily by anthropogenic activities such as habitat fragmentation and degradation, which minimizes available critical habitat and increases road mortality. 21

22 Human Impacts: For turtles of Northern New York, there are many human-induced impacts that are responsible for population declines. To view turtle mortalities on New York State roads as a result of collisions with cars is not an uncommon site and is one of the primary reasons for population declines in Northern New York. Road mortality is a significant contributor to turtle population decline because these roads often interrupt migration paths of these turtle species and often fragment wetland habitat (Langen et al., 2007). The construction of roads is not the only cause of fragmentation, but habitat degradation resulting from the loss of wetlands due to an increase in human development is also another significant reason for turtle population decline. In fact, many turtle studies argue that habitat loss and degradation is the number one reason for the decline of Blanding s, Wood, Bog, and Spotted turtles (Ernst et al., 1994). Similarly, the process of urbanization has detrimental effects that extend deeper than just the direct loss of habitat. With an influx of humans in a particular area also comes a significant increase in waste and food resources for predators that are drawn to these communities such as, raccoons, skunks, opossums, feral cats, neighborhood dogs, and occasionally birds such as ravens and crows (Gibbs et al. 2007). Occasionally, these predators will capture and consume adult full-grown turtles; however, it is more common that the consumption of the turtle eggs is the primary result of predation (Wetland Connections). Another reason for turtle population decline is through the pet trade and illegal collecting, an issue that is not particularly a threat in Northern New York, but may significantly effect turtle populations on a global level. Turtle population decline has also resulted from the pollution of critical wetland and upland habitats. Sediment and pesticide runoff from eroding lands and 22

23 agricultural areas can affect water clarity and increase algae growths creating inhospitable habitats and thus driving off many sensitive turtle species (Angier, 2006). Finally, the outbreak of invasive plant species can present a major threat to turtle species in terms of taking over valuable habitat and space for turtles to utilize (Congdon et al. 2006). Although habitat degradation and fragmentation as well as road construction has had the most significant impact on the populations of the turtles in Northern New York, the combination of these factors tend to have the most detrimental effects (Langen et al., 2007). Life History Characteristics It is initially important to understand the life history characteristics of turtles which make them particularly susceptible to human impacts. It has been proposed that turtles on average are one of the longest-lived vertebrates (Ernst et al 1994). This longlived characteristic when paired with the fact that sexual maturity for many species occurs significantly later in life often constrains many turtle populations. For many turtle species the advantages of prolonging sexual maturity are numerous. Long lived turtles that reproduce later in life are often able to produce healthy and numerous young over their lifespan (Congdon et al. 1993). However, there are many negative aspects of having a delayed onset of sexual maturation. These include a high risk of mortality before turtles are first able to reproduce, and a large time gap between generations. Both factors decrease turtle populations when combined with human related impacts (Congdon et al., 1993). The Blanding s Turtle, one of the threatened species found in Northern New York, is an ideal example of the negative aspects of this life history trait. A study that researched Blanding s Turtles for 27 years in Southeastern Michigan found that the 23

24 sexual maturity of the Blanding s Turtle is not reached until individuals reach years of age, with a total life span averaging about 50 to 70 years. It is evident that annual Blanding s survival rates are one of the highest among fresh water turtle species, as is evident in this study when individuals that were approaching 60 years of age were still recorded as productive (Congdon et al., 1993). However, as noted, there are negative consequences that occur when these long-lived species are faced with human impacts. This Michigan study, for example, discovered that as a result of the decreasing demand for the pelts of large predators that prey on raccoon and fox populations which are predators to Blanding s, there was a significant increase in nest survival from 75 percent to greater than 85 percent. It was also discovered that 72 percent of juveniles older than 1 year, and more than 93 percent of adults had to survive each year to maintain stable populations (Congdon et al., 1993). Predation In terms of nesting, the development of eggs is clearly crucial to the survival and stability of turtle populations. The majority of freshwater turtle eggs require an adequate amount of sunlight at the nesting site, and as a result many of these locations that breeding turtles choose for their nests are areas of human activity. The Spotted and Bog Turtles are two species which serve as prime examples of this trend in nesting choice. Many turtle species in Northern New York, including the Spotted and the Bog Turtles, have been known to choose nesting sites in croplands and pastures. Although these locations may be characterized with increased sunlight and warmth, these nests have often been destroyed by plowing and mowing, thus reducing turtle populations of these species (Klemens, 2000). In addition to the destruction of the actual nest sites, many 24

25 turtle species suffer from egg mortality due to predation. For example, the Bog Turtle often lays her eggs in elevated sedge tussocks or in sphagnum moss sites above the water line. In many cases, ants have been recorded as the primary predator on turtle eggs (Ernst et al., 1994). The future of Wood Turtle populations can be considered uncertain as there are many predators that not only increase egg but also juvenile and adult mortality. For example, raccoons and striped skunks are recognized as accomplished egg predators, frequently destroying up to 100 percent of eggs in any particular year. Ravens and coyotes, although not as destructive, have been known to prey on Wood turtle eggs. Newly hatched turtles and older Wood Turtle juveniles have to combat the pressures put on them by raccoons, skunks, feral cats, dogs, opossums, snapping turtles, and various birds (Ernst et al., 1994). The eggs of the Spotted Turtle are no exception to the common predators of Northern New York such as skunks and raccoons. In Pennsylvania, for example, 13.5 percent of Spotted Turtles collected showed signs of predator attacks or injuries from farm mowers (Ernst et al., 1994). Road Mortality A huge factor increasing turtle declines nationwide, as well as in Northern New York, is the issue of road mortality. In recent years, there have been an increasing number of studies conducted to determine the numbers, the species most commonly susceptible, and the reasons behind such high mortality numbers (Langen et al., 2007). One particular study, conducted by Steen and Gibbs between 1994 and 1999, researched the effects on the structure of turtle populations in New York. Although this particular study focused on the common Snapping and Painted Turtles near Syracuse New York, similar results were 25

26 found in the four species that this case study focuses on in Northern New York. For example, in this example, it was discovered that sexually mature females were the most susceptible to fatal vehicle collisions, as these were the individuals migrating the most frequently and over greater distances in order to establish proper nesting sites. This study also interestingly highlighted the fact that because most turtle species tend to nest at the hours around dawn and dusk, road mortality is high, as this corresponds with the high traffic times (rush hour on major roadways) (Steen and Gibbs, 2004). Overall, this study concluded that there was a high probability that roads may be altering the population structure and are skewing in the sex-ratio within turtle populations due to high female mortality (Steen and Gibbs, 2004). Similarly, Tom Langen of Clarkson University in Potsdam, has conducted in depth studies of road mortality that threatens the amphibian and reptile populations of Northern New York and more specifically in the St. Lawrence Valley. In one of his studies, Langen and his research team conducted a road survey with 100m transects at 137 uniformly spaced locations to assess the turtle mortality occurring at eight identified road-kill hotspots that were chosen during an earlier study. Langen cites many reasons for the large number of deaths on roads. In the uniformly spaced locations, no turtle deaths were discovered; however, 38 percent of the hotspots contained dead turtle species (Langen et al., 2007). One major reason Langen explains for the significant amount of turtle mortality on New York roads is their migratory traits, and the fact that roads often stand as obstacles between breeding or hibernation sites, as well as between wetland and upland nesting sites. Turtles are often attracted to road surfaces for thermoregulation purposes as the black asphalt absorbs heat (Langen et al., 2007). A study conducted on the effects of 26

27 roads on the structure of freshwater turtle populations near Syracuse, New York confirmed that roads were extremely detrimental to turtle populations but also that sexually mature females suffered the highest rate of mortality. This study discovered an increased proportion of male freshwater turtles within wetlands that were surrounded by a high density of roads. This suggests that the structure of the turtle population was altered, with more adult female mortalities on the roads and consequently more surviving males in these road-surrounded wetlands. Although this study did not state any definitive long term implications, it stated that turtle populations were highly susceptible to decline after an increase in mortality of sexually mature adults (Steen and Gibbs, 2004). Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation With an increasing rate of construction to make way for housing developments, roads, urban centers and other endeavors, the loss of habitat and wetlands have become a serious cause for turtle decline in Northern New York (Wetland Connections). As noted in the basic biology section, Wood, Blanding s, Spotted, and Bog Turtles often require different types of habitats at different times of the year. For example, the Spotted Turtle has been known to come up onto land and burrow for days and/or weeks in the leaves, but then to retreat back to the wetland areas. The Blanding s Turtle has also been known to utilize quite a few different habitats within a short period of time. From hibernating in marsh areas to feeding in vernal pools in the spring and even moving to wooded swampy areas during the warmer months, the Blanding s Turtle requires quite a few different habitat types (Klemens, 1993). The intricate habitat requirements of these turtles result in a significant amount of migration over a variety of landscapes and at different times of the year. To ensure that turtles can move between habitats with relative ease, a mosaic of 27

28 wetland habitats connected to dry, upland areas is necessary for survival. However, the protection of a variety of landscapes is not usually included in development plans (Klemens, 1993). Although the Wood Turtle is mostly terrestrial, all four of the turtle species we have focused on rely on New York wetland habitats at some point in their life cycles. Northern New York is a region heavily dominated by the presence of wetlands. The Adirondack region and the Lake Plain region collectively contribute to 74% of the state s wetlands. Unfortunately, there has been significant loss of wetland habitat statewide due to an increase in anthropogenic activities such as agriculture, mining, and urbanization. Table 4 shows how wetlands have not necessarily been lost over the years, but how large amounts of wetland habitat have been converted from a more natural state to a more altered state. Specifically, the natural shrub and scrub wetlands are being lost and replaced by altered forested and open water cover types. This loss of natural shrub and scrub wetlands can often negatively affect turtle species as their habitat is undergoing a massive conversion (NYSDEC). For example, the Bog Turtle is known to be extremely sensitive to any habitat alteration or change of environmental conditions and will readily relocate if these changes occur. However, in the event of heavy development, habitats will most likely be fragmented and disrupted, making more pristine, hospital lands difficult to locate, thus, decreasing the chance of turtle survival (Johnson, 2007). 28

29 Table 4. Changes in the Freshwater Wetlands Resource between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s (table modified from Herp. Atlas ) Cause of Change Estimated Acreage Based on Projections from Study Sample Acres Gained Acres Lost Acres with Cover type Change Agriculture 28,800 11,100 2,100 Urbanization 0 8, Linear Development Sand and Gravel 250 2, Mining Increased Runoff 8, ,200 Beaver Activity ,900 Plant Succession ,900 Total 37,910 22, ,820 Turtle populations will clearly suffer in the event of severe habitat degradation and loss. As mentioned previously, the ability to freely migrate between habitats is a critical aspect of turtle biology. The primary reason that connectivity between varying habitats is important is because all four turtle species cover large distances throughout their lifecycles. Figure 10 is derived from a study conducted by Johnson et al. on the mean distance that female and male Blanding s Turtles moved during the summer months 29

30 of 2003 and Although during four of the five months for both years, male Blanding s Turtles moved a significant amount compared to females, it is important to examine the month of June during 2003 and During this month, which corresponds to the peak of nesting season, female Blanding s turtles are migrating greater distances in comparison to males. This increase in movement is due to the fact that females are seeking nesting sites and traveling away from wetlands to dryer, sandier areas. This is significant because if sexually mature females are migrating more than males in search of nesting sites, they also have a greater chance of colliding with structures such as roads, subdivisions, and urban centers, thus increasing their risk of mortality. The survival of sexually mature females is crucial to the stability of turtle populations, as these are the individuals reproducing and responsible for creating proper nesting sites to lay viable eggs (personal communication with Glenn Johnson) Figure 11 displays a similar result, as it is a GIS produced image of the movement of a female Blanding s Turtle in Northern New York. In this image it is clear that not only does a female Blanding s Turtle move great distances over the course of the summer months, but also a wide variety of habitats are necessary as indicated in the legend. Both figures support the point that both male and female, but particularly female Blanding s are utilizing a wide variety of habitats and are moving great distances in short periods of time. Thus, the process of habitat degradation and fragmentation should be reexamined if conservation efforts are going to be successful in increaseing turtle populations in Northern New York (personal communication with Glenn Johnson) 30

31 Mean Distance Moved (m) Male 2003 (n=4) Female 2003 (n=4) Male 2004 (n=6) Female 2004 (n=17) May June July August September Month Figure 10: Mean distance moved over five months for both male and female Blanding s turtle in 2003 and 2004 (figure modified from Langen et al. 2002). Figure 11: Movement of Blanding s Turtle in Northern New York over a wide range of Habitats (figure modified from Langen et al. 2002). 31

32 Pet Trade and Illegal Collecting Another problem facing turtles both globally locally is the illegal collecting of species for pets or export purposes. Over four years between 1993 and 1997 it has been estimated that 25 million turtles were exported from the United States to foreign markets (mostly to Asian and Mediterranean countries) (Behler, 1997). Although habitat loss is recognized as the most permanent threat to turtle populations, turtle collection can severely deplete populations of turtles and even force them to extinction (Klemens, 2006). Out of the four species we focused on the Wood turtle is one species in particular that has suffered from the illegal collection practice. Wood Turtles are characterized by a remarkable intelligence and have the learning abilities of rats. This trait makes the Wood Turtle a popular pet and many populations have been significantly depleted over several decades because of human over-harvesting for the pet trade. A study conducted in Connecticut found that the abundance of Bog turtles declined steadily over a period of twenty years until the population finally dropped to zero in The cause of such a decline was not predation, disease, or road mortality but was a result of hikers taking these turtles home as pets (Gibbs et al. 2007). The pet trade and illegal collection of turtles is more of an issue on a global scale than in Northern New York, however, it has been listed as a concern for populations throughout the state (Personal Communication with Tom Langen, 2007). Invasive Species The introduction and expansion of invasive species has also been a threat for turtle populations in Northern New York. Although it may not be the most detrimental threat, the excessive growth of invasive plant species in wetlands can interfere with turtle 32

33 population abundance. A prime example of an invasive plant species in Northern New York is the Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). Purple Loosestrife is an exotic wetland perennial plant that was introduced from Europe in the late 1800 s from ships coming into the New England region. The construction of canals and waterways helped the spread and growth of Purple Loosestrife into New York State and particularly into the St. Lawrence River Valley. This invasive plant has spread throughout the Northeastern U.S. into Southern Canada and even into the Midwest, promoted by irrigation systems and the commercial spread of the plant for horticultural purposes. The Purple Loosestrife has had many detrimental impacts on the natural wetlands of New York including displacing native plant species, eliminating natural food sources for the native wildlife in the region, and causing a general disturbance to the natural structure and functioning of these habitats. However, the endangered Bog Turtle has been observed to be the one turtle species that is particularly affected by the invasion of Purple Loosestrife. The Bog Turtle greatly utilizes wetland habitats and rocky areas for basking, however, these are consequently the areas that Purple Loosestrife has invaded particularly in the St. Lawrence Valley. Without suitable habitat taken over by invasive plant species, the Bog Turtle is forced out of its natural setting to find new basking areas. This greatly increases mortality risk of the species (Malecki, 1993). Similarly, the habitat of the Blanding s turtle has also been threatened by the Purple Loosestrife in Northern New York as well as in surrounding states. Phragmites (Phragmites australis) or an invasive reed species has been listed in the top twenty most invasive plant species in New York State and has also posed many threats to the Blanding s turtle. Phragmites were first noticed in the late 1990 s, and since the discovery of these invasive species in turtle habitats is relatively 33

34 new, it is necessary for more research to be conducted on the effects these plants have on turtles such as the Blanding s in New York (Congdon and Keinath, 2006). Government Issues: The first New York State Law to protect herpetofauna was implemented in 1905 in order to stop excessive turtle harvesting by European immigrants, who were using these species as a food source. The Forest, Fish and Game law was also amended at this time in order to include Wood and Box turtles, species which were especially susceptible to over-harvesting (Gibbs et al. 2007). The current legal protection of Bog, Wood, Blanding s, and Spotted turtles involves government agencies on both federal and local levels. Four New York reptiles (the Bog, Wood, Eastern Box, and Common Map turtles) are listed federally under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES). This convention allows international trade of certain species only when abundance of these species is high enough that such trade is sustainable. Other federal organizations involved in the protection of threatened or endangered herpitiles in the United States is the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), which administers the Federal Endangered Species Act (ESA). Bog turtles were the only species of the four we chose which are protected under this act (Gibbs et al. 2007). The Endangered Species Act prohibits Bog Turtle collection and other activities such as habitat destruction or degradation, interstate sale, and export or import of the species (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1997). The USFWS also administers the Lacy Act, which makes it unlawful to import, export, transport, buy or sell any species, including amphibians and reptiles, taken or possessed in violation of federal, state, or tribal 34

35 law (Gibbs et al. 2007). Under this act, removal of federally protected species (such as the Bog Turtle) across state boundaries is prohibited without a permit. On a state level, the Environmental Conservation Law (ECL) separates all NY flora and fauna into two separate categories, protected and unprotected species. Unprotected species may be harvested from the wild under specific guidelines and restrictions (usually a hunting, trapping, or fishing license is required). Most amphibians were listed as small game species under this act, which placed them under the unprotected category (with the exception of several threatened or endangered species) until 1974, when the law was amended to give the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYS DEC) the authority to regulate amphibian harvesting (Gibbs et al. 2007). The first list of NY endangered species was adopted in 1974 and of the four species (Wood, Bog, Spotted, and Blanding s turtles) only included Bog Turtles. Species labeled as endangered under this law may not be taken, transported, harvested, or sold without proper licensing from the DEC. Since then this law has been modified to allow the protection of threatened species and the list now includes Blanding s Turtles. As special concern species, Wood and Spotted turtles are not protected under this law (Gibbs et al. 2007). The NYS DEC also requires that special permits are acquired before releasing pets into the wild. The introduction of these often non-native turtle species may interfere with native species through habitat and resource competition and may also alter gene pools by breeding with native species. A critical aspect of protecting endangered and threatened New York turtle species is preserving the wide variety of habitats required by these herpitiles. The preservation of wetlands is particularly important as these habitats provide breeding, nesting, feeding 35

36 grounds, and shelter for many threatened and endangered amphibians, reptiles, and waterfowl (NYSDEC-Freshwater Wetlands Program 2007). The New York Freshwater Wetlands Act provides some protection to wetlands larger than 12.4 acres as well as a 100 ft buffer zone immediately surrounding the habitat. Yet this act does not protect many of the smaller, more temporary wetlands which are critical habitats to turtles. It is up to local governments to designate certain of these smaller habitats as wetlands of unique importance. The St. Lawrence Wetland and Grassland Management District was created to improve the exemplary fish and wildlife resources in the St. Lawrence Valley by working with local communities and private landowners to enhance fish and wildlife populations (St. Lawrence Wetland and Grassland Management District 2007). Although this branch of the USFWS focuses on protecting waterfowl in the St. Lawrence Valley, turtle species may also benefit from the restoration and protection of smaller wetland habitats. The St. Lawrence WGMD has been successfully working with private landowners to conserve and enhance wildlife habitat on a local and small scale. The US Fish and Wildlife Service also established a similar program in New York called Partners for Wildlife. This program encourages private landowners to set aside portions of their land for wildlife cover and restores small wetlands at no cost to landowners. Landowners in turn benefit by being able to observe birds, amphibians, and reptiles in their backyards (A helping Hand for Waterfowl 2001). Stakeholders The issue of turtle population decline and the process of working towards conserving these threatened and endangered species is one that involves many different stakeholders. Within this case study, we are defining stakeholders as any individual or 36

37 group that plays a role in this issue in any way. A variety of interests, conservation values, and practices are represented with each different individual and/or organizations that are stakeholders within the issue of turtle decline in Northern NY. Although there are many different parties involved, six groups were identified to be the primary stakeholders in this issue. These include: wildlife, conservationists and conservation organizations, the general public, road management, developers, and the state government. Wildlife An obvious yet not always recognized stakeholder in this issue is the wildlife or the turtle species themselves. Their intrinsic right to exist, their ecological importance, and the pure fact that humans have inflicted great disturbance on these populations are all reasons why wildlife hold a stake in this issue. The four turtle species that have been discussed, the Bog Turtle, the Wood Turtle, Blanding s Turtle, and the Spotted Turtle are all important stakeholders in this issue simply because they are most affected by both the conservation efforts and negative anthropogenic activities outlined in this study. Conservationists and Organizations A significant amount of time in this study was spent on talking with concerned professors and delving into the work and research of conservation groups focused on turtle populations in Northern New York. Concerned professors, conservationists, and conservation organizations are additional parties that have quite a bit of say and impact on threatened and endangered turtle species of New York. Many professors such as Glenn Johnson at the State University of New York- Potsdam and Tom Langen at Clarkson University have shown an active interest in conserving the turtle populations of New York and have consequently dedicated a large amount of their time to research on 37

38 these species. Professors and researchers can have a large impact on turtle conservation by increasing general awareness and promoting an interest on behalf of protecting native turtle populations. For example on March 12, 2007, Glenn Johnson and five others including Alvin Breish, an amphibian and reptile specialist for the Department of Conservation in Albany, produced the first book ever published about amphibian and reptile decline in New York State. This comprehensive compilation of history, turtle ecology, threats, past and current conservation efforts and an abundance of other information will prove extremely valuable promoting future awareness and hopefully interest in turtle conservation (Johnson et al., 2007). One of the most significant impacts that these professors and researchers can have on turtle populations in NY is through providing credible research that can further increase the scientific knowledge available on these threatened species and encourage additional studies on how better to conserve them. For example, Langen is currently working extensively on conducting turtle surveys on the roads in Northern New York in hopes to better understand the mortality patterns and to develop the most efficient and beneficial culvert and barrier development plan. Langen has been working for quite a few years on this project, and his primary focus is to develop plans for turtle protection on Route 68, four miles west of Potsdam (Watertown times 2004). Although Langen has made new discoveries about road mortality rates in Northern New York by identifying high mortality hotspots, he has expressed that we have merely brushed the surface in terms of research and there is a definite need for additional studies (Langen, 2007). Professors have also contributed a great deal of research in large group projects, as seen in the case of the National Recovery Plan for the Blanding s Turtle in Nova Scotia, 38

39 Canada. Out of the 16 members on the recovery team, 6 of them were Biology professors from Acadia University in Nova Scotia. Together this team worked to establish recovery goals, objectives, strategies, and actions that would conserve and protect the declining Blanding s turtle population in the region (Herman et al., 2003). The work of researchers, however, could not be completed if it was not for the gracious funding of state and local conservation organizations. These conservation organizations also conduct their own studies as well as hold valuable seminars and forums to increase awareness and allow discussion between concerned individuals and activists on how better to conserve turtle populations. One such conservation group is the New York Turtle and Tortoise Society (NYTTS), a non-profit organization working towards the conservation of turtle species in the state through preservation of habitat, spread of awareness, and education (NYTTS, 2007). The NYTTS seems to have a hand in many different areas of turtle conservation including seminars in which zoologists, veterinarians, conservationists, and other experts speak about specific issues facing turtles. Various campaigns and educational outreach efforts have been made through the organization of open forums, the publication of brochures, and the promotion of a turtle poster contest in different schools (NYTTS, 2007). Finally, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) is one of the primary stakeholders when it comes to this issue of turtle conservation within the state. The NYSDEC has funded numerous turtle research projects from the restoration of wetland and upland habitats for Blanding s turtles in Dutchess County, to wetland conservation programs throughout the entire state, and road mortality studies in St. Lawrence County. The NYSDEC also conducts many of its own studies on 39

40 turtle species. With the gracious funding from the DEC, Glenn Johnson discovered Blanding s turtle populations living on the side of the road near the proposed Wal-Mart site on Route 11 between Canton and Potsdam in the spring of 2006 (Watertown Times 2006). However, the NYSDEC did not just provide funding but also started conducting studies and field surveys soon after Johnson s findings in order to define the range of Blanding s species and understand more about the presence of Blanding s in St. Lawrence County (Watertown Times 2006). This is just one example of the many research grants and studies that the NYSDEC is involved in when it comes to threatened and endangered turtle populations in the state. Perhaps the most significant contribution the NYSDEC has made for statewide turtle populations is the creation of the Amphibian and Reptile Atlas or Herpetofauna herp project. This was a ten year project from 1990 to 2000 that monitored and recorded the distributions of the herps. throughout the state in order to increase the knowledge base and develop successful conservation strategies. The herp. atlas identifies each species of turtle found in New York State and provides a general description, life history characteristics, habitat preference, status, threats, as well as conservation needs on all species (NYSDEC, 2000). General Public Another stakeholder in this issue of turtle conservation is the general public. These are the people regularly driving on state roads and their interest or lack thereof can have a great impact on management, development, and conservation decisions in the future. If the general public has no interest in turtle conservation, there will be a lack of activism on their part to help protect the declining turtle populations, and therefore 40

41 support for conservation efforts will be minimal. From our survey and through our discussions with both Tom Langen and Glenn Johnson, it was apparent that there was a lack of general awareness in Northern New York status of turtles in the region. Although many people seemed to be aware of the presence of Painted, Snapping, and the Blanding s turtles in some cases, more rare and endangered species were not recognized. This lack of awareness is problematic when it comes to protecting the turtles in Northern New York because could lead to a lack of public opposition to detrimental human impacts threatening these populations. For example, if the general public was not made aware of the Blanding s turtle populations in the proposed Wal-Mart site there would be no interest or support in the protection of this wildlife species. Road Management It is clear that road mortality is a significant threat on turtle populations in the state; therefore the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) is one of the primary stakeholders. The first priority of NYSDOT is the safety and efficiency of their roads throughout the state, however, since this is the department responsible for the maintenance and creations of new roads, their actions directly affect the nesting and migration routes of turtles throughout the state. NYSDOT has played a more significant role in the issue of turtle population decline as more research and plans to develop culverts and barriers on roadways in order to aid turtle nesting and migration and reduce road mortality. In 2004, Tom Langen and Glenn Johnson were provided with a grant from the NYSDEC to design and test an experimental barrier and passage system for turtles on Highway 68 near the Upper and Lower Lakes Wildlife Management area. Through this project, many individuals from the NYSDOT were involved in this plan, 41

42 including an Environmental Specialist, the region 7 Environmental Coordinator, and the Resident Engineer for St. Lawrence County. Because they have developed new roadways without implementing structures to reduce amphibian road mortality, the NYSDOT can be perceived as a stakeholder that has a negative effect on the issue, however, they also have the ability to make a positive impact as well. In terms of the experimental barrier and passage system, most of the construction materials for the barriers were purchased by NYSDOT and the actual barriers were also installed by NYSDOT management crews (Gibbs et al. 2007). Developers Human development and the loss of habitat is considered to be the most detrimental and permanent threat to turtle populations in New York State. The rapid development of business, housing expansions, and other infrastructures pose a major threat to wetland turtle habitats in particular. Because of this developers themselves can be considered as another stakeholder (Wetland Connections). With economic interests at the forefront, developers are infringing on natural habitats in northern New York and often these practices often conflict with turtle populations. Michael Klemens, senior conservationist of the Wildlife Conservation Society and an active member of the NYTTS has given many speeches and even written a book on the local effects that sprawl and development has on wildlife populations (NYTTS, 2007). Klemens is a conservationist and therefore has had many interactions with developers. He states that it is important for conversationalists to belong to both regional and local land use planning committees in order to get ideas, opinions, and research into a more public light (NYTTS, 2007). Klemen s work illustrates the extent of the impact that developers have on habitat 42

43 degradation, and more specifically on the habitats of threatened and endangered turtles in New York. The fact that developers pose a threat to turtle populations through potential habitat loss, but also have the ability to help conserve populations by consulting and compromising with conservationists, makes this group a prominent stakeholder with great impact on this issue. State Government Finally, the New York State Government is a significant stakeholder in terms of developing laws and regulations that protect turtle populations within the state. If the government did not implement any laws or regulations on the collecting and/or exporting of turtle species, it is difficult to know if the state would have nearly as many turtle populations still alive today. The St. Lawrence Wetland and Grassland Management District of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, a governmental sector of the Department of the Interior has also played an active role in conserving New York turtle populations. This St. Lawrence district of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife service has had quite an impact in terms of providing funds for research, technical assistance for research, conducting public outreach and awareness programs, and promoting partnerships with landowners under programs such as the Wetland Reserve Program and the Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program (USFWS, 2000). Solutions Parameters: According to a report prepared for the USDA in the Rocky Mountain region on Blanding s Turtle threats and conservation, in areas with uncontaminated wetlands, relatively large areas of associated nesting habitat, and minimal road mortality, 43

44 Blanding s Turtle populations are able to remain stable (Congdon et al. 2006). Thus any conservation strategy implemented in NY State must take these factors into account in order to best protect Blanding s and other endangered and threatened turtles in Northern New York from further decline. In the human impacts section above, we identified the main threats to Wood, Bog, Blanding s, and Spotted turtles to be nest predation (primarily by raccoons and skunks), road mortality, and habitat degradation and fragmentation due to urbanization and development. We chose not to include the invasive species and the pet trade a main threat because the pet trade is not a large factor contributing to the decline of these species in Northern NY, and little is known about the effects of invasive species on any of our four herpitiles (personal communication with Glenn Johnson). In order to successfully increase the abundance and distribution of these threatened and endangered turtle species, all of these issues must be incorporated into an acceptable solution. We hope to create a conservation blueprint which could be put into use for future herpitile protection both in St. Lawrence Country and in other locations facing similar turtle population decline. In addition to the solutions suggested by this conservation blueprint, we propose that more research needs to be done within St Lawrence County and also on a much larger scale (across the United States) on the distributions, metapopulation dynamics, habitat preferences, and biology of Wood, Bog, Blanding s, and Spotted Turtles. In an effort to effectively assess the status of Bog Turtles across the United States, the US Fish and Wildlife Service in the late 1970s requested states within the Bog Turtle s range to gather distribution data. These reports suggested that the species was not as rare as first speculated but secretive and often difficult to find. Findings, however 44

45 were flawed by being based upon the smallest scale of Bog Turtle occurrence, the individual turtle, with little information concerning populations, metapopulation dynamics, or patterns of ecosystem fragmentation and degradation that were occurring throughout much of the Bog Turtle s range (Klemens 2000 ). When the USFWS later funded research which took into account metapopulations, the number of previously proposed Bog Turtle sites were greatly reduced (Klemens 2000). Thus research which takes an ecosystem perspective must be performed in the North Country for all four herpitiles in order to insure that conservation actions are the most productive in ensuring the survival of these species. Also year to year fluctuations in the distribution and population size of Wood, Blanding s, Bog, and Spotted turtles must be measured in Northern NY in order to assess the effectiveness of the conservation measures implemented. An estimation of abundance can be achieved using aquatic trapping and dip netting techniques to mark and recapture individual turtles. Also data on the number of nests destroyed by predators and male to female ratios are useful in determining predation and road mortality rates (as females are more susceptible to road mortality) (Congdon et al. 2006). We performed a survey which assessed the knowledge and apathy of 15 local residents of Canton, NY about endangered turtles of the area. This written survey was completed on April 15 th outside of the Canton P and C grocery store. Sample questions asked were: Do you know what species of turtles are in the Northern New York area? aka St. Lawrence County? Do you know how well the turtle populations are doing in Northern New York? Have you heard anything in the media about turtle populations thriving, declining, and staying the same? Is the success of turtle populations in Northern 45

46 New York an important issue or a concern/priority of yours? Most of the residents surveyed listed only Snapping and Box turtles as species occurring in the North Country, although Blanding s Turtle was also mentioned by two community members. One resident cited a Watertown Daily Times article on the discovery of Blanding s Turtles at the proposed Wal-Mart site on route 11 as the source of her knowledge about the rare specie. Most community members surveyed, however, were not aware about declining turtle populations both on a local and international scale. When asked whether or not they were concerned about rapidly decreasing turtle abundance the typical response was not particularly, however, if I knew more information about turtle population decline, I probably would be more concerned. In many cultures turtles are a symbol of longevity and wisdom and are included in countless myths and legends. Despite our fascination with this animal, our survey results showed that many people are unaware that turtle populations are facing a worldwide decline. An effort must be made in St Lawrence County to promote awareness about the rare and endangered turtles of the area through educational programs and media exposure. If more people are aware that several species of this wise and charismatic animal are in danger of extinction, than they will be more apt to support and fund conservation programs and legal measures designed to protect Wood, Bog, Blanding s, and Spotted Turtles. Possible Solutions: Possible solutions which would help reduce the threats of road mortality, habitat degradation and fragmentation, and nest predation are sited in Table 5. 46

47 Table 5. A list and description of possible solutions to reduce the threats of nest predation, habitat degradation, fragmentation, and road mortality on Blanding s, Wood, Bog, and Spotted Turtles in St. Lawrence County, NY. Solution Description Threat Reduced Feasibility The hatching and rearing of turtles in captivity and later releasing Headstarting them into the wild Nest Predation High Creation of Artificial Habitat Implementation of Road Structures Elimination of predators from St Lawrence County Stopping the Spread of Invasive Species and Eliminating Current Invasives Eliminating Wetland Fragmentation The creation of artificial wetlands and nesting sites Habitat Degradation High to Medium The implementation of culverts and barriers which "funnel" turtles into passageways under roads Road Mortality High The complete removal of turtle nest predators such as skunks and opossums using trapping methods Nest Predation Low The complete removal of invasives such as Purple Loostrife which further degrade turtle habitat The elimination of wetland fragmentation by prohibiting activities such as urban development and road construction Habitat Degradation Habitat Fragmentation Medium Low 47

48 Networking Wetlands The networking of multiple wetlands through the use of corridors Habitat Fragmentation High Reducing Habitat Pollution The reduction of pesticide and sediment runoff due to urbanization and agriculture Habitat Degradation Medium to Low Feasibility and Best Solutions: Solutions that have little to no chance of being implemented in Northern New York are eliminating predators from St. Lawrence County and preventing any sort of wetland fragmentation in the area. Although the trapping and removal of turtle nest predators (such as skunks and possums), would successfully increase juvenile turtle populations, we thought that this method was time consuming and expensive. Because predator populations are so abundant, this tactic would involve many constant hours of trapping and would not guarantee that nest predation would be significantly reduced. We thought that a more feasible solution to this threat is headstarting, or the hatching of rare and endangered turtles in captivity and later release into the wild once they reach a size large enough to evade high predation rates. It would also not be feasible to completely eliminate wetland fragmentation throughout the county because most development projects and road routes would not be willing to rethink plans just to save Blanding s, Bog, Wood, and Spotted Turtles. Alternative road routes around wetland habitat are also not always achievable. We thought that more feasible solutions to wetland fragmentation were to create barriers and culverts to allow safe turtle movement from one fragment to 48

49 another under roadways (this would also effectively decrease road mortality), and also to connect fragmented habitat using natural corridors. Because of the large amount of agriculture in St Lawrence County we also thought that convincing farmers to either eliminate pesticide use or to leave a buffer strip of natural vegetation around their fields to reduce sediment and pesticide runoff into wetlands would be difficult. Although this tactic would indeed decrease turtle habitat degradation, habitat loss due to development poses a much greater threat to turtles in Northern NY than wetland pollution due to agriculture. In Nebraska, however, Blanding s Turtles are highly susceptible to the pesticide Dieldrin which was applied to corn fields for insect control and accumulated in wetland habitats. Although the use of this pesticide has been halted since 1974, the chemical is very persistent in the environment (Congdon et al. 2006). Pesticide runoff is not as large of a problem in Northern NY and we thought that more funds and effort should go into protecting smaller wetlands from draining and filling than limiting chemical and sediment runoff. Similarly, the elimination of invasive plant species in wetlands would also decrease turtle habitat degradation, yet little research has been done on the effects of these species on Blanding s, Wood, Bog, and Spotted Turtles. Despite lack of research, it seems that invasive species do not pose a significant threat on turtle abundance. The effort and funding required to remove these species would be better spent implementing the solutions described below. Headstarting: Hatching success of nests in the wild is often low because of high rates of predation. Additional mortality may occur as a result of nest flooding and ice action caused by cold weather. A study on hatching and emergence success of Blanding s Turtle 49

50 eggs in Kejimkijk National Park, Canada showed that out of 1054 recorded eggs, 615 (58%) failed due to nest flooding, ice action, or predation (Table 6)(Standing et al. 2000). Table 6. The hatching and emergence success of Blanding s turtle eggs in Kejimkujik National Park, Novia Scotia, Canada from 1987 to 1997 (as modified from Standing et al. 2000). Because all four turtle species have high rates of hatchling mortality, headstarting, or hatching and rearing of turtles in captivity until they are old enough to discourage predation, is an increasingly popular tactic in increasing juvenile abundance. The purpose of this process is to boost population abundance by eliminating the threat of nest predation. A major concern regarding this solution is that it does not address the main issues causing population decline and instead provides more of a temporary fix. We propose that headstarting should be used in addition to strategies that will be useful in conserving adults as well (such as habitat protection, habitat networking, and reducing road mortality)(forrester 2005). Headstarting has already proven to be a valuable technique in increasing turtle abundance in NY. An effort was begun in 1995 by Dr. George Kollias at Cornell University to collect hatchlings from the wild, raise them for a year in captivity, and release them into the wild. More than half of these turtles were later recaptured, indicating that this process was successful (Gibbs et al. 2007). Headstarting 50

51 has also been proven effective in curbing nest predation and juvenile mortality rates of Blanding s Turtles in Nova Scotia, Canada. Since 2002 researchers have been collecting hatchlings in regions where Blanding s populations have declined over the years and raising them at the Oaklawn Farms Zoo. This study is working to create an effective headstarting technique which is most beneficial to turtle populations (Gibbs et al. 2007). Habitat Protection and Networking: A plan of protecting critical habitats required by Wood, Blanding s, Spotted, and Bog turtles in New York State has begun to take form under the Hudson River Restoration Project. This project aims to restore the signature fisheries in the Hudson River estuaries, conserve river and shore line habitat, and protect a maximum amount of biodiversity in the Hudson River Valley. By 2009 this project proposes to enlist 200 partners, 60 municipalities, 100 willing landowners, and 40 businesses and nonprofits-in conserving 50,000 acres of six target habitats and representative species (Environmental News Service 2005). All four turtle species were included as representative species and this restoration project plans to protect seasonal woodland pools used by Spotted Turtles (as well a variety of other species such as Wood Frogs and Fairy Shrimp), shoreline corridors along rivers preferred by Wood Turtles, unique natural areas which support endangered species such as Bog Turtles, and wetlands which support Blanding s Turtles (as well as Bog, Wood, and Spotted Turtles) (Environmental News Service 2005). When implemented, this 368 million dollar plan will allow all four herpitile species the chance to increase in abundance and lower their risks of extinction. Although only a small fraction of the land in St. Lawrence County is able to be set aside for conservation purposes, it is clear that wetlands need to be adequately protected 51

52 as an increasingly larger percentage of these ecosystems are degraded and destroyed due to filling and draining to make space for development. The conservation of the small permanent wetlands in Northern New York which are not large enough to be included under The New York Freshwater Wetlands Act would help to minimize the impacts of turtle habitat degradation and fragmentation in the area. Yet because of the complex life cycles and migration patterns of these four endangered and threatened turtles, conservation efforts which focus on wetlands alone are not sufficient. Blanding s, Wood, bog, and spotted turtles all migrate from wetlands to surrounding uplands to nest and forage. Wood Turtles in particular are less aquatic than the other three species and also require meadows, fields, and mixed forests as foraging and breeding grounds. Scientists have estimated that the minimally effective buffer distance around a permanent wetland which also accommodates the foraging and breeding cycles of these species is 300 ft (Gibbs. et al. 2007). We suggest that the protection of these small wetland habitats and a surrounding 300ft buffer zone of upland habitat in Saint Lawrence County would provide the required habitat for rare herpitiles in the area and help to increase their abundance. Certain man made habitat alterations such as agricultural fields and roads can be major barriers to turtles which require a diverse array of habitat. If native forest and grassland corridors are maintained as a connection between two separate wetland habitats, turtles can move between them freely. As mobility of these species is increased by the implementation of these corridors, genetic diversity within the population would also increase as subpopulations previously divided would be able to interbreed (Gibbs et al 2007). This increase in genetic diversity would allow for a greater diversity of traits at an individual level within a species, and thus allow for the evolution of traits which may 52

53 render the species better suited for survival in the future. The implementation of corridors would also decrease road mortality as the number of turtles crossing roads in order to go from one fragmented habitat to another would decline if the two habitats were connected by a natural corridor. Corridors would also insure that turtles would not be forced to cross large open agricultural fields where predation risks are high. Creation of Artificial Habitat The creation of restored or artificial wetland and nesting habitats is a possible solution to reduce the threats of road mortality and habitat degradation on Blanding s, Wood, Bog, and Spotted Turtles in Northern NY. This tactic has already been completed in Dutchess County, NY in May 1997 to replace Blanding s Turtle nesting and wetland habitats due to a school expansion in the area. This project created 1.4 ha of shrubby wetlands interspersed by vegetated upland sandy soils used for nesting (Figure 12). During the 1997 nesting season, eleven female Blanding s Turtles were radiotracked. Of these 11, 9 used the artificial habitat and 11 used the newly constructed nesting sites (Kiviat et al. 2000). This study also raised the point that although restoration projects may be beneficial to a target specie there is little data on potential negative impacts of these artificial habitats on non-targeted species. Also due to the complexity of natural wetland habitats, it is difficult to recreate every abiotic and biotic factor in an artificial habitat. Thus we propose that restoration projects should only be used to provide additional habitat and not as a substitute for natural habitat. The creation of artificial nest habitat is often a simple and cost effective way of reducing road mortality, since many females use sandy roadsides as nesting sites. The NYS DEC completed a survey in 1987 which tracked Blanding s Turtles in Dutchess County in order to measure their migration and 53

54 nesting patterns. This survey discovered that the Blanding s were migrating over 3,300 ft across an open field to nest in the sandy roadsides of a nearby housing development. In order to reduce the risks of road mortality to this Blanding s Turtle population, the NYS DEC and the Nature Conservancy created artificial nesting habitat much nearer to the pond. Later studies showed that this preserve was home to one of the largest populations of Blanding s Turtles, 80 adults in total (Gibbs et al. 2007). Artificial nest habitat construction in road mortality hotspots of St Lawrence County may help to reduce this threat and increase Wood, Blanding s, Bog, and Spotted Turtle abundance. A B C D 54

55 Figure 12. Artificial habitat improvement in Dutchess County, NY by Creative Habitat Corporation. Picture A shows an upland field before the excavation and installation of salvaged wetland sod and tees and shrubs in the same field in picture B. Picture C shows another field before the installation of a pool and wetland sod (D) (figure modified from Reducing Road Mortality: The impacts of road mortality on Blanding s, Wood, Bog, and Striped Turtles can be reduced using culverts and barriers on the sides of roadways prone to high levels of turtle mortality. The culvert system involves tunnels placed under the roads to allow turtles to safely cross. Turtles are funneled into the culverts and kept off roads by permanent drift fence systems which are backfilled with gravel on the side closest to the road to ensure that they do not get trapped on the road. This system was first implemented in Albany County in 1999 on a highway which was prone to high levels of amphibian and reptile mortality. This culvert and barrier structure reduced herpitile road mortality to zero where levels had previously been quite high (Gibbs et al. 2007). Prototype culverts have also been implemented by researchers from Clarkson University to reduce turtle mortality along Route 68 in Canton, NY (Figure 13). Figure 13. Pictures of the prototype culvert and barrier system implemented along Route 68 in Canton, NY in order to reduce amphibian and reptile road mortality (photos courtesy of Glenn Johnson). 55