Module.02. Practical Feeding. of Dogs and Cats. Module.02. In this section we will consider topics such as:

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1 Practical Feeding of Dogs and Cats Now that we understand the theory behind dog and cat nutrition, let s take a practical look at feeding them! In this module we will review instinctive feeding behaviour, as well provide a sound knowledge of practical feeding and life-stage nutrition. As an animal moves through the various phases of life, nutritional needs and requirements vary widely. With an understanding of life-stage pet nutrition, you can engage your customers in more comprehensive discussions about their markets and more confidently explore the sales opportunities. In this section we will consider topics such as: > Instinctive feeding behaviour of cats and dogs > How much should I feed? > Should I feed a home based diet or a prepared pet food? > Should I feed canned or dry food? > Dietary upsets > Practical advice to help pets transition to a new food > How do I feed for different life-stages?

2 Table of Contents p02 - Instinctive Feeding Behaviour of Dogs p04 - Instinctive Feeding Behaviour of Cats p05 - Feeding Frequency p07 - Macronutrient Profile p09 - Temperature of Food p10 - Home Made and Commercial Diets p12 - Feeding Dry or Canned Food p16 - The Influence of Pet Food Formats p18 - How Much to Feed p22 - Dietary Upsets p24 - Transitioning a Pet to New Food p25 - Lifestage Nutrition for Dogs p26 - Adult Maintenance p27 - Pregnancy p29 - Lactation p30 - Stage of Development p32 - Weaning p33 - Growth p39 - Senior Dogs p41 - Lifestage Nutrition for Cats p42 - Adult Maintenance p42 - Pregnancy p43 - Lactation p44 - Growth p46 - Senior Cats p47 - Healthy Weight and Maintenance of Dogs and Cats p50 - Health Risks of Obesity

3 Dogs The dog (Canis lupus familiaris) is domesticated from the grey wolf (Canis lupus) There are 3.99m dogs in Australia (2011) 39.3% of Australian households own a dog (2011). In 2006, this number was 40.5%. The average number of dogs per household is 1.34 (2011). Australia has the highest desexing rate globally at 66.3% Only 50% of dogs in Australia are purebreds, whereas in most countries purebreds make up 55% to 80% The concentration of small dogs (<10kg) in Australia is slightly higher than most markets A third of Australian dogs are outdoors permanently, which is significantly higher than any other market There is a huge variety in appearance and behaviour among the various dog breeds The changing needs of man throughout history and evolution has resulted in the development of hundreds of different dog breeds e.g. sight hounds, scent hounds, working dog breeds, etc The different dog breeds have varied functions and uses The evolution of dog breeds continues today The domestic dog is the most varied single species on the planet 01

4 Instinctive Feeding Behaviour of Dogs A wolf can consume a fifth of its bodyweight in a single meal! This is equivalent to a 60kg human eating 12kg of meat in one sitting. That s 53 steaks of 226g each!! However, they may go several days after this without eating. Wolves hunt in packs and therefore have a lot of competition when eating. Wolves may also store food and consume it later. Dogs are naturally gorge feeders and are adapted to eat one or two meals per day. Although classified as carnivores, dogs are opportunistic feeders that have adapted to eat both meat and vegetables. Dogs have evolved to also obtain food by scavenging. This opportunistic feeding behaviour helps to explain why many dogs have a tendency to eat any food provided, even if it is in excess of their requirements. The prey that dogs eat, are herbivores that eat only plants. When wolves kill and eat their prey (caribou, deer, elk, rabbit, etc) they consume the intestinal tract, which contains grasses, leaves and other plants that the prey has consumed. Typical analysis of canine prey Moisture 80% Protein Fat Carbohydrate 30% 60% 10% image source: Neil Thorneycroft, Mars Petcare,

5 Cats The cat (Felis catus) has been associated with humans for around 9,500 years There are 2.18m cats in Australia (2011) 22.3% of Australian households own a cat (2011). In 2006, this number was 24.4%. The average number of cats per household is 1.29 (2011). In 2006, this number was Australia has the highest desexing rate globally at 94% 37% of cats in Australia are 8 years and over in age The most common cat is the mixed breed (domestic shorthair) The 2 most well known breeds are the Persian and the Siamese Cats have a much smaller size range than dogs 03

6 Instinctive Feeding Behaviour of Cats In contrast to dogs, cats are strict carnivores and therefore must eat meat every day. The ancestor of the domestic cat is the African wildcat (Felis sylvestris lybica) which eats several small birds or mammals throughout the day. The wild diet may be restricted within a locality or season, and in addition the nutrient content of prey items within a species can differ depending, for example, on the time of year or the age of the prey animal. Coping with a food supply that is unpredictable in terms of availability and nutrient content requires particular behavioural strategies. These have been inherited by the domestic cat from its ancestors and probably underlie much of the feeding behaviour seen today. Domestic cats naturally prefer to eat many small meals at frequent intervals. This natural behaviour may encourage cats to overeat when offered more food than they need. Feeding the amount of food a cat requires split over several small meals per day will allow a cat to maintain its natural behaviour while maintaining a healthy weight. Cats like food that moves, and like to hunt even when not hungry. This demonstrates a motivation for this activity, which is not necessarily based on calorie-seeking. Food is not the only way to meet a cat s natural desire to hunt, and this can also be achieved through play. In the wild, cats rarely store food as they tend to eat everything. The first part of a large prey item that a cat will eat is often the liver. A cat s tongue is rough so that they can get the fur off their prey. Cats do not chew but rather tear and swallow their food. In contrast to dogs and humans, cats show no preference for, and indifference to, sweet compounds (such as sugars and artificial sweeteners). This is due to a non functional gene in the cat (the Tas1r2gene) that means that the sweet taste receptor cannot be formed. It is likely that due to its evolution as an obligate carnivore, pressure to retain this gene was not maintained in the cat. For millions of years, these ancient predators have thrived on a diet of mice, voles, young rabbits and occasionally birds and reptiles. They obtain their water intake from the prey that they eat. image source: Neil Thorneycroft, Mars Petcare,

7 Feeding Frequency Dogs and cats demonstrate quite different preferences with respect to feeding frequency. In the wild, dogs hunt in packs and experience competitive pressure from the rest of the pack to eat their prey, which encourages gorging behaviour. As we have seen, dogs have a very expandable stomach designed to cope with large meals. Dogs : :37 g(dry) g(dry) time time Dog Meal Pattern graph source: Petcare School, Mars Petcare, 2009 The graph above represents a 24 hour period in the life of small dogs (a Basenji and a Beagle). You can see that the meal pattern is more similar, time-wise, to our own. This probably reflects the dog's long history of domestication (around 12,000 years). 05

8 Cats 20 grams consumed day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 Cat Meal Pattern graph source: Petcare School, Mars Petcare, 2009 A major factor influencing when cats eat, as well as how much they eat, is food availability. When food availability is not restricted, cats eat small, frequent meals. Studies at WALTHAM showed that if cats have constant access to an acceptable food, they take intermittent small meals throughout the 24-hour period. The graph above represents a 4 day period in the life of a cat. You can see that the meal pattern is more of a grazing type pattern. As we have seen, cats have a stomach that is designed for many small meals spread throughout the day. Restricting food availability to meal times means that the cat eats larger, less frequent meals. Cats adapt their meal size and meal frequency based on the availability of food. Other factors influencing what cats eat and how much they eat, include neophobia and monotony. These are evolutionary behavioural strategies that are common in many species. When first offered a new food, cats can be neophobic. (Neophobia is a fear of new things or experiences.) If they are fed the same diet over a long period they may become bored (the product may be perceived as monotonous). They may then become less neophobic and seek out new food choices (neophilia). Neophobia probably safely establishes the non-toxicity or nutritional adequacy of new food items. The evolutionary basis of monotony is probably to prompt the animal to seek a varied diet to guard against the nutritional inadequacy of any one food item. Neophobia is less evident in cats with a wide experience of different foods, is more evident when the cat is in a new environment and can usually be overcome by repeatedly offering the new food. 06

9 Macronutrient Profile As we have seen, the domestic dog and cat have inherited behavioural strategies that influence when they eat, what they eat and how they eat. In trying to understand the complex feeding behaviour of cats and dogs, WALTHAM was inspired by research from an unusual source insect nutrition! Scientists had developed a nutritional model which they used to explain how insects such as locusts and caterpillars faced with choices of foods containing different amounts of nutrients (e.g. protein and carbohydrate) adjusted their intakes of the foods to end up consuming a particular amount of protein and a particular amount of carbohydrate. They proposed that this balance and amount of nutrients selected by animals represents their intake target and showed that this point is associated with optimal performance. Was this the case for cats and dogs? Canine Preferred Macronutrient Profile Research conducted for dogs, also shows that when given the opportunity, dogs will modify their feeding behaviour so that they get a consistent level of macronutrients. The canine preferred MNP is usually referred to as 30:60:10, meaning 30% of calories from protein, 60% of calories from fat and 10% of calories from carbohydrate. A feeding performance benefit can be found in the shaded blue area of the image below. Dogs eat to obtain energy first and foremost. Macro Nutrient Profile (MNP) is the balance of energy derived from proteins, fats and carbohydrates, which dogs instinctively prefer. 100% PRO 100% CHO 100% FAT image source: Neil Thorneycroft, Mars Petcare, 2010 Chicken (Adult) Pig, Domestic (Adult) PRO FAT CHO 7 3 Adult Dog Target Feeding performance benefit 07

10 Feline Preferred Macronutrient Profile In an extensive series of feeding studies at WALTHAM, the effect of dietary macronutrient profile (the relative amounts of protein, fat and carbohydrate) on the food intake of adult cats was investigated. For these studies, 12 nutritionally-complete diets (6 extruded [dry] and 6 canned [wet]) were specially formulated to achieve a range of macronutrient energy ratios. Cats were offered different choices of the wet foods or the dry foods in order to self-select a diet (macronutrient) composition of their choice. The research revealed strong nutritional regulation of food intake in cats and identified a target intake of approximately 26 g/day protein, 9 g/day fat, and 8 g/day carbohydrate, providing a macronutrient energy composition of 52% protein, 36% fat and 12% carbohydrate (Hewson- Hughes et al. 2011). When provided with food choices that did not allow them to achieve this target intake the cats got as close as they could by adjusting their intakes of the foods. This indicates that cats are well adapted to dealing with a food supply of varying nutritional content by balancing their intake of macronutrients (protein, fat and carbohydrate) through adjusting their intake of different foods. Ongoing work at WALTHAM is investigating the target macronutrient profiles of kittens during growth and queens during gestation and lactation. The blue shaded area in the image below shows where a feeding performance benefit can be obtained for cats. Feline target MNP is usually referred to as 50:40:10, meaning 50% of energy from protein, 40% of energy from fat and 10% of energy from carbohydrate. Obligate carnivores eat to obtain energy first and foremost. Macro Nutrient Profile (MNP) is the balance of energy derived from proteins, fats and carbohydrate, which obligate carnivores instinctively prefer. 100% PRO 100% CHO 100% FAT image source: Neil Thorneycroft, Mars Petcare, 2010 Rabbit, Domestic (Adult) Mouse, Domestic (Adult) PRO FAT CHO 11 7 Adult Cat Target Feeding performance benefit 08

11 Temperature of Food The temperature at which food is presented can make a difference to palatability and intake, depending on the food format and whether the subject is a dog or a cat. Dogs WET FOOD In preference tests, no difference was seen between a diet served at 4 C, 26 C and 42 C. In intake tests, a product served chilled (4 C) did not perform as well as when served at room temperature or body temperature. Cats WET FOOD The heating of low to mid-range products above ambient temperature had a positive impact on their feeding performance. This effect was not seen in premium products. All studies have shown that feeding performance of food offered at 3 C is drastically reduced. Do not offer food straight from the refrigerator. When cats are offered a simultaneous choice of food at room temperature (20 C) and body temperature (37 C) cats ate more of the food at 37 C. However there is no clear benefit to heating food above room temperature. It may not be temperature per se but the development of aroma and flavour through temperature. DRY FOOD The feeding performance of dry food is not altered by the temperature at which it is offered in intake tests. 09

12 Home Made and Commercial Diets There are several factors to be aware of when comparing the benefits of commercially prepared pet foods and home made diets. Firstly, an ideal human diet is not the same as an ideal dog or cat diet. All three species have followed very different evolutionary paths and consequently have different nutritional needs. For example, there are differences in the recommended calcium and phosphorous requirements for each species. There is also a longer growth phase in humans, which means that minor temporary imbalances are not usually significant as there is more opportunity for deficiencies to be corrected over time. Dogs and cats, in contrast, have shorter growth phases. Deficiencies therefore become much more significant (remember that meat/mince alone is not a complete and balanced diet for dogs and puppies). The challenge to create complete and balanced nutrition is more difficult with home made diets. They may be useful in the short term in the nutritional management of food allergy and intolerance where the protein sources and food ingredients need to be limited. However the challenge for the owner is to provide complete and balanced nutrition in the long term, and this is very difficult with home made diets. Most home made diets are incomplete and may impair the health and vitality of pets. They have been linked to increased risk of obesity and other health issues. Home made diets tend to be low in calcium and iron, as well as some vitamins e.g. thiamine. The trend globally is away from home preparation and this is due to benefits such as convenience, disease and parasite control, food safety and nutritional balance issues. 10

13 Difference in Nutrient Composition of home prepared & commercial pet food Home prepared food Cats need Dogs need 3 parts rice 2 parts chicken breast 1 part cooked vegetables 1.5 x more zinc 36 x more vitamin E 10 x more vitamin B 12 x more vitamin E 2 parts rice 1 part steamed fish 2 x more fat 3 x more zinc 11 x more vitamin E 2 x more vitamin B12 2 x more fat 2 x more zinc 2 x more vitamin E 2 x more vitamin B12 image source: Difference in nutrient composition of home prepared and commercial pet food Uncooked meats and other animal products can potentially harbour harmful bacteria, parasites and other organisms. Some common human food ingredients can be toxic to dogs and cats, examples of these include chocolate, grapes, raisins and onions. One way to ensure that all essential nutrient requirements are met is to feed a commercially prepared diet. Wet, dry and semi-moist diets are all carefully designed to provide the right nutrients in the right amounts according to lifestage, be that puppy, kitten, adult or senior. Decades of scientific research and expertise are incorporated into most reputable brands of commercial pet food offering owners a reliable and consistent product of guaranteed quality as well as a high level of safety. 11

14 Feeding Dry or Canned Food Each form of feeding has specific advantages. Often owners make a decision based on convenience and personal preference or previous experience. The following information is helpful in advising owners on the use of different feeding formats. 12

15 Dry Food Advantages Higher caloric density. Dry pet foods contain approximately four times the calories of wet food when compared by weight. This allows smaller portions with more calories to be fed With lower amounts needing be consumed, dry food offers good value for money and is economical Can contain active ingredients, eg Green Lipped Mussel (SGLMP), Colostrum, Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) May improve dental hygiene through chewing and grinding (abrasive effect of the kibble) Long shelf-life (depending on preservative/antioxidant system) Convenient to use and store Low odour and not messy Wet Food Advantages Reflects diet in the wild (MNP, moisture) Long shelf life for canned and tray foods due to how the food is cooked Preserved using heat treatment. Food is sterilised through the cooking process and there is no need to add preservatives to the product Less energy density than dry food so allows a larger meal to be fed for the same number of calories. This may be useful for weight loss or healthy weight maintenance Provides variety to a pet s diet in terms of flavour and texture Easy to chew texture, particularly for kittens/puppies and senior pets High palatability, ideal for fussier eaters High meat and water content which resembles the animal s natural diet Extra water content, which is especially good in Summer, and good for lower urinary tract health of cats and small breed dogs 13

16 Diet and Water Turnover Sometimes canned food is dismissed as expensive water. While it is true that the moisture content of canned foods is far higher than for dry foods, there are some valid reasons to include canned food in a pet s diet. Let's examine the differences in urinary output when a dry versus a canned food is fed. Let's also take a look at how much water a pet voluntarily drinks when fed diets of differing moisture contents. Optimal Water Turnover in Dogs Daily urine volume produced by small dogs Total water intake of small dogs fed diets of different moisture content image source: Advance Technical Manual, ml/day dry food wet food 120ml/day water intake g % * 23% 52% 73% diet moisture content % voluntary - drunk obligate - dietary * = significantly higher (p<0.001) than hydration levels graph source: Advance Technical Manual, 2008 As you can see, there is quite a difference in the amount of urine produced by a dog being fed a dry diet compared to a dog being fed a canned or wet diet. The high moisture content of wet diets helps to promote optimal water turnover reducing the risk of pets developing lower urinary tract disease. This is especially important in cats and small dogs, and we will examine this in more detail in a later section. Feeding at least 25% of the daily calories as wet food reduces the risk of calcium oxalate stone formation in small breed dogs. It is interesting to note the significant difference in total moisture consumed (both via water drunk and moisture in the diet) when a pet is fed a low versus a high moisture diet. 14

17 Optimal Water Turnover in Cats In a study published in 2011, WALTHAM investigated the influence of dietary moisture content on urine parameters and total daily fluid intake in healthy adult cats using nutritionally standardised diets that varied only in moisture content (Buckley et al. 2011). In this study, adult cats were fed a dry diet hydrated to 6%, 25%, 53% or 73% moisture. Cats fed the highest moisture diet produced urine with a lower specific gravity, than the other three diets indicating a urinary dilution effect (Buckley et al. 2011). Calcium oxalate Relative Super Saturation was also significantly lower in cats fed this diet when compared with the 6.3% moisture diet mean urine specific gravity % 25% 50% 73% dietary moisture level % image source: WALTHAM, 2011 A denotes non-significant difference B denotes significant difference Total fluid intake (combined dietary and voluntarily drunk water) was also significantly increased in cats fed the high moisture diet. Therefore, when cats were fed diets of differing moisture contents, favourable urinary parameters that help to combat lower urinary tract disease were seen when the diet was in excess of 70% moisture total water intake (ml) % 25% 53% 72% dietary moisture level % image source: WALTHAM, 2011 A denotes non-significant difference B denotes significant difference 15

18 The Influence of Pet Food Formats When compared by weight, wet commercial pet foods contain approximately a quarter of the number of calories of dry pet foods, due to the increased moisture content. A typical wet food contains approximately 80kcal (70-100) per 100g, whereas a typical dry food contains around 350 kcal ( ) per 100g, although there are variations between individual products. The correct portion size of dry foods may appear to be very small to the owner, causing them to feed more calories than required, particularly for cats and small breed dogs. The risk of overfeeding wet foods is reduced due to their lower caloric density. When considering the energy requirements of a 10kg dog, 20g of extra dry food is equivalent to an extra 15% of its daily calorie requirement, whereas an extra 20g of wet food is only equivalent to a 4% excess. 400g wet = approximately 400 kcal wet 100g dry = approximately 400 kcal dry Energy balance wet wet wet image source: A comparison of energy density between dry & wet pet foods. WALTHAM, 2009 There is also evidence that feeding cats a diet with a high moisture content can help reduce the risk of weight gain. A WALTHAM study demonstrated that cats fed a diet with a high moisture content gained less weight, per calorie consumed, compared with cats fed the same diet with a lower water content. This effect was attributed to an increase in the cats voluntary physical activity. Approximately 40% of dogs are overweight or obese. Replacing some of their dry diet with wet food as part of their meal mix is one way to reduce calories consumed per meal and therefore combat the growing obesity epidemic. 16

19 The Case For Mixed Feeding We have seen how beneficial wet food is in terms of maintaining urinary tract health in cats and small breed dogs by promoting optimal water balance, as well as helping to reduce the risk of overfeeding to combat obesity. It is also worth noting that our Super Premium products are manufactured in Australia for Australian pets that live within Australia s unique environment. Since most of Australia experiences consistently warm weather, it is advantageous for our pets to have some high moisture foods included in their diet. Mixed feeding provides taste and texture variety for the pet. In addition, puppies and kittens may benefit from a mixed regime to help develop broad feeding preferences by reducing the occurrence of neophobia and monotony. Further, mixed feeding may potentially relieve the urge to seek different foods or chew materials around the home. Pet owners associate enjoyment with wet diets, and they satisfy a desire to pamper. Wet diets have 50% more positive consumer feedback than dry diets. Incorporating dry food in the diet allows for promotion of better oral hygiene through mechanical abrasion, which is not an effect achieved through feeding of wet food alone. Wet and dry diets are equally nutritious and in order to deliver the best of both worlds, they should be included in a pet s feeding regime. 17

20 How Much to Feed As we have discussed previously, all nutrients in a quality complete and balanced pet food are balanced to the total energy content of the food. Therefore, if we feed the pet a product that is suited for its life-stage and we feed it sufficient to meet its energy needs, then we will also be providing all of the necessary nutrients for that particular life stage. Remember that supplementing with other nutrients such as calcium may be counterproductive as it can lead to imbalances. An excess of calcium in the diet can lead to corresponding skeletal problems. 18

21 How Feeding Guides are Calculated Pet food feeding guides are based on the calories provided by the food, and should be used as the foundation for estimating how much food to offer. However the exact amount fed must be tailored to the individual pet requirements. Feeding guides are calculated by dividing the pet s daily energy requirement by the energy density of the food. A typical dry food contains between 350 and 450 kcal per 100g. A typical wet food contains between 75 and 100kcal per 100g. For most reputable pet food companies, the energy densities of their pet foods are available from customer carelines or on websites. Step 1 Step 2 Calculate pet's energy needs per day from bodyweight (kcal) Determine energy density of the food (kcal/100g diet) Pet energy needs Energy density of food x 100 = Daily amount of food per day (g) image source: How feeding guides are calculated. WALTHAM, 2009 Example: A 34kg dog eating ADVANCE which contains 350kcal/100g Step 1 Step 2 Adult dog's energy needs = 95 kcal x BWT 0.75 = 95 kcal x Energy content of the food = 1338 kcal/day = 350 kcal/100g 1338 kcal/day 350 kcal/100g x 100 = 382g/day image source: MARS Petcare Academy, 2011 The actual amount fed can be increased or decreased with time by monitoring the pet's body condition and performing a Condition Score. Weight gain means the volume of food may need to be cut back, likewise if the dog is losing weight the ration will need to be increased. We can calculate how much feeding will cost per day, and how long a bag of pet food will last. Say, for example, that a 15 kg bag costs $78. The 15kg bag will last: Size of the bag of pet food (g) Amount to feed the pet (g) = Number of days feeding g 384g = 39 days Cost of bag Number of days feeding = Cost per day $78 39 = $2/day 19

22 How To Use Feeding Guides To maintain a healthy bodyweight pet owners should feed a nutritionally complete and balanced diet and follow the recommended feeding guides. Owners should feed according to the ideal weight of the pet, rather than the current weight. A veterinarian can provide advice on the ideal weight for an individual pet. Feeding guides have been carefully calculated, but as the name suggests, they are a guide and feeding amounts may need to be adjusted depending on the specific pet s energy requirements. Different dietary formats have different energy densities, therefore, it is important to weigh food and not estimate the quantity. A pet s weight and body condition should be monitored regularly, and any necessary adjustments made in order to ensure that the pet stays in ideal body condition. If treats are fed, an owner should ensure that the energy supplied contributes no more than 10% to 15% of total daily calories. If a pet s energy requirements change, for example, due to illness or injury, the food should be adjusted accordingly. Weight of dog (kg) Amount of food (g) image source: Example of a typical feeding guide for dry dog food. WALTHAM,

23 Responsible Treating of Pets Treats provide an important mechanism for strengthening the bond between a pet and owner and are frequently used as a motivating tool for training. In addition, some treats have positive effects in areas such as oral health and joint health. The energy consumption from treats contributes to a pets daily energy intake and therefore must be accounted for within the daily calorie intake. In addition, many snacks and treats do not deliver all the essential nutrients a pet requires. It is, therefore, important that the energy intake from snacks and treats does not exceed more than 10% of daily energy requirements. Feeding in excess of this amount may result in nutritional deficiencies. Another option for healthy treating is to use a portion of the pets normal dry ration as treats during training or play. Some owners give table scraps or human snacks as treats to their pets. This can lead to problems as human snacks are typically more calorie dense than pet snacks and treats. Food type kcal %? Daily Equivalent kcal Allowance? intake for an average woman Equivalent to human snacks Cat (4kg) 1 Egg Cat 1 Tin Tuna Dog (15kg) 1 Bag Crisps Dog 2 Sausages Dog 2 Biscuits image source: Impact of feeding human foods on daily calorie intake of pets. WALTHAM,

24 Dietary Upsets Diarrhoea is not an uncommon problem in dogs and cats. While diet can be a contributing factor (and can also be used in the management of diarrhoea), often pet owners find it easy to blame the food. So it s useful to know a little more about diarrhoea! How Does Diarrhoea Occur? Large quantities of water enter the gastrointestinal tract every day, through a combination of drinking water, water in food and secretions from within the gut. Approximately 95% of this water is reabsorbed into the body from the colon. A relatively small decrease in absorption of this water or an increase in secretion from within the gut can easily result in increased water in the colon. In fact just a small change in the water content of faeces from about 70% (normal faeces) to 80% (very loose faeces) can result in a very marked change in stool form and diarrhoea. 22

25 Acute Diarrhoea The causes of acute (sudden onset) diarrhoea in the dog can be varied. Dietary indiscretion such as scavenging, overfeeding or sudden dietary change is probably the major cause of acute diarrhoea in the dog. These episodes generally resolve in a short space of time and do not cause significant dehydration, usually just a sore tummy and diarrhoea overnight. In the dog (as in humans), viral infections are also an important cause of acute diarrhoea. The diarrhoea is usually severe enough to warrant veterinary attention. In young dogs (and even in adult dogs) worms and other parasites are also an important and often forgotten cause of diarrhoea. Along with veterinary treatment, acute diarrhoea is typically managed by providing a short period (24 hours) of dietary rest (water only no food) followed by the introduction of a bland diet such as a diet recommended by your vet. Chronic Diarrhoea Successful management of chronic (long-standing, recurring) diarrhoea requires a veterinary diagnosis and specific therapy for the condition. A detailed history will provide information about the duration and severity of the diarrhoea; faecal characteristics; appetite; bodyweight changes; and predisposing factors including breed, age, diet and environment. Practical Suggestions Diarrhoea occurs commonly in cats and dogs when changing diets. Any time a new food is introduced, it is wise to do this gradually over a period of 4-7 days. This is recommended when the brand of food that is fed is changed, when a different variety within a range is fed or when there is a complete change in dietary form (such as canned to dry). Gradually reduce the old diet and increase the new diet. By being patient with the change, any chance of upset to the gut is minimised. As an animal grows up, their ability to digest milk can be compromised. Giving milk in these situations can lead to diarrhoea and is best avoided. A good quality puppy or kitten food provides all of the animal s calcium needs, without the need for the addition of milk. Acute diarrhoea will often settle after a day or two of resting the gut and providing only water or broth to drink (or a specially designed veterinary diet). A Veterinarian should investigate diarrhoea that: Continues for more than a few days Involves dehydration Includes loss of energy or other signs Faecal quality will often improve when an animal is fed a diet with greater digestibility. Adverse food reactions do occur and are best managed by a Veterinarian. 23

26 Transitioning a Pet to New Food Although we have a full money back guarantee on palatability on our Super Premium ranges, it can be helpful to understand some techniques that can increase the chance that a pet will happily transition to a new brand, and reduce the chance of food refusal. This will result in happier retailers and customers and increased sales. Whenever a dietary change is made, the transition should occur slowly over a 4 day period. Ideally this should occur when the brand of food is changed, the variety within a range is changed or a new format is fed such as the introduction of canned food. Example of how to transition the food: DAY 1 25% NEW 75% OLD DAY 3 DAY 5 DAY 7 50% NEW 50% OLD 75% NEW 25% OLD 100% NEW This gradual transitioning from the old to the new diet, allows the pet to become accustomed to the new diet s flavour and texture, and allows the pet s digestive system a chance to adapt to different ingredients and nutrient levels. Gradual food transition significantly increases acceptance by a pet of a new diet. Other techniques that can be used to increase acceptance of a new diet are: Add some treats that the pet likes to the meal (ensuring that the calories from the non-main meal make up no more than 10%) Warm the meal up slightly 24

27 Lifestage Nutrition for Dogs Now that we understand more about the nutritional needs of pets, as well as how energy requirements are calculated and how feeding guides are designed, we can take a closer look at feeding dogs for their different lifestages. We will review the stages of life defined by: Adult Maintenance Pregnancy Lactation Weaning Growth Senior We will also take a look at the healthy weight maintenance of dogs and cats at the end of this module. 25

28 Adult Maintenance During the period of adult maintenance the dietary aim is to maintain optimal health and activity and promote peak condition in the animal. As we have seen, dogs are diverse with various breeds of different body types and adult bodyweights ranging from 1kg to 115kg. Remember in our first module, we examined adult dog energy requirements for 3 levels of activity - low, medium and high: Low Activity (Less than 1 hour per day, e.g. walking on the lead): Energy = 95W 0.75 Moderate Activity (1-3 hours per day, e.g. playing off the lead): Energy = 110W 0.75 High Activity (Over 3 hours per day, e.g. working dogs, agility): Energy = 125W 0.75 In the past, the standard maintenance diet was based on the medium activity level, however it has now moved to the low activity level. Putting pets needs first, MARS has re-evaluated their approach to feeding in light of the increasing prevalence of obesity among the global pet population. The Reduced Feeding Guidelines (rfg) are based on scientific results from WALTHAM, as well as input from other nutrition experts and scientific influencers. The consensus is that the lifestyle of today s pets requires fewer calories than we (and others) have historically recommended. Therefore, we at MARS will be leading the industry by implementing a 15% reduction in adult maintenance dog daily calorie recommendations. Globally, we at MARS are taking a united front to reformulate our products and brands across the world, based on pets needs first, so that they receive recommended nutrient levels while consuming fewer calories. To ensure the levels of nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, are maintained despite fewer calories, the WALTHAM nutrient guidelines have been updated to ensure sufficient nutrient intake with a lower calorie intake. These are no longer a guide, but are now part of the MARS Nutrition Standard. The true energy requirement of adult dogs may vary as much as 25% more or 25% less than that recommended. This is due to the wide variation between dogs because of breed, age, activity levels and physiological state and environmental factors. Variations in body composition, body shape and coat type are complicating factors in determining energy requirements, particularly for the larger breeds. For example, as discussed in the first module, feeding studies have shown that Newfoundlands need less than the predicted amounts of energy from the equation whereas Great Danes need more. This is despite these two breeds being of comparable bodyweight. If a dog requires more than the average, this will be clearly indicated by the general condition of the dog. If the dog requires less than the average, it will tend to put on weight when fed the calculated amount. 26

29 Pregnancy An understanding of the physical changes that occur during pregnancy in the bitch allows the development of a sensible feeding plan. If we assume that the bitch is in normal health and on a good diet, her nutritional needs during early pregnancy will not differ from the non-pregnant or adult maintenance state. For the first six weeks of pregnancy there is no change in the energy requirements of the bitch despite development of uterine and mammary tissue. This is because there is better efficiency in utilising food and because the uterus is small in relation to the size of the dog. The average duration of pregnancy in the bitch is 63 days (9 weeks), but her energy requirements do not increase appreciably until the last third of gestation when most foetal weight gain occurs. It is important to avoid overfeeding in early pregnancy since this will lead to the laying down of excess fat and may predispose the bitch to problems during whelping. A gradual increase in food allowance over the second half of gestation is all that is required, increasing the amount of food by 15% each week from the fifth week onwards. Therefore, during the week before whelping the bitch should be eating 60% more than when she was mated. Although her requirements do increase, she will often find it difficult to eat large amounts of food at the one time, as the enlarged uterus takes up more space in the abdomen, reducing the capacity of the digestive tract. It is therefore important to feed a diet that is: Concentrated (with respect to energy and nutrient density) so that she doesn t have to consume a large volume to meet her energy and nutrient needs Palatable to encourage her to feed Highly digestible Provided that the diet is balanced, her increased requirement for nutrients will be met as she eats more balanced food to meet her energy needs. In other words, the more food she eats to satisfy her energy needs the more proportional increases in protein, calcium and other nutrients she consumes. Energy dense foods such as performance or growth formula Super Premium foods are ideal for feeding during gestation. 27

30 Therefore, additional supplementation with vitamins or minerals is not required and could actually be harmful by unbalancing the already balanced diet. Supplementation may actually increase the risk of it occurring as well as risking developmental abnormalities in the puppies. Feeding a good quality complete and balanced diet is recommended and supplementation is to be avoided unless recommended by a veterinarian. Energy requirements of the bitch through Gestation to Whelping % of normal energy requirement In late pregnancy it may be necessary to increase the frequency of feeding, especially in the last two weeks to allow for the increased volume of food needed and the smaller space in the stomach (particularly if the litter is large). gestation whelping The ideal weight of the bitch at whelping is 10 to 15% above her pre-breeding weight. 28

31 Lactation Lactation represents the most nutritionally demanding life stage for the bitch. After whelping she must eat enough to support both herself and her rapidly growing puppies. At peak lactation (three to four weeks after whelping) she may need to eat anything up to four times her normal adult maintenance allowance. If she can t eat the amount of food needed to supply her energy needs it means the bitch will nurse her young at the expense of her own body reserves. She will lose weight and condition. The food allowance should be increased steadily throughout the first four weeks of lactation. The food needs to be highly palatable, highly digestible and concentrated. The food should be fed in several small meals or offered ad libitum (free access) and food should also be made available throughout the night. An unlimited supply of drinking water should also be provided to cater for milk production. Energy dense diets, with good protein levels such as performance or growth Super Premium formulas are ideal for feeding lactating bitches. Energy requirements of the bitch through Gestation to Lactation 400 % of normal energy requirement gestation whelping lactation 29

32 Stage of Development, from Newborn to Adult The development of puppies can be divided into four distinct stages: the neonatal period, the transitional period, the socialisation period and the juvenile period. These developmental periods are followed by adulthood. Let s take a look at some of the major developmental milestones achieved during these stages, and then we will review a puppy s dietary needs. The Neonatal Period (birth to 2 weeks of age) Through this period puppies are relatively helpless, relying entirely on their mother. At this stage, the majority of a puppy s time is spent either sleeping or eating. Puppies eyes and ears are closed when they are born, but they are sensitive to touch and smell. The eyes open at around 10 days old but puppies do not respond to light and moving stimuli until the transitional period (two to three weeks of age). Neonatal puppies have limited movement and are not yet able to stand and support the weight of their body. They have a reduced ability to regulate their body temperature and so rely on their mother and littermates for body heat. During this period puppies are only able to feed by suckling from the mother. It is essential that puppies consume colostrums in the mother s milk within the first 24 hours after birth, this provides essential antibodies. Handling puppies for short periods during the first two weeks of age has been shown to be beneficial to their behaviour later in life. The Transitional Period (1 to 2 weeks of age) This stage lasts for one week and is a time of significant change for a puppy. Over this time the eyes begin to respond to light and movement. The ear canals open at approximately eighteen to twenty days of age. Movement skills improve and puppies start to walk and stand. Social behaviours, such as growling, tail wagging and play fighting begin to develop over this period. Lapping and chewing behaviours also begin to develop and puppies start to show some interest in trying their mother s food, although all of their nutrition still comes from the mother s milk. As with the neonatal period, regular handling of puppies for a few minutes each day has been shown to be beneficial to their behaviour later in life. 30

33 The Socialisation Period (3 to 12 weeks of age) The experiences encountered during this stage, negative or positive, can have profound effects on the behaviour of a dog later in life. Over this time puppies are more sensitive to socialisation. Similar to the transitional stage this period is full of changes, particularly in puppies social behaviour. Many behavioural changes occur at this stage. The most notable of these is the appearance of play signals that increase in complexity throughout this period. Investigative begins to increase and puppies will readily approach new people and situations with interest, willingly interacting with humans. The socialisation period is particularly influential in the development of a stable temperament in the adult dog. Many social and behavioural problems observed in adult dogs are believed to be linked with poor treatment or insufficient interaction during this stage of puppy development. The milk teeth begin to appear at three or four weeks of age and puppies increasingly eat solid food. As they make the transition onto solid food, puppies need access to drinking water. The mother will gradually begin to discourage her puppies from suckling and the litter will be fully weaned by six to eight weeks old. The best time for puppies to leave their mother and littermates and go to a new home is around eight weeks of age. Being separated from its mother earlier than this may be detrimental as a puppy may not be fully weaned and will also miss out on important social development time with its mother and littermates. Rehoming later than eight weeks may mean that the new owners miss out on important socialisation time. The Juvenile Period (12 weeks to adulthood) By the time the juvenile period is reached, most of the major changes have taken place. A puppy, however, is still growing and physiological changes are occurring that may not be apparent to the owner. All of the sense organs are fully developed at the onset of this stage, and the rate of growth slows. The milk teeth are replaced by adult teeth and this is usually complete by seven months of age. Puppies have similar motor skills to adults by the age of six months, although this can vary according to the individual dog and their environment. Socialisation should continue and a training programme should be formalised. The length of the juvenile period varies according to breed size. Smaller breeds reach adulthood at around one year. Large and giant breed dogs mature more slowly and are not considered fully adult until 18 to 24 months. 31

34 Weaning For the first few weeks of life all the nutritional needs of the puppies are met by their mother s milk and no supplementary feeding is necessary, unless the milk supply is inadequate. A puppy that does not receive antibodies from his mother s milk immediately after birth has impaired immune function, making it much less able to fight off and survive infections. Weaning begins between two and three weeks of age when a puppy will start to show an interest in its mother s food and lap water from a bowl. Puppies can be offered finely chopped wet puppy food, dry food that has been softened with water or a specific weaning product such as a complete and balanced puppy porridge. Foods offered during weaning need to be specially formulated for puppies. Offering small amounts of food during the early stages of weaning helps a puppy s digestive system adapt from milk to solid food and reduces the demands on the mother. It is essential that puppies are offered puppy food by four weeks of age as the nutrient content and the quantity of milk are no longer appropriate to support healthy puppy growth if fed exclusively. Puppies can be weaned onto a varied diet or a single, complete food between 6-8 weeks of age, after which they are ready to leave their mother. Puppies should have their food allowance divided into four or five meals a day until about 10 weeks of age. This is to help allow them to take in enough food for growth. Their stomach capacity is small, and therefore they require frequent meals. Then three meals a day should be provided until they have reached approximately 50% of their expected adult bodyweight. At this stage (usually around 6 months of age), the daily food allowance can be gradually incorporated into one or two meals per day depending on the size of the pup. Ad libitum feeding (or free access to food) is not recommended for growing dogs since they tend to overeat and this can lead to obesity or skeletal developmental abnormalities. The following graph gives an indication of the frequency of feeding for puppies of different ages. The graph demonstrates that puppies of smaller breeds can change to adult foods sooner than puppies of larger breeds because of the shorter growing phase in these small breeds. Feeding a puppy number of meals per day toy adult food small adult food breed size med adult food large adult food giant adult food 2 to 4 4 to 6 6 to 9 12 to to to 12 age (months) 32

35 Growth How a puppy is fed is critical for future health. For growing animals the diet has to supply all the nutrients required for maintenance, as well as cater for the rapid growth and development of this active life stage. Puppies have higher demands for: Energy is provided in the diet through Protein, Fat and Carbohydrate and is expressed either in kilocalories (kcal) or kilojoules (kj). Fat delivers approximately twice as much energy per gram as protein and carbohydrate. Dogs and cats need energy to maintain normal metabolic function. DHA There is evidence the omega 3 fatty acids Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) are required for the normal development of the brain and nervous system of the puppy as it grows in the womb. Analysis of the mother s milk has shown the presence of DHA which is known to be beneficial in the maturation of the nervous system in the growing animal. For these reasons, it is essential that puppies receive a supply of DHA, and its precursor EPA, from birth to adulthood. The omega 6 fatty acids Linoleic Acid (LA) and Arachadonic Acid (AA) are also important. Puppies need a supply of LA to develop and maintain a healthy skin and coat. Although adult dogs can synthesise sufficient quantities of AA from dietary LA, puppies are less efficient at this process and so also need a dietary supply of AA. Protein (which must be digestible and is particularly important during the rapid growth phase up to 14 weeks of age.) As well as ensuring the puppy receives an adequate supply of total protein it is important that they receive the right amino acids in the right amounts. There are 10 essential amino acids for puppies which mean that they must be supplied in the diet because the puppy cannot synthesise them. Calcium and Phosphorous due to their role in the active formation of bones and teeth during the growth phase. Zinc plays a role in skin health and protein metabolism. If puppies do not have an appropriate zinc intake their growth is impaired. Iron. During growth, puppies are manufacturing large numbers of red blood cells therefore their need for iron is greater than that for adult dogs. If a puppy is not receiving enough iron, symptoms such as poor growth, lethargy, weakness and diarrhoea may be observed. Vitamin D. One of the major roles of Vitamin D is in the formation of healthy bones. Too little vitamin D results in rickets, characterised by bowed, extremely painful limbs. Unlike humans, dogs cannot convert vitamin D to the active form using sunlight and are, therefore, reliant on the diet to provide this nutrient. 33

36 Vitamin A is required for healthy vision, as well as protein synthesis and is, therefore, critical for animals during growth. A deficiency of vitamin A in puppies has also been shown to result in deafness. Both the absolute amounts and balance of nutrients such as calcium and phosphorus are critical for the growing puppy and dietary mistakes at this stage can have damaging effects on skeletal development, which may be long lasting and potentially irreversible. Water is the most vital nutrient for life and is a major constituent of an animal s body, making up 75% of the body mass at birth. Puppies receive the water they need via the mother s milk prior to weaning and, after this time, should be given access to fresh drinking water in a suitable container appropriate for their size. If puppies do not receive an adequate water intake they will show signs of dehydration. A puppy that is fed a diet without sufficient calcium will develop soft bones that are easily fractured, whereas a large breed puppy that is fed too much calcium is likely to develop joint problems. Overfeeding of puppies is a common issue that can have long term consequences for the mature adult. There is now good evidence that keeping large breed dogs trim from the time they are puppies can increase lifespan by an average of two years and markedly reduce the incidence of arthritis. It is much better to prevent obesity than to cure it. Puppies need approximately 2 x more protein than adult dogs need. 3 x more Ca and P each day than adults. To meet their high nutritional demands, puppies must eat large amounts of food relative to their size and try to fit it all into tiny stomachs. Food should therefore be divided into several small meals to compensate for this. A suitable diet for growth should be: Nutritionally balanced. Highly palatable. Highly digestible. 34

37 Optimal vs Maximal Growth At WALTHAM, studies have shown that restricting feeding to about 85% (compared to ad libitum feeding) results in optimal growth and body composition in dogs. So feeding guides should be followed, but more importantly the health and body condition of growing dogs needs to be regularly assessed to monitor their progress and allow any necessary dietary adjustments to be made. This is best done by regular veterinary examination. The optimal rate of growth for particular breeds of dogs is a controversial research area. The following approximate rates of growth for different sizes of dog are recommended. Percentage of adult weight Age in months Small & medium breeds mature weight <25kg Large breeds mature weight 25-45kg Giant breeds mature weight >45kg 1 9% 7% 6% 2 22% 20% 14% 3 37% 35% 26% 4 52% 48% 38% 5 61% 57% 49% 6 70% 65% 60% 9 83% 77% 70% 12 95% 88% 80% 15 Adult 94% 90% 18 Adult 100% 100% 21 Adult Adult Adult image source: Recommendations for growth rates of various sizes of dogs. Adapted from NRC (2006). (1kg = 2.2lbs). WALTHAM,

38 Growth Rates of Puppies Different sizes of dogs grow at different rates and become adult at different times. A toy breed dog is fully grown in less than one year whereas a giant breed dog can take almost two years to achieve its adult size. All dogs grow rapidly during the first few months before slowing to a reduced rate of growth. Even after a puppy reaches its adult bodyweight further physiological developments continue for some time bodyweight (kg) age (months) 24 newfoundland labrador retriever cocker spaniel west highland white terrier yorkshire terrier For example, a Yorkshire Terrier may reach maturity at around nine months, whereas a Labrador Retriever and Newfoundland are likely to attain their adult bodyweights at 16 months and two years, respectively. Individual variations occur due to a variety of factors, either intrinsic (for example, male dogs are usually heavier than females of the same breed) or extrinsic (husbandry and nutrition). 36

39 Energy Requirements Although energy requirements vary with breed, newly weaned puppies require approximately twice as much energy per kg bodyweight compared with adult dogs. This reduces to 1.6 times the energy when puppies reach 50% of their adult bodyweight and 1.2 times the energy when puppies reach 80% of their adult bodyweight. This can often mean that the same amount of food is offered, despite the puppy significantly increasing in size. For example, a Labrador puppy with an expected adult bodyweight of 30kg requires the same number of calories at both 6 months and 9 months of age despite weighing 3.5kg more. To cater for the requirements of puppies at different stages of growth and for different sized breeds, our range of Super Premium pet foods feature a number of different puppy products. Each brand publishes a chart that outlines when different sized puppies have reached maturity, and therefore when they can be transitioned to an adult formulation. Puppy Feeding Chart 2 mths old 6 mths old 9 mths old 12 mths old 15 mths old 18 mths old 21 mths old 5 yrs old 6 yrs old 8 yrs old toy breeds (< 5kg) small breeds (5-10kg) medium breeds (10-25kg) large breeds (25-45kg) giant breeds (>45kg) 2 mths old growth stage growth stage growth stage growth stage growth stage 6 mths old 9 mths old 12 mths old 15 mths old 18 mths old 21 mths old adult adult adult adult adult 5 yrs old giant 6 yrs 8 yrs old old medium medium small, toy senior senior senior senior senior graph source: ADVANCE Technical Manual, 2008 All puppies grow very rapidly in the early stages and by five to six months of age, most breeds will have reached about 50% of their mature adult weight. Large and giant breeds will remain on a growth diet far longer than small and medium breeds. Products designed specially for large breed growth feature a carefully controlled calcium to phosphorus ratio for proper bone and teeth development, and restricted calorie and fat levels to assist in optimal development. One of the most common causes of nutritional issues in puppies is switching to adult diets before puppies are fully mature. 37

40 Importance of Variety Ensuring that a puppy is fed a variety of different flavours and types of food can be beneficial as it may help prevent fussy eaters when adult. A varied diet can be comprised of different food formats (wet, dry or semi-moist), flavours or textures. When fed correctly wet, dry and semi-moist puppy diets are all carefully designed to provide the right nutrients in the right amounts. Exposure to variety early in life can result in dogs being more accepting of different diets when adult and can help to prevent an adverse response if a diet change is required. Treats are particularly useful for training, but due to the risks of overfeeding, and nutritional imbalances their use must be carefully controlled. No more than 10% of the calories in a puppy s diet should come from dog treats which must be appropriate for their age. It is also essential to adjust the amount of main meal fed accordingly when feeding treats, to ensure the recommended daily calorie intake is not exceeded. The use of human foods should be avoided due to the risk of nutritional imbalances. 38

41 Senior Dogs Generally, dogs are considered to be geriatric once they have reached the final third of their anticipated lifespan. It is fair to say that larger breed dogs age more quickly and their life spans are shorter than smaller breed dogs. For example, a 6 year old Great Dane may be considered senior, while a Maltese Terrier may be considered senior only once it reaches 8 to 10 years of age. The aim of feeding elderly but otherwise healthy animals is to slow or prevent the progression of changes associated with ageing and to maintain a good quality of life. Old age is unfortunately often accompanied by disease, such as chronic kidney failure, arthritis or heart disease, and dietary management is an important component of therapy. There is also a tendency towards obesity in older dogs and dental health is sometimes neglected. Good nutrition and regular veterinary attention can help prevent and manage these problems. In humans ageing is associated with a gradual decline in energy needs (about 20% less energy than the maintenance requirements of a young adult of the same weight). This decline in energy requirement appears to be due to reduced activity and a reduction in lean body tissue (muscle mass). Similarly, ageing dogs exhibit an approximately 20% decline in maintenance energy requirements and a decrease in lean body mass which echoes that of ageing humans. There is no doubt that many older dogs sleep more, prefer shorter walks and are generally less active. Although individual dogs may have increased energy requirements, it is clear that many senior dogs are at risk of obesity unless the energy provided by food is reduced according to their needs. Since it appears that older dogs digest food as well as younger dogs, calculation of their energy needs is relatively straightforward and should be based on requirements that are 20% less than those of the younger adult. 39

42 Historically, there has been a belief that reducing protein intake in older animals will relieve "stress" on their kidneys and may help to prevent or slow progression of kidney disease. More recent research has shown that this theory cannot be supported. Whereas older dogs have a higher incidence of kidney disease than younger dogs, not all older animals will develop kidney failure. The routine use of protein- restricted diets in all geriatric dogs is therefore not necessary unless kidney function is impaired. Very low protein diets may actually be associated with a risk of protein malnutrition and poor palatability. In general, healthy older dogs should have diets based on their individual needs, which will be related to bodyweight, health status, condition and physical activity. As a rule, protein sources for older dogs should be highly digestible and of high biological value. A similar increase in vitamin E intake may also be beneficial since this is an important antioxidant nutrient that may help to combat oxidative stress, which is thought to contribute to the ageing process. The routine use of protein-restricted diets in all geriatric dogs is not necessary unless kidney function is impaired. 40

43 Lifestage Nutrition for Cats As we have seen, cats have evolved as strict carnivores. Their diet is typically high in protein and low in carbohydrate. In addition, they need a number of nutrients found only in animal tissues including taurine, pre-formed vitamin A and arachidonic acid. Cats are, therefore, regarded as obligate carnivores since they are dependent on a supply of at least some animalderived nutrients in their diet. They cannot be made into vegetarians! Cats have evolved with teeth designed for cutting and tearing, and they have a relatively short gut length, so they need food that is easily digested. 41

44 As cats have a high protein requirement, it is not appropriate to feed them dog food. They require cat food that has been specifically formulated with their higher protein requirement in mind, plus the essential nutrients that they need from animal derived sources. Adult Maintenance Adult maintenance is considered to be the base line requirements that apply to all cats except those subjected to additional stresses such as growth, pregnancy or lactation, high levels of activity, or extremes of environmental temperature. During the period of adult maintenance the dietary aim is to maintain optimal health and activity and promote peak condition in the animal. As we have seen, there is a formula that calculates the daily energy requirement directly from the bodyweight. Remember in our first module, we examined energy requirements in terms of the equation: E = 77.6W (Where E = energy requirements and W = bodyweight in kg) This equation was updated recently, in light of the of the increasing prevalence of obesity among the global pet population. Putting the pets needs first, rfg and MPENS also apply to feline nutrition, and we are implementing around a 5% reduction in adult maintenance cat daily calorie recommendations while ensuring the levels of nutrients are maintained. Pregnancy Cats have a gestation period of around 64 days (9 to 9.5 weeks) give or take a few days. Unlike dogs and most other mammals, where most weight gain occurs in the last third of gestation, pregnant queens start to eat more and gain weight within a week of conception. By the end of the third week of gestation, the pregnant queen will have gained almost 20% of the extra weight she will carry at term. However, the rate of weight gain peaks towards the end of the second trimester of pregnancy and slows down slightly thereafter. At term, her total weight gain is dependent on litter size, but a queen with a single kitten will have gained about 32% of her pre-mating weight and a queen carrying four kittens will have increased her weight by about 39%. Following parturition (giving birth), only about 40% of this extra weight is lost and the remaining 60% is lost during the course of lactation. This unusual pattern of bodyweight gain in early pregnancy is thought to be due to the laying down of fat and protein reserves to be mobilised in late pregnancy and lactation. 42

45 Throughout pregnancy, food intake of the queen rises continuously to support her extra weight gain and peaks at around seven to eight weeks of gestation. The food allowance may be gradually increased from the beginning of a successful mating and since cats rarely overeat an ad libitum feeding regimen is perfectly acceptable. Voluntary intake may drop slightly just before and immediately after parturition, then she will eat more and more to meet the increased demands of lactation. The ideal food to feed during pregnancy should be designed to meet these requirements by being highly digestible. This will provide sufficient energy without increasing bulk, as if the litter is large, the space occupied by the uterus may be so great that she can't physically eat enough. Many adult foods are specifically formulated to manage urinary tract health and prevent the development of Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease. The foods do this partly by affecting the acidity of the urine that the cat produces. This formulation, while suitable for the healthy adult cat, is not suitable for the pregnant or lactating queen, as it can interfere with the skeletal development of the foetal kittens. A Super Premium Kitten formula can be offered to the queen from the time of mating and will provide all the required nutrition in an easily digestible and concentrated form. Lactation Lactation represents the most nutritionally demanding life stage for the queen. She must eat enough to support both herself and, via her milk, her litter of rapidly growing kittens. At birth kittens weigh between 85g and 120g and there can be from one to eight kittens in a litter. For the first four weeks of their life, the kittens are entirely dependent on the milk supplied by the queen. The energy requirements of the lactating queen vary with litter size and age and at peak lactation may be anything up to four times her maintenance energy requirements. A highly palatable, digestible and concentrated diet should be fed. Ad libitum feeding is preferred to allow the queen to successfully control her energy intake, although frequent small meals may be offered as an alternative. A Super Premium Kitten formula meets all of these requirements and would be appropriate for the lactating queen. As previously mentioned, other adult cat foods are designed to prevent the formation of calculi in the urinary tract and are not ideal due to their effect on the acidity of the urine and the whole body. Food should be available throughout the night and an unlimited supply of fresh drinking water must be accessible at all times. It is normal for the queen to lose weight during lactation as her body reserves are used up, but she should achieve her pre-mating weight by the time the kittens are weaned. Although kittens begin to take solid food from about three to four weeks of age and demand less of the queen, her energy requirements remain high because she is still suckling and is rebuilding her depleted body reserves. After weaning (which may be completed when the kittens are about seven or eight weeks of age) the additional food allowance can be gradually cut back until the queen is eating her normal amount or adjusted to compensate for any observed weight loss or gain. 43

46 Growth The same factors that were discussed for puppies in terms of requirements for growth apply to kittens. The food selected should be: Nutritionally balanced Highly palatable Highly digestible Kittens weigh between 85g and 120g at birth and may gain up to 100g per week in the early stages of growth so that at weaning, they should weigh between 600g and 1,000g. At weaning, the energy requirements of kittens per unit of bodyweight are between three to four times that of an adult and reach a peak at about 10 weeks of age (200kcal/kg bodyweight/ day). After this point, energy requirements per unit bodyweight gradually decrease although they remain relatively high for at least the first six months of life whilst growth is rapid. Males grow at a faster rate than females and by six weeks of age they are already significantly heavier. At one year, male cats can be up to 45% heavier than females from the same litter and this trend is maintained throughout life. Growth Rates of Kittens 5 bodyweight (kg) age (weeks) males females Adult cats have naturally high protein requirements, but these requirements are further increased in the growing kitten. Like puppies, kittens need extra protein to synthesise tissue for growth. The minimum level of protein recommended for growth in cats depends on the amino acid profile of the protein source. For most good quality proteins, such as meat, 30-35% protein (on a dry matter basis thereby removing the dilution effect of water content) will supply all the nitrogen and essential amino acids required by the growing kitten. 44

47 For your kitten multiple small feeds throughout the day (at least 4-5 per day at weaning) is recommended to be offered. Moist food that is left uneaten should be discarded at least twice daily. Diets designed for kitten growth should ensure an optimal intake of energy, protein, taurine and calcium. Contrary to popular belief, milk is not essential in the diet of weaned kittens. After weaning, their ability to digest lactose becomes progressively less efficient and feeding large quantities of milk can result in diarrhoea. Low lactose cat milks are an option if owners want to give milk. Although male kittens take slightly longer to mature than females, most kittens will have attained 75% of their ultimate adult bodyweight by six months of age. Further weight gains after this are due to developmental changes rather than skeletal growth. So at this stage, the growth diet may be gradually changed to an adult formulation. Cats that are twelve months of age should be moved onto an adult variety. If desired, feeding may be reduced to twice daily but many people continue to offer multiple feeds throughout the day, even to adult cats. This pattern of feeding fits in well with the cat s natural preference to snack feed during both day and night rather than eat a small number of large meals. 45

48 Senior Cats Cats may be considered to be geriatric from approximately 8 years of age, once they have reached the final third of their anticipated lifespan. The aim of feeding elderly but otherwise healthy animals is to prevent or slow down the progression of changes associated with ageing and thus preserve the quality of life. Old age in the cat may, however, be accompanied by disease such as chronic kidney failure and hyperthyroidism. Poor dental hygiene is also common in old age. Free access to a clean supply of water is essential to prevent dehydration. Studies conducted at WALTHAM Centre for Pet Nutrition have shown that cats, in contrast to dogs and humans, do not exhibit an age-related decline in either metabolic energy requirements (MER) or lean body mass to fat ratio. One of the reasons may be that adult cats and senior cats probably have very similar levels of activity, so that there are no obvious age-related changes in physical activity. However it is difficult to generalise due to individual variation. Body condition assessments should continue through the senior years and feeding levels tailored to the individual. That allows for those cats with lower levels of activity to be fed accordingly. WALTHAM studies have demonstrated that many senior cats exhibit a significant decline in the ability to digest fat and protein. Cats which are classed in the super-senior category (11/12 years plus) may therefore be more likely to start losing weight. The combined effect of this is a significant decline in energy digestibility. Interestingly, the cats with compromised digestive function increased their daily food intake to compensate for this effect, suggesting that cats continue to control energy intake as they age. Thus, senior cats maintain their energy requirements but often experience a reduced ability to derive energy from their diet. The practice of feeding older cats a reduced amount of food or light foods with fewer calories may therefore be ill advised, except where the cat is overweight. Advice to cat owners should be to feed senior cats at the same energy level as younger adult cats. It is recommended that highly digestible, energy dense foods are offered to ensure that an adequate energy intake can be achieved. Careful monitoring of food intake is important in the senior cat and may help to identify conditions associated with altered food intake. For example, hyperthyroidism is characterised by weight loss despite an increased appetite. Prolonged inappetence may predispose an obese cat to liver disease and should be brought to the attention of a veterinarian. 46

49 Healthy Weight Maintenance of Dogs and Cats In simple terms, excess bodyweight is caused by a pet consuming more calories than required. In Module 1 we learnt how to assess whether a pet is overweight by using a body condition scoring system. However, there are a number of factors that can influence the ability of a pet to maintain a healthy weight. Some of these are innate and others are determined by the pet s environment. Breed Certain breeds of dog have a predisposition to weight gain, examples of which include the Beagle, Bernese Mountain Dog, Collie, Labrador Retriever, Cairn Terrier and King Charles Spaniel. In cats, mixed breeds are approximately twice as likely to be overweight when compared to purebred varieties. 47

50 Genetics Although poorly understood in comparison in animals, genetic factors may be involved in determining whether an animal becomes overweight, with a number of different genes playing a role. Although certain breeds appear to be predisposed to weight gain, there is also individual variation within a breed in terms of their tendency to gain weight. This breed-independent variation indicates the existence of a complex set of genetic elements involved in determining healthy weight maintenance. Age As pets age, their likelihood of becoming overweight increases. Estimates suggest that 20% of dogs aged less than 4 years are overweight. This increases to 50% in the 7-8 year old category. Cats are particularly at risk of weight gain during middle age, with one on three cats in the 6-8 year old range being classed as overweight. Gender and Neuter Status Female dogs appear to be more predisposed to obesity than male dogs, with neutering increasing the frequency of obesity in both sexes. Irrespective of gender, neutering is a major risk factor for obesity in cats. Pet-Owner Relationship The relationship between a pet and owner has a significant impact on healthy weight maintenance. Owners often use food as a form of interaction with their pet even though the animal may be initiating social contact and would benefit from a session of active play. Some owners tend to humanise their cat or dog, substituting them for human companionship, and this anthropomorphic behaviour has been associated with companion animal obesity. Involvement with family mealtimes, such as being present during preparation and eating of the meal can lead to a pet receiving extra treats in addition to their recommended allowance. 48

51 Other Owner Effects Research shows that owners of overweight pets are more likely to be overweight themselves and may not recognise the issue in their pet. Increased prevalence of pet obesity has also been noted in pets whose owners are older than 55 years. Lifestyle of the owner is also important in determining healthy weight maintenance of the pet, with more time spent at home being a factor associated with an overweight pet, as well as lack of physical activity in the owner. Dietary Factors Feeding cats and dogs ad libitum facilitates over-eating and has been associated with weight gain. Dividing the daily food allowance into more than one meal does not in itself cause weight gain. Surveys show, however, that dogs fed more than once a day are more likely to be offered excess calories that can result in weight gain. In addition to feeding patterns, the types of food offered are important in determining maintenance of a healthy weight. Excessive feeding of table scraps and human foods to cats and dogs makes them more likely to gain weight. Although there are many anecdotal suggestions that feeding a high carbohydrate diet to cats predisposes to obesity, there is currently no evidence that to support this assertion. High fat diets, however, can increase the risk of overfeeding as they are more energy dense. Undoubtedly, feeding treats in excess of recommended amounts is linked to weight gain. Activity There is no doubt that regular physical exercise is a key factor in the prevention of obesity. Owners of dogs are conditioned to providing regular walks and sessions of play as part of the normal care routine of their pet. However, many cat owners do not initiate play sessions with their pet, which would contribute towards sufficient daily activity levels. Indoor cats are more prone to weight gain that cats that spend time outdoors, due to a less active lifestyle. However, outdoor cats may still require encouragement to participate in sufficient physical activity to maintain a healthy weight. 49

52 Health Risks of Obesity As with humans, obesity in cats and dogs is associated with, and in some cases may be the cause of, a number of health risks. These range from conditions which may cause discomfort to the pet to serious conditions which may be life threatening. In addition, obesity may exacerbate existing medical conditions in pets. Health Risks of Obesity for Dogs Cancer Increased risks from surgery Skin conditions Reduced life span Joint problems Compromised immunity Reproductive problems Heat stress Urinary tract problems Reduced glucose tolerance Breathing problems Heart and circulatory problems image source: WALTHAM,

53 Health Risks of Obesity for Cats Cancer Increased risks from surgery Skin conditions Diabetes Joint problems Compromised immunity Reproductive problems Heat stress Urinary tract problems Gastrointestinal disorders Breathing problems Heart and circulatory problems image source: WALTHAM, 2012 With as many as 40% of dogs and 33% of cats in Australia being considered as overweight or obese, it is vital that owners balance their pet s energy intake with their expenditure. Calorie control and appropriate exercise are the most important factors influencing maintenance of a healthy bodyweight: Enable responsible feeding and treating Encourage exercise to increase energy expenditure, help build lean muscle mass and provide mental stimulation Consider enriched feeding which requires the pet to work for the food. For example, place food in a feeding ball or hollow toy. Incorporate mixed feeding, as wet food is less calorie dense than dry food Use lower energy density or light diets 51